US20090281528A1

US20090281528A1 - Osmotic pump apparatus and associated methods

Info

Publication number: US20090281528A1
Application number: US12/464,722
Authority: US
Inventors: Eric A. Grovender; John H. Gordon; William P. Van Antwerp
Original assignee: Medtronic Inc
Current assignee: Medtronic Inc
Priority date: 2008-05-12
Filing date: 2009-05-12
Publication date: 2009-11-12

Abstract

Apparatuses and methods for pumping fluids such as fluid medications are disclosed. In illustrative embodiments of the invention, the architectural geometry of one or more fluid containing chambers within a fluid delivery device is constructed to incorporate design parameters that function to control movement of fluids within the device. Typical embodiments of the invention provide osmotic pumps that use such elements to control various fluid delivery parameters.

Description

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application claims priority under Section 119(e) from U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 61/052,453 filed May 12, 2008, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. This application is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/591,374, filed Nov. 1, 2006, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates generally to osmotic pump apparatuses and associated methods for delivering fluids such as fluid medications.
2. Description of the Related Art
In a number pathological conditions, it is desirable to deliver fluids such as fluid medications gradually over a period of time. A common apparatus for the gradual administration of fluids into the human body is an intravenous administration set, one in which gravity induced hydrostatic infusion dispenses a fluid from a suspended bottle or bag above the patient. Additional devices and methods for the gradual administration of fluids have been devised for example to provide patients with greater mobility and include, for example, devices that utilize osmosis for fluid delivery. Osmosis is the transfer of a solvent, e.g., water, across a barrier, generally from an area of lesser solute concentration to an area of greater solute concentration. A variety of osmotic and electro-osmotic pumps that utilize osmosis and electro-osmosis to deliver a fluid are well known in the art. Osmotic and electro-osmotic pumps described in the art typically include multiple fluid compartments (e.g. fluid conduits) that function to hold and deliver fluids.
One common type of osmotic fluid delivery device is an electro-osmotic cell coupled with a delivery pump. Such electro-osmotic pumps typically operate by utilizing an electrochemical cell in combination with an ion-selective membrane to create a driving force for fluid delivery. Generally, two types of osmotic transport are simultaneously occurring within an operating electro-osmotic cell. A first type of osmosis is electro-osmosis, whereby charged ions are driven across an ion-exchange membrane as the cell is operated, thereby dragging water molecules along with them. A second type of transport is osmosis due to environmental conditions. Electro-osmotic pumps typically include an electric controller as part of an electrical circuit that when completed, causes electrode reactions to occur. In an illustrative reaction, water is extracted from a first electrode cell and ultimately driven across an ion-exchange membrane into a second electrode cell. The water moves a displaceable member which in turn displaces the fluid held in a fluid reservoir such as a fluid medication reservoir. In medication delivery devices for example, the medication delivery rate can then be controlled by the magnitude of current output from the electrical controller.
Electro osmotic pumps typically discharge drug from a reservoir by taking in water from its surrounding environment. This transport of water is primarily caused by osmosis driven by an induced salt concentration gradient and not electro-osmosis. Pumps that operate in this manner can exhibit relatively long fluid control response times (>10 hours), especially after a significant fraction (>10%) of the drug volume has been discharged. Such response times may not be acceptable for all therapeutic regimens, for example those that involve the bolus delivery of drugs such as insulin or human growth hormone, or if there is a need to immediately stop the delivery of a drug due to an adverse reaction. Consequently, osmotic fluid delivery devices that have improved pump start-up and shut-off characteristics and provide a greater level of control over fluid delivery are desirable.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Embodiments of the invention include fluid delivery apparatuses designed to have architectures and dimensions that optimize the transport of fluid into, and/or within and/or out of the apparatus. Embodiments of the invention include for example electro-osmotic pump devices designed so that a characteristic length scale of a fluid chamber (e.g. a fluid conduit) within the device is limited in size or otherwise controlled so that fluid diffusion time-scales within the device are optimized. Such devices have a number of improved characteristics including fluid delivery initiation and termination profiles.
An illustrative embodiment of the invention is a fluid delivery apparatus comprising a first osmotic compartment coupled to a semi-permeable membrane; wherein the semi-permeable membrane permits fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment; a medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a fluid medication from the medication reservoir and a fluid conduit that operably connects the first osmotic compartment to the medication reservoir. Embodiments of the invention typically include a displaceable barrier member coupled to the medication reservoir that is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment, wherein the fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member. Typically in such embodiments of the invention, the dimensions of a fluid chamber (e.g. one or more characteristic length scales in the design geometry of the chamber) such as the fluid conduit and/or the first osmotic compartment and/or the medication reservoir and/or another reservoir and/or conduit or the like within the device that is designed to hold fluid is limited in size or otherwise controlled so that fluid diffusion time-scales within the device are correspondingly controlled. In one illustrative embodiment of the invention, the dimensions of a fluid conduit are designed so that the rate of convective fluid transport within the fluid conduit is greater than the rate of diffusive fluid transport within the fluid conduit. Optionally, the characteristic length scale (Li [cm]) of all fluid chambers within the device are designed so that the diffusion time scales for fluid flow within one or more fluid chambers within the device is controlled to be less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τresp [sec]). In certain embodiments of the invention, the dimensions of a fluid chamber within the device are such that the Peclet Number of a fluid conduit is at least 1, 10, 25, 50 or 100. In related embodiments of the invention, the dimensions of a fluid chamber such as a fluid conduit, a first osmotic compartment and a medication reservoir are such that the compartment exchange coefficient (K_EX) is at least 0.5, 0.7 or 0.9 μL/hr.
In certain embodiments of the fluid delivery apparatus having internal architectures and/or dimensions designed to control fluid flow, the apparatus includes a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the semi-permeable membrane, wherein the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment; the first osmotic compartment includes a first electrode and the second osmotic compartment includes a second electrode so as to form an electrochemical cell; and the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes and further wherein the first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to or received from the first or second electrodes. Typically in such embodiments, the apparatus also includes a switch or gate that modulates osmotic, electro-osmotic or hydrodynamic fluid flow within the apparatus. In some embodiments of the invention, the fluid delivery apparatus includes a moveable impermeable barrier that assumes a first position disposed over the semi-permeable membrane so as to inhibit fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment; and a second position not disposed over the semi-permeable membrane. In certain embodiments of the invention, the thickness, hydrophobicity, immobilized charge density and/or partition coefficient properties of the semi-permeable membrane are selected so as to control fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus. Optionally, the semi-permeable membrane is a cation-selective membrane. In certain embodiments of the invention, the fluid delivery apparatus includes at least one one-way fluid flow valve.
Embodiments of the invention can include one or more additional elements that are designed, for example, to facilitate the use of the fluid delivery apparatus in certain contexts. For example, electro osmotic embodiments of the invention can include a battery that is operatively coupled to a controller in order to provide a constant current during some portion of the operation of the fluid delivery apparatus. In addition to including one or more additional elements, embodiments of the invention can further be constructed from a variety of different compositions, for example compositions selected for their desirable material properties (e.g. selecting materials having a desirable biocompatible profile for implantable embodiments of the invention). In one such embodiment of the invention, an anode of the electrochemical cell can be constructed from a composition selected for its biocompatibility profile, for example a platinum composition. In addition to including one or more additional elements and/or specific compositions, embodiments of the invention can further be constructed in a variety of different architectural configurations, for example a configuration where an anode of the electrochemical cell is disposed on an external portion of the apparatus' architecture so as to facilitate its contact with an in vivo environment in which the apparatus is implanted.
Another embodiment of the invention is a method of delivering a fluid medication from a medication reservoir within a fluid medication delivery apparatus, wherein the apparatus comprises a first osmotic compartment coupled to a semi-permeable membrane; that permits fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment; a medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a fluid medication from the medication reservoir; and a fluid conduit that operably connects the first osmotic compartment to the medication reservoir. In some embodiments of the invention, a design geometry of a fluid chamber within the fluid medication delivery apparatus is controlled so that:
L<√{square root over (Dτ _resp)}
wherein L is any characteristic length scale (L_i[cm]) in the design geometry of a fluid chamber within the apparatus, τresp [sec] is the apparatus response time and D is the diffusion coefficient of solute in water [cm²/s].
Apparatuses used in such methodological embodiments of the invention can include a displaceable barrier member coupled to the medication reservoir that is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment, wherein the fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member the method comprising placing the fluid medication delivery apparatus into an environment where the semi-permeable membrane contacts a fluid which can migrate across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment in an amount sufficient to alter the osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment so as to deliver fluid medication from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet. In typical embodiments, the dimensions of a fluid conduit or other fluid chamber within the device are controlled so as to control the time period required to shut-off the fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus. In certain methodological embodiments of the invention, the dimensions of the fluid conduit or other fluid chamber within the device are controlled so that the Peclet Number of a fluid conduit is at least 1, 10, 25, 50 or 100. In some embodiments of the invention, the dimensions of a fluid conduit or other fluid chamber within the device are controlled so as to control the time period required to initiate fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus.
Some methodological embodiments of the invention comprise an electro-osmotic cell having a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment; and the first osmotic compartment includes a first electrode and the second osmotic compartment includes a second electrode so as to form an electrochemical cell, wherein the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes and further wherein the first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to or received from the first or second electrodes, and wherein activation of the controller is used to further modulate fluid delivery from the medication reservoir. Optionally, in such embodiments of the invention, the apparatus further comprises at least one one-way fluid flow valve. In certain methodological embodiments of the invention, the thickness, hydrophobicity, immobilized charge density and/or partition coefficient properties of the semi-permeable membrane are selected so as to control fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus.
Yet another embodiment of the invention is a method of identifying a design geometry suitable for one or more fluid chambers (e.g. fluid conduits) within an osmotic fluid medication delivery apparatus, the method comprising identifying and/or characterizing one or more characteristic length scales (Li [cm]) of the chamber to identify those dimensions and/or architectures having properties such that the diffusion time-scale for fluid flow with the chamber is less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τresp [sec]); so that a dimension suitable for a chamber used in an osmotic fluid medication delivery apparatus is identified. Optionally in such methods, the characteristic length scale of a fluid conduit or other chamber within the device having the diffusion time-scale for fluid flow less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τ_resp[sec]) is determined using the equation:
L<√{square root over (Dτ _resp)}
wherein L is the characteristic length scale (L_i[cm]) and D is the diffusion coefficient of solute in water [cm²/s]. In certain embodiments of this method, the dimension and/or architecture of the chamber is identified as being suitable for an infusion apparatus by analyzing the Peclet Number (Pe) of a fluid conduit operatively coupled to the compartment, which is for example, determined to be greater than 1 using the equation:
$Pe \equiv \frac{{QL}_{c}}{{NDA}_{c}}$
wherein Pe is the Peclet Number, Q is the volumetric flowrate [cm³/s], N is the number of conduits, L_c[cm] is the length of the conduit and Ac [cm²/s] is the cross-sectional area of the conduit. Optionally in these methods, the Peclet Number (Pe) of a fluid conduit is greater than 10, 25, 50 or 100.
Embodiments of the invention also provide articles of manufacture including pump elements, pump apparatus and kits. In one such embodiment of the invention, a kit including an osmotic pump apparatus or set, useful for delivering a fluid as is described above, is provided. The kit and/or pump apparatus typically comprises a container, a label and an osmotic pump apparatus as described above. The typical embodiment is a kit comprising a container and, within the container, an osmotic pump apparatus having a design as disclosed herein and instructions for using this osmotic or electro-osmotic pump apparatus.
Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the following detailed description. It is to be understood, however, that the detailed description and specific examples, while indicating some embodiments of the present invention, are given by way of illustration and not limitation. Many changes and modifications within the scope of the present invention may be made without departing from the spirit thereof, and embodiments of the invention include all such modifications.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 provides an illustration of a schematic of a Flush-CATEK electro-osmotic pump. The volume and average solute (NaCl) concentration of each compartment are V_i[m³] and C_i[mM], respectively. The volume of the two channels (conduits) connecting the two compartments is mathematically lumped into V₂.

FIG. 2 provides graphical data of pump behavior calculated for a 30-day operational period followed by a 45-day shut-down (center-point Pe=1). According to the model and the input parameters considered, the majority of the water taken in by the pump is by osmosis and not electro-osmosis during steady-state operation (refer to the “OS to EO Ratio”=FOS/FEO). Pe is shown to be highly sensitive to KEX, while the steady-state flowrate is not.

FIG. 3 provides dynamics of pump start-up and shut-down calculated over a 100-fold variation of KEX (center-point Pe=1). The parameter values used were the same as for FIG. 4. Response times were evaluated using a response criterion of 95%. The start-up (“On”) and shut-down (“Off”) response times were also normalized by the sum of V1 and V2 at t=0 and 30 days, respectively.

FIG. 4 provides illustrative device prototype configurations (a) with and (b) without volume fillers. Schematics are not drawn to scale. See Table 4 below for associated information.

FIG. 5 provide graphical data for observed shut-off response times of

Configurations

1, 2, 3 and 4A. Error bars represent standard error of the mean.

FIGS. 6( a) and 6(b) provide an illustration of an EO pump with a moveable impermeable barrier in the (a) on and (b) off position.

FIG. 7 illustrates an electrolytic electro-osmotic pump design where the zinc anode and electrical resistor of the embodiment shown in FIG. 1 have been replaced with a platinum anode and a battery/controller, respectively. Alternate embodiments of the design may employ anodes comprised of other materials such as, but not limited to, Ag/AgCl. One advantage of such electrolytic EO pump designs is that the battery/controller box can be used to maintain a constant current independent of the electrode and solution chemistry.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF EMBODIMENTS OF THE INVENTION

Unless otherwise defined, all terms of art, notations and other scientific terms or terminology used herein are intended to have the meanings commonly understood by those of skill in the art to which this invention pertains. In some cases, terms with commonly understood meanings are defined herein for clarity and/or for ready reference, and the inclusion of such definitions herein should not necessarily be construed to represent a substantial difference over what is generally understood in the art. Many of the techniques and procedures described or referenced herein are well understood and commonly employed using conventional methodology by those skilled in the art. As appropriate, procedures involving the use of commercially available kits and reagents are generally carried out in accordance with manufacturer defined protocols and/or parameters unless otherwise noted.
A number of terms are defined below.
“Fluid delivery device” and “Fluid delivery apparatus” as used herein refers to any device or apparatus suitable for delivering fluids to an individual such as fluidic therapeutic formulations. Such apparatuses and devices can for example be implantable, or alternatively, external (e.g. an external device carried by the user). These terms encompass any implantable device with any mechanism of action including diffusive, erodible, or convective systems, e.g., osmotic pumps, biodegradable implants, electrodiffusion systems, electroosmosis systems, vapor pressure pumps, electrolytic pumps, effervescent pumps, piezoelectric pumps, erosion-based systems, or electromechanical systems.
The term “subject” means any subject, generally a mammal (e.g., human, canine, feline, equine, bovine, etc.). The term “individual” means any single human subject.
“Treatment” or “therapy” refer to both therapeutic treatment and prophylactic or preventative measures.
The term “therapeutically effective amount” means an amount of a therapeutic agent, or a rate of delivery of a therapeutic agent, effective to facilitate a desired therapeutic effect. The precise desired therapeutic effect will vary according to the condition to be treated, the formulation to be administered, and a variety of other factors that are appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art. In the case of infection, the therapeutically effective amount of the drug may reduce the number of infective agents (e.g. bacteria or viruses); inhibit to some extent, the growth of the infective agent; and/or relieve to some extent one or more of the symptoms associated with the infection. In the case of cancer, the therapeutically effective amount of the drug may reduce the number of cancer cells; reduce the tumor size; inhibit (i.e., slow to some extent and preferably stop) cancer cell infiltration into peripheral organs; inhibit (i.e., slow to some extent and preferably stop) tumor metastasis; inhibit, to some extent, tumor growth; and/or relieve to some extent one or more of the symptoms associated with the disorder. For cancer therapy, efficacy in vivo can, for example, be measured by assessing tumor burden or volume, the time to disease progression (TTP) and/or determining the response rates (RR).
The term “medication” as in “fluid medication” encompasses all medicinal agents suitable for delivery according to the methods of the invention, and is not meant to be limiting in any way. As used herein, this term broadly refers to any agent used to treat or facilitate the treatment, amelioration or diagnosis of a pathological condition. Illustrative fluid medications include polypeptide medications such as an interferon as well as antibodies such as anti-TNF-α antibodies that function to inhibit TNF-α activity. Fluid medications can comprise an antibiotic, antiviral or other growth inhibitory agent, a prodrug, a cytotoxic agent, a chemotherapeutic agent, a polypeptide such as a cytokine, combinations of these agents or the like. The term “fluid” is herein defined as a liquid, gel, paste, or other semi-solid state material that is capable of being delivered out of a reservoir (e.g. a medication, solute or water reservoir) of an osmotic pump apparatus.
A “growth inhibitory agent” when used herein refers to a compound or composition which inhibits growth of a cell or virus in vitro and/or in vivo. Such agents include antiviral, antibiotic and chemotherapeutic agents. Thus, a growth inhibitory agent may be one which kills or inhibits the growth of viruses or bacteria or one which significantly reduces the percentage of mammalian cells in S phase. Examples of growth inhibitory agents include agents that block cell cycle progression (at a place other than S phase), such as agents that induce G1 arrest and M-phase arrest. Classical M-phase blockers include the vincas (vincristine and vinblastine), TAXOL®, and topo II inhibitors such as doxorubicin, epirubicin, daunorubicin, etoposide, and bleomycin. Those agents that arrest G1 also spill over into S-phase arrest, for example, DNA alkylating agents such as tamoxifen, prednisone, dacarbazine, mechlorethamine, cisplatin, methotrexate, 5-fluorouracil, and ara-C.
The term “prodrug” as used in this application refers to a precursor or derivative form of a pharmaceutically active substance that is less cytotoxic to cancer cells compared to the parent drug and is capable of being enzymatically activated or converted into the more active parent form. See, e.g., Wilman, “Prodrugs in Cancer Chemotherapy” Biochemical Society Transactions, 14, pp. 375-382, 615th Meeting Belfast (1986) and Stella et al., “Prodrugs: A Chemical Approach to Targeted Drug Delivery,” Directed Drug Delivery, Borchardt et al., (ed.), pp. 247-267, Humana Press (1985). The prodrugs of this invention include, but are not limited to, phosphate-containing prodrugs, thiophosphate-containing prodrugs, sulfate-containing prodrugs, peptide-containing prodrugs, D-amino acid-modified prodrugs, glycosylated prodrugs, beta-lactam-containing prodrugs, optionally substituted phenoxyacetamide-containing prodrugs or optionally substituted phenylacetamide-containing prodrugs, 5-fluorocytosine and other 5-fluorouridine prodrugs which can be converted into the more active cytotoxic free drug. Examples of cytotoxic drugs that can be derivatized into a prodrug form for use in this invention include, but are not limited to, those chemotherapeutic agents described below.
The term “cytotoxic agent” as used herein refers to a substance that inhibits or prevents the function of cells and/or causes destruction of cells. The term is intended to include radioactive isotopes (e.g. At²¹¹, I¹³¹, I¹²⁵, Y⁹⁰, Re¹⁸⁶, Re¹⁸⁸, Sm¹⁵³, Bi²¹², P³²and radioactive isotopes of Lu), chemotherapeutic agents, and toxins such as small molecule toxins or enzymatically active toxins of bacterial, fungal, plant or animal origin, including fragments and/or variants thereof.
A “chemotherapeutic agent” is a chemical compound useful in the treatment of conditions like cancer. Examples of chemotherapeutic agents include alkylating agents such as thiotepa and cyclosphosphamide (CYTOXAN™); alkyl sulfonates such as busulfan, improsulfan and piposulfan; aziridines such as benzodopa, carboquone, meturedopa, and uredopa; ethylenimines and methylamelamines including altretamine, triethylenemelamine, trietylenephosphoramide, triethylenethiophosphaoramide and trimethylolomelamine; acetogenins (especially bullatacin and bullatacinone); a camptothecin (including the synthetic analogue topotecan); bryostatin; callystatin; CC-1065 (including its adozelesin, carzelesin and bizelesin synthetic analogues); cryptophycins (particularly cryptophycin 1 and cryptophycin 8); dolastatin; duocarmycin (including the synthetic analogues, KW-2189 and CBI-TMI); eleutherobin; pancratistatin; a sarcodictyin; spongistatin; nitrogen mustards such as chlorambucil, chlornaphazine, cholophosphamide, estramustine, ifosfamide, mechlorethamine, mechlorethamine oxide hydrochloride, melphalan, novembichin, phenesterine, prednimustine, trofosfamide, uracil mustard; nitrosureas such as carmustine, chlorozotocin, fotemustine, lomustine, nimustine, ranimustine; antibiotics such as the enediyne antibiotics (e.g. calicheamicin, especially calicheamicin (₁ ^Iand calicheamicin 2^I ₁, see, e.g., Agnew Chem Intl. Ed. Engl., 33:183-186 (1994); dynemicin, including dynemicin A; an esperamicin; as well as neocarzinostatin chromophore and related chromoprotein enediyne antiobiotic chromomophores), aclacinomysins, actinomycin, authramycin, azaserine, bleomycins, cactinomycin, carabicin, caminomycin, carzinophilin, chromomycins, dactinomycin, daunorubicin, detorubicin, 6-diazo-5-oxo-L-norleucine, doxorubicin (including morpholino-doxorubicin, cyanomorpholino-doxorubicin, 2-pyrrolino-doxorubicin and deoxydoxorubicin), epirubicin, esorubicin, idarubicin, marcellomycin, mitomycins, mycophenolic acid, nogalamycin, olivomycins, peplomycin, potfiromycin, puromycin, quelamycin, rodorubicin, streptonigrin, streptozocin, tubercidin, ubenimex, zinostatin, zorubicin; anti-metabolites such as methotrexate and 5-fluorouracil (5-FU); folic acid analogues such as denopterin, methotrexate, pteropterin, trimetrexate; purine analogs such as fludarabine, 6-mercaptopurine, thiamiprine, thioguanine; pyrimidine analogs such as ancitabine, azacitidine, 6-azauridine, carmofur, cytarabine, dideoxyuridine, doxifluridine, enocitabine, floxuridine, 5-FU; androgens such as calusterone, dromostanolone propionate, epitiostanol, mepitiostane, testolactone; anti-adrenals such as aminoglutethimide, mitotane, trilostane; folic acid replenisher such as frolinic acid; aceglatone; aldophosphamide glycoside; aminolevulinic acid; amsacrine; bestrabucil; bisantrene; edatraxate; defofamine; demecolcine; diaziquone; elformithine; elliptinium acetate; an epothilone; etoglucid; gallium nitrate; hydroxyurea; lentinan; lonidamine; maytansinoids such as maytansine and ansamitocins; mitoguazone; mitoxantrone; mopidamol; nitracrine; pentostatin; phenamet; pirarubicin; podophyllinic acid; 2-ethylhydrazide; procarbazine; PSK®; razoxane; rhizoxin; sizofiran; spirogermanium; tenuazonic acid; triaziquone; 2,2′,2″-trichlorotriethylamine; trichothecenes (especially T-2 toxin, verracurin A, roridin A and anguidine); urethan; vindesine; dacarbazine; mannomustine; mitobronitol; mitolactol; pipobroman; gacytosine; arabinoside (“Ara-C”); cyclophosphamide; thiotepa; taxoids, e.g. paclitaxel (TAXOL®, Bristol-Myers Squibb Oncology, Princeton, N.J.) and doxetaxel (TAXOTERE®, Rhône-Poulenc Rorer, Antony, France); chlorambucil; gemcitabine; 6-thioguanine; mercaptopurine; methotrexate; platinum analogs such as cisplatin and carboplatin; vinblastine; platinum; etoposide (VP-16); ifosfamide; mitomycin C; mitoxantrone; vincristine; vinorelbine; navelbine; novantrone; teniposide; daunomycin; aminopterin; xeloda; ibandronate; CPT-11; topoisomerase inhibitor RFS 2000; difluoromethylornithine (DMFO); retinoic acid; capecitabine; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, acids or derivatives of any of the above. Also included in this definition are anti-hormonal agents that act to regulate or inhibit hormone action on tumors such as anti-estrogens including for example tamoxifen, raloxifene, aromatase inhibiting 4(5)-imidazoles, 4-hydroxytamoxifen, trioxifene, keoxifene, LY117018, onapristone, and toremifene (Fareston); and anti-androgens such as flutamide, nilutamide, bicalutamide, leuprolide, and goserelin; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, acids or derivatives of any of the above.
The term “cytokine” is a generic term for proteins released by one cell population which act on another cell as intercellular mediators. Examples of such cytokines are lymphokines, monokines, and traditional polypeptide hormones. Included among the cytokines are growth hormones such as human growth hormone, N-methionyl human growth hormone, and bovine growth hormone; parathyroid hormone; thyroxine; insulin; proinsulin; relaxin; prorelaxin; glycoprotein hormones such as follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), and luteinizing hormone (LH); hepatic growth factor; fibroblast growth factor; prolactin; placental lactogen; tumor necrosis factor-alpha and -beta; mullerian-inhibiting substance; mouse gonadotropin-associated peptide; inhibin; activin; vascular endothelial growth factor; integrin; thrombopoietin (TPO); nerve growth factors such as NGF-alpha; platelet-growth factor; transforming growth factors (TGFs) such as TGF-alpha and TGF-beta; insulin-like growth factor-I and -II; erythropoietin (EPO); osteoinductive factors; interferons such as interferon-alpha, -beta and -gamma colony stimulating factors (CSFs) such as macrophage-CSF (M-CSF); granulocyte-macrophage-CSF (GM-CSF); and granulocyte-CSF (G-CSF); interleukins (ILs) such as IL-1, IL-1alpha, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-7, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-11, IL-12; a tumor necrosis factor such as TNF-alpha or TNF-beta; and other polypeptide factors including LIF and kit ligand (KL). As used herein, the term cytokine includes proteins from natural sources or from recombinant cell culture and biologically active equivalents of the native sequence cytokines.
The term “local delivery” is meant to encompass routes of delivery that result in a medication being delivered to a specific anatomical region. The term “systemic delivery” is meant to encompass all parenteral routes of delivery which permit a medication to enter into the systemic circulation, e.g., intravenous, intra-arterial, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intra-adipose tissue, intra-lymphatic, etc.
“Delivery site” as used herein is meant to refer to an area of the body to which drug is delivered, e.g., a site which allows local or systemic access of drug delivered to the site. Exemplary delivery sites compatible with local delivery include the cochlea of the inner ear. Exemplary delivery sites compatible with systemic delivery of drug include, but are not necessarily limited to, subcutaneous, intravenous, intra-arterial, intra-muscular, intra-adipose tissue, and intra-lymphatic sites. The term “implantation site” is used to refer to a site with the body of a subject at which a drug delivery device is introduced and positioned.
As used herein, the term “fluid chamber” broadly refers to any chamber within a fluid delivery apparatus (e.g. an osmotic pump) that is designed to hold a fluid such as an osmotic fluid and/or a fluid medication and includes for example osmotic compartments, medication reservoirs, fluid conduits and the like. As used herein, the term “design geometry” broadly refers to all features fluid chambers that can contact a fluid and/or or influence fluid flow and includes for example characteristic length scales of a fluid chamber (e.g. the distance between a first element such as a dimension of an osmotic chamber, conduit or conduit opening, membrane etc. and a second element such as a dimension of a medication reservoir, conduit or conduit opening, volume filler etc.) as well as the relative orientation, contour, shape, length or area of a fluid chamber (or a portion thereof and the like. All numbers recited in the specification and associated claims (e.g. 1, 10, 25, 50 or 100 etc.) are understood to be modified by the term “about”.
As discussed in detail below, the invention disclosed herein provides elements and combinations of elements that can be used with a wide variety of osmotic pump apparatuses and systems. In certain embodiments of the invention, the elements and combinations of elements disclosed herein are adapted for use with an electro-osmotic pump. Electro-osmotic pumps use an electrochemical cell and a membrane wherein during operation of the electrochemical cell there is a transport of water across the membrane to create a driving force for fluid flow to vary volume or pressure to displace a substance or fluid. In other embodiments of the invention, the elements and combinations of elements disclosed are adapted for use with a fluid delivery apparatus that is not an electro-osmotic pump. An osmotic fluid delivery apparatus is not an electro-osmotic pump when for example, it does not include an electrochemical cell to create a driving force for fluid flow to vary volume or pressure to displace a substance or fluid.
Embodiments of the invention are directed to apparatuses that utilize osmosis to function. Briefly, osmosis is the diffusion of a liquid (most often assumed to be water, but it can be any liquid solvent) through a semi-permeable membrane from a region of high chemical potential to a region of low chemical potential. The selectively-permeable membrane must be permeable to the solvent, but not to the solute, resulting in a pressure gradient across the membrane. The force per unit area required to prevent the passage of solvent through a selectively-permeable membrane and into a solution of greater concentration is equivalent to the turgor pressure. Osmosis can be controlled or modulated in a number of ways, e.g. by increasing the pressure in the section of high solute concentration with respect to that in the low solute concentration.
In operation, osmotic pumps imbibe water or other driving fluid. Such pumps typically consists of at least three chambers (e.g. reservoirs, compartments and the like): a salt chamber, a water chamber, and a fluid chamber. The salt and water chambers are separated by a semi-permeable membrane. This configuration creates a high osmotic driving force for water transport across the membrane. This membrane is permeable to water, but impermeable to salt. The fluid chamber is typically separated from the other two chambers by a flexible diaphragm. Water imbibes osmotically into the salt chamber creating substantial hydrostatic pressures, which in turn exert a force on the diaphragm—thus expelling the fluid.
Embodiments of the invention are directed to apparatuses that utilize osmosis to drive fluid delivery (e.g. delivery of a fluid medication). Typical osmotic and electro-osmotic pump engines known in the art are driven either entirely or in part by osmosis: the spontaneous transport of water from a dilute solution into a concentrated solution through a solute-impermeable membrane. The inner osmotic compartments of osmotic pumps (e.g. DUROS® device from Alza) are typically pre-loaded with a solution that is relatively concentrated as compared to the surrounding operational environment. Electro-osmotic pumps (e.g. a Cation Electro-Kinetic-type device from MicroLin) are believed to create concentrated solutions in their inner osmotic compartments via electrochemical processes.
Embodiments of the invention include fluid delivery apparatuses designed to have architectures and dimensions that optimize transport of fluid into, within and out of the apparatus. As shown below, the invention described herein has wide variety of embodiments. The illustrative embodiments disclosed in the text and drawings are not intended to limit the broad aspect of the invention to the embodiments illustrated. Instead, these illustrative embodiments are merely typical examples of embodiments of the invention.
Embodiments of the invention include, for example, electro-osmotic pump devices designed so that a design geometry or a related feature of a chamber (e.g. a characteristic length scale of a surface portion of the chamber that contacts a fluid) such as a compartment, reservoir, conduit or the like within the device that is designed to hold a fluid is limited in size or otherwise controlled so that fluid diffusion time-scales of the device are less than a desired response time. In certain embodiments of the invention for example, the apparatus can include osmotic and/or reservoir compartments connected via conduits and constructed so that the rate of fluid transport due to convection in a chamber is much faster than the rate of fluid transport due to diffusion (e.g. 2×, 4×, 8×, 10× etc.). In this context, convection describes transport and mixing of properties of a fluid (typically heat) by mass motion of that fluid. Diffusion describes the movement of atoms or molecules from one part of a medium to another caused by their random thermal motion (e.g. from regions of higher to regions of lower concentration). In fluid dynamics, the Péclet number is a dimensionless number which relates the ratio of the rate of fluid flow due to convection to the rate of fluid flow due to diffusion in a given system (e.g. the ratio of convective to diffusive transport in a conduit).
One embodiment of the invention is a fluid delivery apparatus comprising a first osmotic compartment coupled to a semi-permeable membrane; wherein the semi-permeable membrane permits fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment; a medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a fluid medication from the medication reservoir; a fluid conduit that operably connects the first osmotic compartment to the medication reservoir, wherein the dimensions of the fluid conduit, the first osmotic compartment and the medication reservoir are such that the rate of convective fluid transport within the fluid conduit is at least 2×, 5×, 10×, 20×, 30×, 40× or 50× greater than the rate of diffusive fluid transport within the fluid conduit; and a displaceable barrier member coupled to the medication reservoir that is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment, wherein the fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member. Typically the dimensions of the fluid conduit are such that the Peclet Number of the fluid conduit is at least 0.5, 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95 or 100.
In certain embodiments of the invention having such controlled architectural features, the fluid delivery apparatus includes a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the semi-permeable membrane, wherein the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment; the first osmotic compartment includes a first electrode and the second osmotic compartment includes a second electrode so as to form an electrochemical cell; and the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes and further wherein the first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to or received from the first or second electrodes. Typically in such embodiments, the apparatus also includes a switch or gate that modulates osmotic, electro-osmotic or hydrodynamic fluid flow within the apparatus.
In typical embodiments of the invention, the dimensions of a fluid chamber such as a fluid conduit, an osmotic compartment, a medication reservoir or the like are such that the chamber exchange coefficient (K_EX) is at least 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 0.7, 0.9. 1, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.4, 1.5, 2 or 3 μL/hr. Optionally, the characteristic length scale (Li [cm]) of all fluid chambers within the device are designed so that the diffusion time scales for a fluid flow with the apparatus is controlled to be less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τresp [sec]). In some embodiments of the invention, the fluid delivery apparatus includes a moveable impermeable barrier that assumes a first position disposed over the semi-permeable membrane so as to inhibit fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment; and a second position not disposed over the semi-permeable membrane. Optionally, the semi-permeable membrane is a cation-selective membrane. In certain embodiments of the invention, the fluid delivery apparatus includes at least one one-way fluid flow valve.
Embodiments of the invention can include one or more additional elements that are designed, for example, to facilitate the use of the fluid delivery apparatus in certain contexts. For example, electro osmotic embodiments of the invention can include a battery that is operatively coupled to a controller in order to provide a constant current during some portion of the operation of the fluid delivery apparatus (e.g. to further apparatus operation at the initiation of pump operation and/or to further apparatus operation after some period of operation via galvanic processes and/or to further apparatus operation as the current supplied by galvanic processes diminishes over the lifetime of the pump). One illustrative embodiment of this design is shown in FIG. 7. In addition to including one or more additional elements, embodiments of the invention can further be constructed from a variety of different compositions, for example compositions selected for their desirable material properties. In one such embodiment of the invention, an anode of the electrochemical cell can be constructed from a composition (e.g. a platinum composition and/or an Ag/AgCl composition) having a desirable biocompatibility profile (e.g. relative to an anode constructed from a zinc composition). In addition to including one or more additional elements and/or specific compositions, embodiments of the invention can further be constructed in a variety of different architectural configurations, for example a configuration where an anode of the electrochemical cell is disposed on an external portion of the apparatus' architecture so as to facilitate its contact with an in vivo environment in which the apparatus is implanted. As discussed below, embodiments of the invention further include methods for using the various apparatuses disclosed herein to deliver a fluid medication to a patient.
Another embodiment of the invention is a method of delivering a fluid medication from a medication reservoir within a fluid medication delivery apparatus, wherein the apparatus comprises a first osmotic compartment coupled to a semi-permeable membrane; wherein the semi-permeable membrane permits fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment; a medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a fluid medication from the medication reservoir. These embodiments of the invention include a fluid conduit that operably connects the first osmotic compartment to the medication reservoir, wherein the dimensions of the first osmotic compartment and/or the medication reservoir and/or the fluid conduit are such that the rate of convective fluid transport between the first osmotic compartment and the medication reservoir is greater than the rate of diffusive fluid transport between the first osmotic compartment and the medication reservoir. Embodiments of the invention include a displaceable barrier member coupled to the medication reservoir that is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment, wherein the fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member the method comprising placing the fluid medication delivery apparatus into an environment where the semi-permeable membrane contacts a fluid which can migrate across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment in an amount sufficient to alter the osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment so as to deliver fluid medication from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet.
In certain embodiments of the invention for delivering a fluid medication, the dimensions of the fluid conduit are controlled so that the Peclet Number of the fluid conduit is at least 1, 10, 25, 50 or 100. In some embodiments, the dimensions of the fluid conduit are controlled so as to control the time period required to initiate fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus. In some embodiments, the dimensions of the fluid conduit are controlled so as to control the time period required to shut-off the fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus.
In some embodiments of the invention for delivering a fluid medication, the apparatus comprises an electro-osmotic cell having a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment; and the first osmotic compartment includes a first electrode and the second osmotic compartment includes a second electrode so as to form an electrochemical cell, wherein the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes and further wherein the first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to or received from the first or second electrodes, and wherein activation of the controller is used to further modulate fluid delivery from the medication reservoir. Optionally in such embodiments of the invention, the apparatus further comprises at least one one-way fluid flow valve. In certain methodological embodiments of the invention, the thickness, hydrophobicity, immobilized charge density and/or partition coefficient properties of the semi-permeable membrane are selected so as to control fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus.
Yet another embodiment of the invention is a method of identifying a design geometry suitable for a fluid compartment, container or conduit used in an osmotic fluid medication delivery apparatus, the method comprising identifying a characteristic length scale (Li [cm]) of the fluid compartment, container or conduit having properties such that the diffusion time-scale for fluid flow with the fluid compartment, container or conduit is less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τresp [sec]); so that a fluid compartment, container or conduit dimension suitable for a fluid compartment, container or conduit used in an osmotic fluid medication delivery apparatus is identified. Optionally in such methods, the characteristic length scale of the fluid chamber, (e.g. compartment, reservoir, container, conduit or the like) having the diffusion time-scale for fluid flow less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τ_resp[sec]) is determined using the equation:
L<√{square root over (Dτ _resp)}
wherein L is the characteristic length scale (L_i[cm]) and D is the diffusion coefficient of solute in water [cm²/s]. While the characteristic length scale (Li [cm]) in the design geometry of fluid conduits are commonly discussed herein as embodiments of the invention, those of skill in the art will appreciate that L can be characteristic length scale in any design geometry of any fluid containing chamber within the apparatus (e.g. the distance between the membrane and volume filler etc.). In certain embodiments of this method, the Peclet Number (Pe) of the fluid chamber, (e.g. compartment, reservoir, container, conduit or the like) is determined to be greater than 1 using the equation:
$Pe \equiv \frac{{QL}_{c}}{{NDA}_{c}}$
wherein Pe is the Peclet Number, Q is the volumetric flowrate [cm³/s], N is the number of conduits, L_c[cm] is the length of the chamber and Ac [cm²/s] is the cross-sectional area of the chamber. Optionally in these methods, the Peclet Number (Pe) of the fluid chamber is greater than 10, 25, 50 or 100.
In certain embodiments of the invention, the architecture of one or more characteristic length scales of one or more fluid containing spaces (e.g. a osmotic compartment, a reservoir compartment, a fluid conduit etc.) within the fluid delivery apparatus is designed so that the fluid movement via diffusion time-scales are less than a desired response time (e.g. the response time to start delivery of a fluid or the response time to stop delivery of a fluid). In some embodiment of the invention for example, the osmotic and reservoir compartments are connected via conduits of a controlled size and shape such that the rate of fluid movement through the conduit due to convection is much faster than the rate of fluid movement through the conduit due to diffusion. Mathematical models and experimental data which evidence the significance of such design constraints are discussed in detail below. Alternative embodiments of the invention can include the use of a check-valve and/or a shut-off valve which may be placed in line as part of the delivery catheter/tube. These types of valves can be used to eliminate back flow phenomenon observed in some device embodiments. In certain embodiments of the invention, a moveable impermeable barrier, shut-off valve, switch or gate may optionally be used to stop the flow of electrical current, osmotic flow, electro-osmotic flow and hydrodynamic flow into and out of the pump, thereby stopping delivery of fluid/drug from the device.
In one illustrative embodiment of the invention, each characteristic length scale (L_i[cm]) of a fluid chamber within the device is limited in size such that the diffusion time-scales are much less than the desired response time (τ_resp[sec]). This can be formally stated by Equation 1, where D is the diffusion coefficient of solute in water [cm²/s]. Equation 1 is readily derived and understood by those trained in the theory of transport phenomena.
L<√{square root over (Dτ _resp)} [1]
In this embodiment, the fluid chambers (e.g. osmotic and reservoir compartments) are connected via channels, tubes or conduits that are appropriately sized such that the rate of convection is much faster than the rate of diffusion. This is formally stated by Equations 2 and 3.
$\begin{matrix} Pe \equiv \frac{{QL}_{c}}{{NDA}_{c}} & [2] \end{matrix}$
Pe>>1 [3]
Here Pe is the Peclet Number [−], Q is the volumetric flowrate [cm³/s], and N is the number of conduits [−]. The length and cross-sectional area of each conduit are L_c[cm] and A_c[cm²/s], respectively. A mathematical model and experimental data provide evidence of the significance of this design parameter and indicate that the flush-CATEK device design is sensitive to the properties of the ion-exchange membrane (P_m,sand P_m,w) and geometry of the Osmotic Compartment (A_mand V₁), for Pe>>1 and the other parameter values considered. These model parameters can be considered to be the important design variables for the flush-CATEK device (where it is assumed that i_eis a control variable). The model provides evidence that the dynamic performance could be improved by minimizing the A_m/V₁ratio (or distance between the membrane and Ag/AgCl electrode in FIG. 1). Furthermore, the values of P_m,sand/or P_m,wcould be varied by altering the membrane's thickness, hydrophobicity, immobilized charge density and/or partition coefficient.
Certain of the above-noted mathematical modelling disclosure above is predicated on an assumption the “pseudo steady-state approximation” is valid for mass transfer in the conduit(s). This is a common assumption in transport theory and is valid when the diffusion time scale in the conduit is <<than the other time scales in the system (see, e.g. Modelling in Transport Phenomena: A Conceptual Approach; Ismail Tosun Ed., Elsevier Science Ltd 2002/08, the contents of which are incorporated by reference). However, those of skill in the art will understand that this may not be true for all conceivable pump designs. In this context, other mathematical models can be used in certain situations in order to, for example, account for Fick's law of diffusion (or the convection-diffusion equation) in the conduit(s) and even the rest of the device. Such models can be readily used by those skilled in the art of transport modeling and solved using finite element software (see, e.g. Modelling in Transport Phenomena: A Conceptual Approach; Ismail Tosun Ed., Elsevier Science Ltd 2002/08).
Certain embodiments of the invention include a check-valve and/or a shut-off valve to control fluid flow in to, within, or out of the device which may be placed for example in line as part of the delivery catheter/tube (see, e.g. FIG. 1). These types of valves could be used to eliminate the back flow phenomenon that has been observed in device prototypes, in vitro. A moveable impermeable barrier, shut-off valve, switch or gate may optionally be used to stop the flow of electrical current, osmotic flow, electro-osmotic flow and hydrodynamic flow into and out of the pump, thereby stopping delivery of fluid/drug from the device (see, e.g. FIG. 6).
As discussed in detail below, embodiments of the invention wherein the architecture of one or more characteristic length scales of one or more fluid containing spaces (e.g. a osmotic compartment, a reservoir compartment, a fluid conduit etc.) within the fluid delivery apparatus are designed to control the fluid movement therethrough can be adapted to use a variety of other elements. Embodiments of the invention include an osmosis driven fluid delivery apparatus comprising a first osmotic compartment coupled to a stationary semi-permeable membrane that permits fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment. In this embodiment, the first osmotic compartment is adapted to include an initial chemical composition (e.g. one or more ion species) that functions to alter osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment upon fluid migration across the stationary semi-permeable membrane. This is termed an “initial” chemical concentration because, as is known in the art, the concentration of the composition is not unchanged over time and instead changes during the osmotic process. This term is therefore used to precisely characterize the invention in accordance with mechanisms involved in the functioning of the apparatus. The apparatus can also include a displaceable barrier member coupled to the first osmotic compartment, wherein the displaceable barrier member is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment; a medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a medication from the medication reservoir, wherein the medication reservoir is coupled to the displaceable barrier member such that fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member.
Other embodiments of the invention include sealed osmotic pump engines. One embodiment is an implantable osmotic pump design that does not discharge ions into the surroundings or require water from an external source. This embodiment of the invention addresses certain issues with previously disclosed osmotic pump engines that utilize the host's body fluid as a water supply and further discharge potentially toxic ions. Conventional osmotic drug delivery devices lack closed-device means to accommodate fluid transfer during osmosis. Embodiments of the invention include an osmotic compartment that loses fluid and comprises an element such as a piston or a flexible, bellows-like outer wall to accommodate fluid loss without exposing contents to extracellular space. In certain embodiments of the invention, this element is a moveable or deformable trap member. Optionally, this moveable or deformable trap member is coupled to the medication reservoir such that the capture materials such as ions produced in the function of the apparatus produce pressure within this member that resultantly drives fluid medication from the medication reservoir out of the fluid outlet.
A related embodiment is a sealed electro-osmotic pump engines. One embodiment is an electro-osmotic pump design that does not discharge ions into the surroundings or require water from an external source. This embodiment of the invention addresses certain issues with previously disclosed electro-osmotic pump engines that utilize the host's body fluid as a water supply and further discharge potentially toxic ions. Conventional electro-osmotic drug delivery devices lack closed-device means to accommodate fluid transfer between anodic and cathodic cells. Embodiments of the invention include an electrochemical cell that loses fluid and comprises an element such as a piston or a flexible, bellows-like outer wall to accommodate fluid loss without exposing contents to extracellular space. Features of embodiments of the invention include a flexible anodic or cathodic half-cell wall (depending upon the pump type). In certain embodiments of the invention, this element is a moveable or deformable trap member. Optionally, this moveable or deformable trap member is coupled to the medication reservoir such that the capture materials such as ions produced in the function of the apparatus produce pressure within this member that resultantly drives fluid medication from the medication reservoir out of the fluid outlet.
The osmotic pump embodiments of the invention can be adapted for use with a wide variety of components used in osmosis based pump apparatuses. Additional components common to osmotic pumps include electrochemical half-cells separated by an ion-selective semi-permeable membrane. In an illustrative embodiment, the wall of the half-cell where fluid accumulates is coupled to a piston or a flexible, bellows-like wall acting against a medication reservoir, whereby fluid accumulating in the half-cell acts on the piston or a flexible, bellows-like wall to force fluid from the medication reservoir through a catheter and into the patient. Optionally such embodiments include an electrical energy source and control equipment to regulate pump flow, and can include sensors, programmers, or timers. Illustrative clinical applications include the localized delivery of biological TNF-α inhibitors for the treatment of sciatica and low back pain as well as the systemic delivery of interferon (e.g. Interferon alfa-2a, interferon alpha-2b and interferon alfacon-1) for the treatment of hepatitis C. These devices can deliver agents at either constant or variable specified rates.
Optionally, embodiments of the osmotic pump apparatuses disclosed herein further include at least one one-way valve, also known as a check valve or anti-free-flow valve. In some embodiments of the invention, this check valve is used as an alternative to or in addition to the movable or deformable member described above as functioning to preventing the discharge of ions from the pump engine. Such valves can be used in embodiments of the invention to control the direction of fluid flow, for example the flow of fluid from an external environment such as a site of implantation into the osmotic pump apparatus. In addition, such check valves can be used in any embodiments of the invention where a conduit can be adapted to include a check valve to control the direction of fluid flow, for example the flow of fluids in to the osmotic apparatus, out of the osmotic apparatus, or between compartments within the osmotic apparatus. One such embodiment of the invention addresses certain issues with previously disclosed osmotic pump engines that utilize the host's body fluid as a water supply and further discharge potentially toxic ions. In this context, a check valve can be employed in an implantable apparatus so as to allow the apparatus to utilize the host's body fluid as a water supply (i.e. the movement of materials in one direction) but prevent the movement of materials in the opposite direction (e.g. the discharge potentially toxic ions into the host's body fluid).
Typical check valves described in the art are molded in a unitary fashion from a elastomeric composition such as silicone rubber. One illustrative embodiment is a circular valve disk having a protruding cylindrical dynamic sealing ridge on its top, which is the actual valve element. A static seal ring having a larger inner diameter than the outer diameter of the valve disc can be located concentrically around the valve disk. The valve disk is typically supported from the static seal ring by a support element such as a thin support web extending between the static support ring and the valve disk, which web has a plurality of holes that allow the passage of fluid. In operation, when the pressure is greater on top of the valve disk than under the valve disk, the valve will tend to open, requiring only a small pressure to operate. However, when this small break pressure is not present, or when a reverse pressure is present, the valve will remain in a closed position. The valve thus has a positive sealing action when closed, and opens easily when the small crack pressure (or a greater pressure in that direction) is present. Typically such valves are highly precise, for example operating in a passive manner to open with a relatively small break pressure or cracking pressure in the desired direction of flow through the valve. The valve is typically resistant to a substantially higher reverse pressure. A variety of check valves are well know in the art and described for example in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,462,189, 2,497,906, 4,141,379, 4,593,720, 4,594,058, 4,657,536, 4,714,462, 4,846,787, 4,946,448, 5,527,307, 6,089,272 and 6,932,110, the contents of each of which are incorporated by reference.
Additional illustrative embodiments of the various elements of the invention are described in detail below. Artisans will understand that the apparatus and elements can be made from any of a wide variety of materials that are known in the art. For example, the osmotic compartment, reservoir(s) and housing elements can be fabricated from any one of a number of suitable materials, including metals, glass, natural and synthetic plastics as well as composites and the like.
Embodiments of the invention are useful as an implantable medical device for delivering a medicament to a patient over a period of time. Although the present invention is typically used in conjunction with implantable devices, it should be noted that the teachings contained within the specification and the appended claims may be translated to other devices and applications without departing from the intended scope of this disclosure. In addition, embodiments of the invention can be adapted for use with a wide variety of fluid delivery apparatuses known in the art. While the elements are given common designations, analogous elements and/or components may be identified by comparing these elements to the elements shown in the drawings and reference characters. It is also to be understood that the embodiments shown in the FIGS. are merely a schematic representation of the osmotic delivery devices of the present invention.
The invention described herein has a wide variety of embodiments. A typical embodiment of a fluid delivery apparatus is shown in FIG. 1. Such embodiments of the invention typically include a fluid delivery apparatus comprising: a first osmotic compartment coupled to a stationary semi-permeable membrane. In this embodiment, the stationary semi-permeable membrane permits fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment. The first osmotic compartment is adapted to include an initial chemical composition that functions to alter osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment upon fluid migration across the stationary semi-permeable membrane. One of skill in the art will understand that the term “initial” is used as in “initial chemical composition” because the composition changes over time, for example as part of the osmotic processes of the invention. This embodiment includes a displaceable barrier member coupled to the first osmotic compartment, wherein the displaceable barrier member is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment; as well as a medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a fluid medication from the medication reservoir, wherein the medication reservoir is coupled to the displaceable barrier member such that fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member. Optionally the fluid outlet comprises a fluid conduit such as a catheter that directs the fluid (e.g. the fluid medication) to a specific site, for example one that is distal (or alternatively proximal) to the in vivo site where the apparatus is implanted. Certain embodiments of the invention are designed so that the architecture of one or more of one or more fluid containing spaces within a fluid delivery device incorporate design parameters that function to control movement of fluids within the device (e.g. a fluid conduit designed to have an architecture such that the Peclet Number is at least 1). Embodiments of the invention can further include a solute reservoir including a fluid conduit that is capable of delivering a solute fluid from the solute reservoir into the first osmotic compartment, wherein delivery of the solute fluid into the first osmotic compartment functions to alter osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment; a pump that delivers the solute fluid from the solute reservoir into the first osmotic compartment; and a solute delivery controller that controls delivery of the solute fluid from the solute reservoir into the first osmotic compartment. Typically, the apparatus further includes a housing. Optionally the housing is coated with one or more agents to promote biocompatibility, for example a heparin composition, a steroid such as dexamethasone or a polypeptide such as hirudin.
A wide variety of pumps known in the art can be adapted to have more of one or more fluid containing spaces within a fluid delivery device having a design that functions to control movement of fluids within the device (e.g. a fluid conduit designed to have an architecture such that the Peclet Number is at least 1). Typical pumps include conventional mechanical and related pump designs known in the art. There are a number of implantable drug delivery pumps, pump elements and systems that can be adapted for use with the instant invention and an illustrative (but not limiting) description of illustrative pumps that may be utilized with the invention is provided below.
Certain embodiments of the invention comprise electro-osmotic pumps and include elements associated with their function. In an illustrative embodiment, the fluid delivery apparatus comprises a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment. In this embodiment, the first and second osmotic compartments function as an electro-osmotic cell, with the two osmotic compartments functioning as a first and second half-cell. Within the first half-cell and the second half-cell are electrodes with a first electrode in the first half-cell and second electrode in the second half-cell. This electro-osmotic cell includes an electrolyte in electrical communication with both the first electrode and the second electrode, enabling operation of the cell. In order to regulate the operation of the electrochemical cell, the apparatus typically includes an electrical controller for controlling the electrochemical cell.
Embodiments of the invention include one or more stationary semi-permeable membranes. The stationary semi-permeable membranes can be used to allow the passage of fluids between the external environment (e.g. body fluids of an individual) and the apparatus or between osmotic compartments within the apparatus. The membrane generally comprises an ion-selective or ion-exchange membrane that allows the passage of the ions, while substantially maintaining the integrity between an osmotic compartment(s) and fluids in the external environment. The particular material selected for membrane will depend on the exact configuration and function of the apparatus. For example, for electro-osmotic pumps, the particular material selected for membrane is typically dictated by the electrode materials selected and the desired pumping rate of fluid delivery device. Typical materials for such membranes include perfluorosulfonate membranes known in the art and available under the trade name NAFION. Additional resins are the copolymers of styrene and di-vinyl benzene having sulphonate ion as the charge group which has high selectivity sodium ions. Exemplary materials further include Neosepta type membranes, C/R, CMB, CMB-2, C66-F, and CCG-F, AM-1, AM-3 AFN and AM-X from Ameridia CM-1, CM-2, CMB, and others, commercially available from AMERIDIA, CMI 7000, Membranes International and PC-200D from PCA GmBH.
In one electro-osmotic pump embodiment of the invention, an anion exchange membrane is positioned between the first electrode and the second electrode. The anion exchange materials from which the membrane may be made are well known in the art and include cross-linked polymer resins of the strong base type. Typical resins are the copolymers of styrene and di-vinyl benzene having quaternary ammonium ion as the charge group, which have a high selectivity for chloride ions and high resistance to organic fouling. Such anionic membranes are, for example, Neosepta-type membranes, which are commercially available from AMERIDIA. Alternatively, a cation exchange membrane is used. The cation exchange materials from which the membrane may be constructed are well known in the art and include cross-linked polymer resins of the strong base type. Some typical resins include copolymers of styrene and di-vinyl benzene having sulfonate ion as the charge group, which have a high selectivity for sodium ions. Such commercial cationic membranes, e.g., Nafion type membranes, are available from Dupont.
In certain embodiments of the invention, the stationary semi-permeable membrane is exposed to a body fluid of the individual and the apparatus uses water in the body fluid of the individual to modulate osmotic pressure within the apparatus as the water migrates across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment. In some embodiments of the invention, the apparatus comprises a water reservoir that is coupled to the stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the water modulates osmotic pressure within the apparatus as the water migrates across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment. Optionally a portion of the stationary semi-permeable membrane is disposed on the apparatus to be exposed to fluid in an external environment, such that a fluid in the external environment can migrate across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment. In certain embodiments of the invention, at least one osmotic compartment within the osmotic pump is preloaded with solutions having discreet ion combinations and/or concentrations that are selected to facilitate pump function.
Embodiments of the invention can include a protective porous separator that can for example function to inhibit clogging or fouling of apparatus components such as the stationary semi-permeable membrane. In one illustrative embodiment of the present invention, an anionic exchange membrane, the first electrode, the anionic exchange membrane, and the second electrode are respectively positioned adjacent to the protective porous separator. An alternate second embodiment of the present invention incorporates a cationic exchange membrane, with the first electrode, the cationic exchange membrane, and the second electrode are respectively positioned adjacent to the protective porous separator. Optionally, the protective porous separator further modulates water uptake by one or more processes such as convection or capillary action.
Generally, osmotic delivery device is associated with a water-rich environment (e.g. an in vivo environment) so that water may be allowed into the cell, optionally through the protective porous separator. In such embodiments of the invention, a protective porous separator can be positioned at an end of an apparatus housing a first half-cell and distally from an ion-exchange membrane. Thus, the protective porous separator is at least permeable to H₂O and NaCl molecules, and enables water and ions from an external source e.g., an inside of a living being's body, to migrate into the first half-cell. The protective porous separator may be fabricated from any of a number of materials, including, but not limited to: metals, glass, porous protective gel, natural and synthetic plastics, and composites. The use of the separator is not required and, accordingly, when not used, the first electrode can be exposed directly to fluid, if desired.
In alternative embodiments, the first electrode need not be positioned inside the device and can be positioned either entirely away from the housing or on the outside wall of the device. In such embodiments, the ion exchange membrane has more direct access to the body fluid and a porous separator can be placed directly adjacent to the ion-exchange membrane to prevent biofouling and to prevent unwanted species from contacting the membrane directly. This configuration will also eliminate trapping of any unwanted solid, liquid, or gaseous species in the auxiliary chamber and near the membrane. While the use of the protective porous separator may be generally desirable for applications within the body, the separator is not required, especially in the case where necessary water or saline is self-contained in an electrode cell without any migration of water from external source. In such embodiments, the first half-cell retracts or collapses around the electrode on transfer of water from the first half-cell to second half-cell via electro-osmosis. In such an embodiment, the first half-cell can be exposed directly to fluid.
Embodiments of the invention include a displaceable barrier member positioned to be coupled with the first osmotic compartment (and/or second osmotic compartment) and the medication reservoir. A variety of elements for use as displaceable barrier member are known in the art. Typically, the displaceable barrier member is a piston, a bellows, a bladder, a diaphragm, a plunger or a balloon or combinations thereof. In the fluid delivery apparatus, the displaceable barrier member is coupled to a medication reservoir having at least one outlet, exit aperture or port. During operation, the displaceable member is moveably associated within the device so that, as the volume of fluid contained within the first osmotic compartment increases, the displaceable member is correspondingly maneuvered into the medication reservoir, resulting in the reservoir's expulsion of fluid medication through the fluid conduit and into the external environment (e.g. a site of implantation within an individual). In an illustrative embodiment, the displaceable member is a piston which is positioned between the first osmotic compartment and the medication reservoir. In this context, the fluid medication reservoir is capable of containing a fluid medication, such as a drug or drug combination which is/are delivered via operation of the osmotic delivery apparatus. The term “fluid” broadly refers to any liquid, gel, paste, or other semi-solid state material that is capable of being delivered out of a fluid reservoir (e.g. a solute, medication or water reservoir) and outside of, or alternatively into portions of the apparatus.
Embodiments of the invention include a solute reservoir adapted for use in an osmotic pump apparatus. Typically, the solute reservoir is adapted for use in an osmotic pump apparatus by including a composition containing one or more compounds that function to modulate the osmotic pressure in one or more compartments of an osmotic pump apparatus. The solute reservoir is typically adapted for use in an osmotic pump apparatus by including a fluid conduit that is capable of delivering a solute fluid from the solute reservoir into an osmotic compartment, wherein delivery of the solute fluid into the first osmotic compartment functions to alter osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment. The solute reservoir can also be adapted for use in an osmotic pump apparatus by including a solute delivery controller that controls delivery of the solute fluid from the solute reservoir into the an osmotic compartment of an osmotic pump apparatus.
An illustrative embodiment of the invention is a solute reservoir having a fluid conduit that is capable of delivering a solute fluid from the solute reservoir into at least one osmotic compartment of the apparatus (e.g. the first or second osmotic compartments), wherein delivery of the solute fluid into the osmotic compartment functions to alter osmotic pressure within an osmotic compartment so as to ultimately effect fluid delivery from the apparatus. Contemplated embodiments of the invention include those having multiple solute reservoirs containing multiple compositions for modulating osmotic pressure. A wide variety of solute fluids can be used in such embodiments and such fluids typically contain a composition that alters the concentrations of at least one ion within an osmotic compartment of the apparatus. One example of such a solute fluid is a highly concentrated form of an ion composition used by an osmotic mechanism of the pump. Embodiments of the invention further include a solute delivery system that delivers the solute from the solute reservoir into the first osmotic compartment; and a solute delivery controller that controls delivery of the solute fluid from the solute reservoir into the first osmotic compartment. As is known in the art, such solute delivery systems can include fluid pumps as well as other fluid delivery systems known in the art.
One illustrative solute delivery system for use with embodiments of the invention includes a chamber or a plurality of chambers that are filled with a swelling agent that expands upon contact with water. The swelling agent is initially stored inside a chamber or chambers that is hermetically sealed and which can be opened individually on-demand. In this embodiment of the invention, certain aspects of the solute delivery system are similar to systems used in drug delivery technologies known in the art (see, e.g. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,999,848, 6,551,838, 6,491,666, 6,527,762, U.S. Patent Application No. 20040106914 and Santini, et al. Nature 397, 28 Jan. 1999, the contents of each of which are incorporated by reference). Briefly, in this drug delivery technology, a substrate is constructed which contains a large number of chambers, each containing a drug. A barrier such as a gold foil membrane covers each chamber to produce a sealed chamber. When an aliquot of drug is desired, an electrical pulse can be delivered to one or more of the foil membrane(s) which results in the drug eluting out of the chamber.
In certain embodiments of the invention, these solute delivery systems function by including a chamber or a plurality of chambers that are filled with a swelling agent that expands upon contact with water. A barrier covers each chamber containing the swelling agent to produce a sealed chamber. When solute delivery is desired, the sealed chamber is opened which then results in the swelling agent eluting out of the chamber and into a space within the system that contains water. This swelling that results from the swelling agent's contact with water then produces a force which drives the solute fluid from the solute reservoir into an osmotic compartment of the apparatus.
A wide variety of swelling agents can be used in such embodiments of the invention. The swelling agent typically consists of one or more swellable hydrophilic polymers. Suitable swellable hydrophilic polymers include cellulose derivatives such as hydroxy C_1-4alkyl celluloses, hydroxy C_1-4alkyl C_1-4alkyl celluloses, carboxyalkyl celluloses and the like; vinyl pyrrolidone polymers such as crosslinked polyvinylpyrrolidone or crospovidone; copolymers of vinyl pyrrolidone and vinyl acetate; gums of plant animal, mineral or synthetic origin such as agar, alginates, carrageenan, furcellaran derived from marine plants, guar gum, gum arabic, gum tragacanth, karaya gum, locust bean gum, pectin derived from terrestrial plants, microbial polysaccharides such as dextran, gellan gum, rhamsan gum, welan gum, xanthan gum, and synthetic or semi-synthetic gums such as propylene glycol alginate, hydroxypropyl guar and modified starches like sodium starch glycolate. The swellable hydrophilic polymers are present in suitable amounts such that the polymeric swelling agent exhibits controlled swelling and the desired rate of drug delivery is obtained and the polymeric swelling agent does not contribute significantly to increasing the size of the osmotic system. The polymeric swelling agent can comprise one or more of the above swellable hydrophilic polymers. Often, a mixture of two hydrophilic polymers provides the desired controlled swelling. Illustrative cellulose derivatives that may be used as swellable hydrophilic polymers in the polymeric swelling agent of the present invention include hydroxy C_1-4alkyl celluloses such as hydroxymethyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose and the like. For example, the polymeric swelling agent may be a mixture of two different types or two different grades of the hydroxy C_1-4alkyl celluloses. In another embodiment of the present invention, copolymers of vinyl pyrrolidone and vinyl acetate, in admixture with alkylene oxide homopolymers such as polypropylene oxide, preferably ethylene oxide homopolymers or in admixture with hydroxy C_1-4alkyl celluloses, preferably hydroxyethyl cellulose, may be used as the polymeric swelling agent. A wide variety of polyethylene polymers (e.g. polyethylene glycols) are commercially available.
A wide variety of pumps known in the art can be adapted to have more of one or more fluid containing spaces within a fluid delivery device incorporate design parameters that function to control movement of fluids within the device (e.g. a fluid conduit designed to have an architecture such that the Peclet Number is at least 1). One pump widely used in implantation is the programmable electromechanical SynchroMed® pump. Smaller sized implantable drug delivery pumps such as the osmotic pump of the DUROS® system may also be adapted for use with embodiments of the invention. In the operation of this pump, water is imbibed osmotically through a membrane into a salt chamber pressurizing a piston to expand into a drug chamber to force a drug out through a delivery orifice. The driving force behind the drug delivery of this pump is osmotic pressure, which can be as high as 200 atmospheres depending on the salt used, even though the pressure required to pump the drug from the device is small and the drug delivery rate remains constant as long as some excess undissolved salt remains in the salt chamber. In comparison with mechanically driven devices, osmotic systems are small, simple, reliable, and less expensive to manufacture. Because of the small size of the osmotic system, it can be implanted during a simple procedure in the physician's office.
Gas generating devices known in the art that are both portable and accurate for dispensing small volumes can be adapted to transport a fluid such as a solute fluid within embodiments of the invention. These gas generating methods include galvanic cells and electrolytic cells. In galvanic gas generating cells, hydrogen or oxygen gas is formed at the cathode or anode, respectively, as a result of a reaction between a metal or metal oxide and an aqueous electrolyte. By definition, a galvanic cell is an electrochemical cell that requires no externally applied voltage to drive the electrochemical reactions. Typically, the anode and cathode of the galvanic cell are connected through a resistor that regulates the current passed through the cell, and in turn, directly regulates the production of gas that exerts a force on a diaphragm or piston—thereby expelling the drug. A number patents have disclosed delivery systems based on the use of galvanic hydrogen generating cell, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,951,538; 5,707,499; and 5,785,688, the contents of each of which are herein incorporated by reference. In the cells disclosed in these patents, a zinc anode reacts with an alkaline electrolyte producing zinc oxide and water molecules are reduced on porous carbon electrode producing gaseous hydrogen. Additionally, U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,242,565 and 5,925,030 (the contents of each of which are herein incorporated by reference) disclose a galvanic oxygen-generating cell that is constructed much like a zinc/air button cell, wherein a reducible oxide is reduced at the cathode while hydroxyl ions are formed. The hydroxyl ions oxidize at the anode and release oxygen.
In contrast to galvanic cells, an electrolytic cell requires an external DC power source to drive the electrochemical reactions. When voltage is applied to the electrodes, the electrolyte gives off a gas that exerts a force on a diaphragm or piston—thus expelling the fluid. A number of electrolytic gas generating cells have been proposed for use in fluid delivery devices. A first type is based on water electrolysis requiring an operating voltage over 1.23 V. A second type, also known as oxygen and hydrogen gas pumps, requires a lower DC voltage than that utilized in water electrolysis systems. Both of these cell types utilize an ion exchange polymer membrane. A third type of gas generating electrolytic cell is based on the use of an electrolytically decomposable chemical compound that produces a reduced metal at the cathode, and generates gaseous oxygen by oxidation of water at the anode.
U.S. Pat. No. 5,891,097 (the contents of which are herein incorporated by reference) discloses an electrochemically driven fluid dispenser based on the electrolysis of water. Devices of this type can also be adapted to transport a fluid such as a solute fluid within embodiments of the invention. In this dispenser, water is contained in an electrochemical cell in which porous metal electrodes are joined to both sides of a solid polymer cation exchange membrane, and both of the two electrodes are made to contact with the water so as to use oxygen or hydrogen generated from an anode or cathode respectively, upon current conduction. Thus, hydrogen, oxygen, or a gas mixture of hydrogen and oxygen—generated by electrolysis of water when a DC current is made to flow between the electrodes—is used as a pressurization source of the fluid dispenser. Electrochemical oxygen and hydrogen pumps are constructed in a similar manner to the above-discussed water electrolysis cell and are described in several U.S. patents, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,938,640; 4,902,278; 4,886,514; and, 4,522,698, the contents of each of which are herein incorporated by reference. Electrochemically driven fluid dispensers disclosed within these patents have an electrochemical cell in which porous gas diffusion electrodes are joined respectively to the opposite surfaces of an ion exchange membrane containing water functioning as an electrolyte. The electrochemically driven fluid dispenser uses such a phenomenon that when hydrogen is supplied to an anode of the electrochemical cell and a DC current is made to flow between the anode and the cathode, the hydrogen becomes hydrogen ions at the anode. When the produced hydrogen ions reach the cathode through the ion exchange membrane, an electrochemical reaction arises to generate gaseous hydrogen thereat. Since the net effect of these processes is the transport of hydrogen from one side of the membrane to the other, this cell is also called a hydrogen pump. The hydrogen generated and pressurized at the cathode is used as a driving source for pushing a piston, a diaphragm, or the like.
Embodiments of the invention utilize osmotic forces to function and can employ multiple osmotic pump mechanisms in a single apparatus, for example a first osmotic pump mechanism that is adapted to drive a solute from a solute reservoir into a first or second osmotic compartment of a second osmotic pump mechanism, with the second osmotic pump mechanism adapted to drive delivery of a fluid (e.g. a fluid medication) in to the external environment (e.g. a site of implantation). Alternatively, the pump that is adapted to drive a solute from a solute reservoir into a first or second osmotic compartment is not an osmotic pump.
Embodiments of the invention include a solute delivery controller that controls delivery of the solute fluid from the solute reservoir into the first osmotic compartment and/or the second osmotic compartment. In one embodiment of the invention, the solute delivery controller is a mechanism that actuates or modulates the function of a solute fluid pump such as a control switch. Alternatively, the solute delivery controller can comprise one of the variety of other fluid control elements known in the art such as a valve. In this way, the solute delivery controller controls the delivery of the solute fluid from the solute reservoir in to the first osmotic compartment and/or the second osmotic compartment in a manner that consequently alters the osmotic forces in the first osmotic compartment and/or the second osmotic compartment in a manner that modulates fluid delivery (e.g. a fluid medication) from the device into the external environment.
As noted above, embodiments of the apparatus rely upon osmosis to drive or deliver a fluid such as a fluid medication from the inside of the pump into an external environment. As noted above, osmotic forces are altered during passage of the anions or cations through the semi-permeable membrane, where water is entrained with the ions so that an additional amount of water is transported into an osmotic compartment such as the first osmotic compartment. As the ionic membrane is an exchange for a specific type of ions, only those ions (e.g. cations) can pass through membrane. Therefore, water may be transported through the membrane only in one direction from, for example, an external environment (e.g. body fluids) or an internal reservoir such as a water reservoir or a second osmotic compartment to a first osmotic compartment that is coupled to a displaceable barrier member.
In certain embodiments, the fluid delivery apparatus further comprises a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment. Embodiments of the invention include a variety of permutations using such stationary semi-permeable membranes, for example an embodiment wherein the first osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the first osmotic compartment across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the second osmotic compartment. Optionally, the apparatus can include a second displaceable barrier member coupled to the second osmotic compartment. In electro-osmotic pump embodiments of the invention, the first osmotic compartment includes a first electrode and the second osmotic compartment includes a second electrode so as to form an electrochemical cell, and the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes. Typically, the first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to and/or received from the first or second electrodes.
An illustrative electro-osmotic cell of the invention comprises a first half-cell and second half-cell, with ion-selective membrane in-between. A fluid inlet is associated with first half-cell, allowing fluid from the surrounding environment of fluid delivery device into the cell. Within first half-cell and second half-cell are electrodes, with a first electrode in the first half-cell, and a second electrode in the second half-cell. The first electrode and second electrode typically comprise an anode and a cathode electrode. Alternatively, the first electrode can comprise a cathode, and second electrode can comprise an anode, depending upon the materials selected for the electrodes and membrane, and the operation of the fluid delivery device. Thus, these electrodes are interchangeable within first half-cell and second half-cell of the cell, depending upon the particular materials used for the first electrode and the second electrode and for the semi permeable membrane. Some embodiments of the invention include additional electrodes known in the art to be utilized with the various devices and components disclosed herein.
One embodiment of the invention is an electro-osmotic cell having an improved mechanism for the cessation of cell operations after removal of operational current. The electro-osmotic cell includes a cell housing with a first half cell and a second half cell, which are separated by an ion-exchange membrane. Within each half cell is an electrode; a first electrode within the first half cell, and a second electrode within the second half cell. The electro-osmotic cell also includes an electrolyte in electrical communication with the first electrode and the second electrode, and a wiring apparatus electrically connecting the first electrode and the second electrode. All of these elements ensure the normal operation of the electro-osmotic cell. Additionally, however, the electro-osmotic cell includes means for counteracting at least some of the effects of salt concentration increases within the electro-osmotic cell associated with the wiring apparatus.
Such an electro-osmotic cell can beneficially be utilized within an electro-osmotic fluid delivery device. The above-described cell, along with all of the typical embodiments of that cell, can deliver fluid by combining the cell with a fluid inlet, a movable barrier such as a piston member adjacent the electro-osmotic cell, and a medication reservoir adjacent the piston member/movable barrier, the medication reservoir comprising a exit port. Typically the fluid inlet comprises a membrane (such as a permeable membrane or osmotic membrane), or a fluid conduit. Also, the piston member/movable barrier optionally comprises a slidable piston, a flexible diaphragm or the like. Typically, an electrolyte used with an osmotic cell can include a solution containing Na⁺and/or K⁺and Cl⁻ ions, such as fluid from a body (where the solvent is water and the electrolytes are naturally-occurring salt ions such as sodium and chloride ions) that can be delivered from the surrounding tissues to an implanted fluid delivery device. Alternatively, a number of other electrochemically compatible fluids can similarly be used (e.g., Ringer's solution, renal dialysis solution, PBS etc).
In a specific embodiment of the electro-osmotic apparatus of the present invention, the first electrode is comprised of porous silver chloride, manganese dioxide, or other materials that can be readily reduced or may catalyze a reduction reaction, e.g., reduction of oxygen or evolution of gaseous hydrogen from water—when coupled with the active metal anode. The second electrode is comprised of an active metal anode that can be a solid pellet, mesh, or metal powder type electrode fabricated from, for example, zinc, iron, magnesium, aluminum, or another corrosion stable metal or alloy. The ion-exchange membrane separating the first and second electrodes is an anion exchange membrane. The anionic exchange materials from which the membrane may be made are well known in the art and do not require extensive elaboration. Exemplary materials include polymeric membranes with styrene-divinyl benzene backbone with quaternary ammonia charge groups. Embodiments of the invention further include a solute reservoir having a fluid conduit that is capable of delivering a solute fluid from the solute reservoir into an electrode containing compartment of the apparatus (e.g. the first or second osmotic compartments), wherein delivery of the solute fluid into at least one osmotic compartment functions to alter osmotic pressure within an osmotic compartment so as to ultimately effect fluid delivery from the apparatus.
In some embodiments of the invention, in order to optimize operation of the cell, and to ensure that the occurrence of osmotic transfer (non-electro-osmotic) both during and after operation is minimized, both the anode and the cathode may be constructed from the same active materials. For example, in one embodiment, both the cathode and anode can comprise an Ag/AgCl electrode. In an illustrative embodiment the cathode produces a chloride ion, which is then passed across the membrane to the anode half-cell, whereafter the anode recomplexes the chloride ion into insoluble silver chloride, which then precipitates out of solution. In doing so, the concentration of the salt, namely the chloride ion, does not increase during operation, as it is complexed out of solution continuously. In addition, water is also transported with the chloride ions when current is flowing, resulting in a net volume flux into second half cell, and therefore fluid delivery from medication reservoir. Although the above embodiment solely describes the use of silver/silver-chloride active material electrodes, any other number of active materials can similarly be available for use as electrodes. As would be understood by one of ordinary skill in the art, simple experimentation can produce numerous other active materials for use in the present invention—provided the electrodes operate to help maintain a substantially constant salt concentration within the cell during operation.
A wide variety of electrode combinations can be utilized in various embodiments of the invention. In one embodiment, the first electrode is an anode, the second electrode is a cathode, and the membrane is cationic selective membrane. Alternatively, the first electrode can be a cathode, the second electrode an anode, and the membrane is anionic selective membrane. Anode materials may be of any suitable material to which a cation will migrate in a given electrolytic reaction, and may include materials such as carbon, platinum, zinc, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, silver, and silver/silver chloride. Cathode materials can include carbon, platinum, zinc, magnesium, manganese, aluminum, silver, and silver/silver chloride, among others. As with the dual-electrode embodiment, a single first electrode and a single second electrode optionally include a sensing means for detecting ionic concentration within the cell. Numerous materials can be used for both first electrode and second electrode, but they must be electrochemically compatible with one another so as to allow for the flow of ions and electrons during cell operation. Typical electrode material pairings can include, among others, Zn/Ag/AgCl, Pt/Pt, Ag/AgCl/Pt, Zn/Pt, Pt/Ag/AgCl, Ag/AgCl/Ag/AgCl, and Zn/AgCl. In one embodiment, first electrode comprises a zinc electrode, and second electrode comprises an Ag/AgCl electrode.
The electrochemical cells used in embodiments of the invention typically include a controller for controlling the electrochemical cell. The controller can comprise a resistor, a control circuit, or the like. These devices help to control the time course and magnitude of current that flows through the electrodes of the electrochemical cell. In one embodiment, the electrochemical cell includes two or more second electrodes, wherein at least one of the two second electrodes optionally comprise substantially the same active material as the first electrode. Typically, the controller directs the flow of electricity between the first electrode and at least one of the two or more second electrodes. The flow of current may be directed either by splitting the current between the two second electrodes, or cycling the flow of current between the electrodes, as may be needed. In order to facilitate the simultaneous operation of the at least two second electrodes, the wiring loops for each electrode can include one or more resistors. The electrochemical cell may additionally include an ionic sensor for measuring the ionic concentration of at least one of the two half cells. This concentration can then be used to determine the operation of the controlling means.
In an illustrative embodiment of the invention, the controller is connected to the first electrode and the second electrode and comprises an electrical circuit, e.g., an activation switch, a control circuitry, and a resistor. The controller facilitates control of the time course and magnitude of current that flows through the electrodes of the electro-osmotic cell. The controller is also capable of adjusting the delivery rate in various manners and wave forms. Additionally, the controller can aid in fast shutoff of fluid delivery as described in U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US2004/0144646; the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. Typically the electrical controller facilitates control of the rate of delivery of fluid out of the medication reservoir. In certain embodiments, the electrical controller, in cooperation with the activation switch, control circuitry, and resistor, are operably coupled to the first electrode and second electrode via conventional electrical conduit to control the rate of water transfer from the external source to the second half-cell, as well as the starting, stopping, and length of the operation. It is to be understood that the resistor may be substituted or augmented with other elements known in the art. The controller can be operatively coupled to and powered by a power source so that, once a switch is closed (the operation of which may be controlled by the controller), operation of the apparatus is commenced. Alternatively, the controller can comprise a power source itself.
Certain embodiments of the invention employ galvanic design wherein the pump is driven by a spontaneous electrochemical reaction occurring at the electrodes. FIG. 1 shows the design of one such type of a galvanic electro osmotic pumps pump, a flush-CATEK (flush, cationic electro-kinetic) constructed so that a characteristic length scale of a fluid chamber (e.g. a fluid conduit) within the device is limited in size or otherwise controlled so that fluid diffusion time-scales within the device are optimized. In such embodiments of the invention assuming a constant voltage between electrodes, the rates of metal electrode (e.g. zinc) oxidation, the rates of the associated ion (e.g. chloride) reduction and pump flow are typically controlled by an electrical resistor (or potentiostat). A limitation of such galvanic electro osmotic pumps in certain contexts is that changes in solution/electrode chemistry can affect the cell voltage and pump flowrate in a suboptimal way. Furthermore, galvanic electro osmotic pumps that use conventional anodes made of materials such as zinc typically discharge zinc cations produced at the anode into the surrounding tissue (or other bioincompatible cations depending upon the composition of the anode material). Adverse reactions to such pump designs have been observed in vivo which are typically attributed to the discharge of such ions.
In view of these types of limitations that can be experienced with certain galvanic electro osmotic pumps, yet another embodiment of the invention is one that further includes a battery element that functions for example to maintain a constant current during some portion of the apparatuses use (e.g. to further apparatus operation at the initiation of pump operation and/or to further apparatus operation after some period of operation via galvanic processes and/or to further apparatus operation as the current supplied by galvanic processes diminishes over the lifetime of the pump). Typically this embodiment of the invention further includes a controller element that functions to control the battery (e.g. battery output etc.). Optionally an electrode in these embodiments of the invention is in operable contact with in vivo fluids (e.g. an anode disposed on an external portion of the pump architecture). One electro-osmotic pump embodiment that includes a battery and a controller and is constructed so that a characteristic length scale of a fluid chamber (e.g. a fluid conduit) within the device is limited in size or otherwise controlled so that fluid diffusion time-scales within the device are optimized is shown in FIG. 7. An advantage of these types of electrolytic EO pump designs is that the battery/controller element(s) can be used to provide and maintain a constant current, one that is for example independent of the electrode and solution chemistry. In this context, such embodiments of the invention can optimize apparatus operation by, for example, providing an additional current source that can be selectively utilized as, for example, as the current supplied by galvanic processes diminishes over the lifetime of the pump.
In certain embodiments of the invention (e.g. those designed to include a battery element), an electrode comprised of a composition selected for having desirable material properties (e.g. a platinum anode) can be used. In such embodiments of the invention, an electrode that releases very few bioincompatible ions (or substantially no bioincompatible ions) into in vivo fluids during pump operation can be used rather than one that can dissolve and release bioincompatible ions (e.g. zinc ions) into in vivo fluids. Certain embodiments use an electrode for example that releases less than 25%, less than 10%, less than 5% or less than 1% of the number of bioincompatible ions released by a zinc electrode. Embodiments using anode made from materials that release relatively few such ions into an in vivo environment can improve the biocompatibility of these pumps. While platinum is a typical anode material for such embodiments, other embodiments of the invention employ anodes comprised of other materials such as, but not limited to, Ag/AgCl.
In certain embodiments of the invention, the controller can additionally comprise sensor situated in the wall of an anodic or cathodic half-cell such that it is in direct contact with the solution contained therein. The sensor can be capable of detecting the conductivity of the fluid in half cell or the concentration of any number of ionic species contained within a half-cell, but especially should be able to detect and measure the ionic concentration of the ion produced by an anode or cathode during operation. Typical sensors include conductivity sensors, sodium ion sensors, Ag/AgCl chloride ion sensor, etc.
Embodiments of the invention can include one or more bleed flow streams (e.g. a fluid bleed member) that can be used to control the total volume in the first and second osmotic compartments. Such fluid bleed elements of the invention can be coupled to any compartment within an osmotic apparatus to direct fluid out of an to modulate pressure within that compartment. In addition, the fluid bleed elements can be used to direct fluid from any compartment within the osmotic apparatus to any other compartment within the osmotic apparatus, or alternatively to direct fluid outside of the osmotic apparatus. Optionally the fluid bleed member comprises a fluid conduit such as a catheter that directs a fluid to a specific site, for example one that is distal (or alternatively proximal) to the in vivo site where the apparatus is implanted. Optionally, the fluid conduit directs the fluid into a moveable or deformable trap member. Such bleed flow streams can be controlled by a wide variety of elements known in the art such as valves. The bleed valves can be controlled by timers, as well as pressure and/or chemical (e.g. ion) sensors. In an illustrative embodiment, a miniature solenoid valve bleeds fluid from first and/or second osmotic compartments to effect an ionic and/or pressure differential between the osmotic compartments, and in this way modulates the pressure on the medication reservoir. The valve(s) can be under the control of an electronic module, which includes for example a transducer signal processing and valve and pump driving electronics. The system can be powered for example from a DC supply through leads, either an external source connected to terminals, or a battery.
In certain embodiments of electro-osmotic pump apparatuses, due to the continuous formation of ions such as sodium chloride and zinc chloride, the steady buildup of ion concentration internally induces further water transport through environmental osmosis. Thus, a steady state flux of water transport is established over a period of time by the combined osmotic and electro-osmotic effects. The osmotic flux is the result of the necessary concentration gradient and can be modified by virtue of modifying the electro-osmotic driving force.
The following discussion of a specific embodiment of an electro-osmotic pump apparatus and the processes involved in its function illustrates the advantages of embodiments of the instant invention, for example an embodiment where one or more fluid containing spaces within the pumps has adopted design parameters that control movement of fluids within the device (e.g. a fluid conduit designed to have an architecture such that the Peclet Number is at least 10). In operation, such a fluid delivery apparatus can deliver a fluid such as a fluid medication in accordance with the following process. Initially, an activation switch of the electrical controller is actuated, whereupon an electrical circuit is complete which causes electrode reactions to take place at the first and second electrodes, and water to be extracted from external environment, and, ultimately to be driven across ion exchange membrane into an osmotic compartment in the apparatus. Thus, water from external environment, such as a human body diffuses into an electrode containing compartment. In this way such devices and processes enable a controlled delivery of a fluid over an extended period of time at a relatively precise and accurate rate inasmuch as the water transported is proportional to the current, which in turn depends on a number of factors including the properties of the electrical controller (e.g. the value of a resistor of the electrical controller). Therefore, the fluid delivery rate can be controlled by selection of elements such as resistor and not only by the rate at which water is permitted to enter the housing of the apparatus.
Although such electro-osmotic delivery apparatuses that are described in the art are effective in delivering fluid through electro-osmotic transport, the amount of time required to achieve a consistent fluid delivery rate can be quite long. During operation, an increase in the salt concentration within one of the half-cells, e.g., second half-cell, can be observed, which can adversely affect electro-osmotic cell operations by causing additional osmotic transport within the cell. The slow buildup of steady-state ion concentration translates into slow establishment of steady state flux at the start of the operation of the device. This additional transport slowly increases until steady-state concentrations are reached in both the half-cells. A variety of methods can be utilized to control pump function and for example achieve an enhanced delivery profile such as a faster delivery startup. One method involves the electro-osmotic cell having a pre-configured concentration gradient so that one of the half-cells contains a higher concentrated solution than the other. Another method achieves a faster delivery startup by utilizing a controller to pass higher current between the two half-cells at the onset of the device operation.
As disclosed herein, yet another method for further controlling the delivery profile of osmotic apparatuses is by utilizing an apparatus having a constellation of elements that includes one or more fluid containing spaces within a fluid delivery device that incorporates design parameters that function to control the movement of fluids within the device (e.g. a fluid conduit designed to have an architecture such that the Peclet Number is at least 1). Artisans understand that a variety of permutations and/or modifications can be made to the apparatuses and associated methods disclosed herein. A typical embodiment is a fluid delivery apparatus (e.g. an implantable apparatus) comprising a first osmotic compartment coupled to a stationary semi-permeable membrane (e.g. an ion selective membrane), wherein the stationary semi-permeable membrane permits fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment. In this embodiment, the first osmotic compartment is adapted to include an initial chemical composition (e.g. an ion solution) that functions to alter osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment upon fluid migration across the stationary semi-permeable membrane. A displaceable barrier member is coupled to the first osmotic compartment and is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment. A medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a fluid medication from the medication reservoir is coupled to the displaceable barrier member such that fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member. Optionally, the medication reservoir contains a medication selected from the group consisting of a drug, a lubricant, a surfactant, a disinfectant or mixtures thereof.
Embodiments of the invention include electro-osmotic pumps and can include a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment. Optionally, a second displaceable barrier member coupled to the second osmotic compartment. Typically in such embodiments, the first osmotic compartment includes a first electrode and the second osmotic compartment includes a second electrode so as to form an electrochemical cell, and the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes. The first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to/or received from the first or second electrodes. In embodiments of the invention, the first osmotic compartment and the second osmotic compartment comprise a chemical reagent which expands upon a chemical and/or electrochemical reaction. In one illustrative embodiment of the invention, the first and second electrodes comprise an anode and a cathode—and vice versa—and are separated by an ionic-exchange membrane placed there between. Typically, the ion-exchange membrane is situated within the housing and between the two (half-cell) compartments. Alternatively, the first half-cell need not be positioned inside the device and can be positioned either on the outside wall of the device or entirely away from the housing. In such a configuration, the first half-cell is directly exposed to the body fluid and a porous separator can be placed directly adjacent to the ion-exchange membrane.
Optionally, the first osmotic compartment, the second osmotic compartment or the first osmotic compartment and the second osmotic compartment comprise a fluid bleed member that can modulate the fluid volume in the first osmotic compartment, the second osmotic compartment or the first osmotic compartment and the second osmotic compartment. In certain embodiments, a fluid bleed member comprises a valve to direct or meter fluid flow. In certain embodiments of the invention, the operation of the apparatus produces ions that are released into a moveable or deformable trap member (e.g. a piston, a bellows, a bladder, a diaphragm, a plunger or a balloon or combinations thereof) so that the ions are not released into the body of the individual (i.e. when implanted). Optionally, the moveable or deformable trap member is coupled to the medication reservoir such that fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the moveable or deformable trap member.
Another illustrative embodiment of the invention is a fluid delivery apparatus comprising a first osmotic compartment having a first electrode and a second osmotic compartment having a second electrode, wherein the first and second osmotic compartments are coupled to a stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes and further wherein the first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to or received from the first or second electrodes; and wherein the first osmotic compartment is adapted to include an initial chemical composition that functions to alter osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment or second osmotic compartments upon fluid migration across the stationary semi-permeable membrane. This embodiment includes a displaceable barrier member coupled to the first osmotic compartment, wherein the displaceable barrier member is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first or second osmotic compartments. The embodiment also includes a medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a fluid medication from the medication reservoir, wherein the medication reservoir is coupled to the displaceable barrier member such that fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member. This embodiment also includes a moveable or deformable trap member adapted to capture ions produced in the function of the apparatus so that the ions are not released into the body of the individual.
Typically, the electro-osmotic apparatus is designed so that the architecture of one or more of one or more of its fluid containing spaces incorporate design parameters that function to control movement of fluids within the apparatus (e.g. a fluid conduit designed to have an architecture such that the Peclet Number is at least 1). In some embodiments, the apparatus further comprises a water reservoir that is coupled to the stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the water modulates osmotic pressure within the apparatus as the water migrates across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment. In one embodiment, the moveable or deformable trap member is coupled to the medication reservoir such that captured ions produced in the function of the apparatus produces pressure that drives fluid medication out of the fluid outlet. Optionally the first osmotic compartment, the second osmotic compartment or the first osmotic compartment and the second osmotic compartment comprise a fluid bleed member that can modulate the fluid volume in the first osmotic compartment, the second osmotic compartment or the first osmotic compartment and the second osmotic compartment. Optionally, the fluid bleed member directs fluid into the moveable or deformable trap member.
The apparatus of the invention can be configured according to its intended use, for example for implantation at a specific in vivo location. The housing can take a variety of forms, for example an elongated cylindrical containing the first half-cell and the second half-cell. The housing may be constructed of metal, glass, natural and synthetic plastics, composites, or a combination thereof. Optionally, the first half-cell is positioned between the ion-exchange membrane and the protective porous separator or protective gel, and is capable of containing water and electrolytic products that are controllably generated during the initiation of the current. The second half-cell can be positioned between a displaceable member and the first half-cell, and be capable of containing water and electrolytic products that are controllably generated during operation of first half-cell. One or more support member(s) can be configured proximate the ion-exchange membrane and the first half-cell. The support member(s) can provide mechanical rigidity for components such as the ion-exchange membrane and allow water to transport through it. The support member can be made of hard plastic, ceramic, glass, corrosion stable metal (e.g., titanium), or other like materials known to those with ordinary skilled in the art.
While specific embodiments of the present invention have been illustrated and described, numerous modifications come to mind without significantly departing from the spirit of the invention and the scope of protection is only limited by the scope of the accompanying claims. All publications listed in the specification are hereby incorporated by reference. Embodiments of the invention can be adapted for use with a variety of the different types of osmosis systems (e.g. those utilizing various ion systems) known in the art. Elements, methods and materials of such systems are disclosed for example in U.S. Pat. No. 3,760,984, U.S. Pat. No. 3,971,376, U.S. Pat. No. 3,987,790, U.S. Pat. No. 3,995,631, U.S. Pat. No. 3,995,632, U.S. Pat. No. 4,410,328, U.S. Pat. No. 6,568,910, U.S. Pat. No. 6,572,749, U.S. Pat. No. 6,575,961, U.S. Pat. No. 6,491,684, U.S. Pat. No. 6,872,292, U.S. Pat. No. 6,689,373, U.S. Pat. No.; U.S. Pat. No. 3,894,538, U.S. Pat. No. 3,893,904, U.S. Pat. No. 4,140,121, U.S. Pat. No. 4,140,122, U.S. Pat. No. 4,687,423, U.S. Pat. No. 5,163,899, U.S. Pat. No. 6,004,309, U.S. Pat. No. 6,206,659, U.S. Pat. No. 5,585,069, U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,838, U.S. Pat. No. 5,454,922, U.S. Pat. No. 5,603,351, U.S. Pat. No. 5,632,876, U.S. Pat. No. 5,643,738, U.S. Pat. No. 5,681,484, U.S. Pat. No. 5,755,942, U.S. Pat. No. 5,858,804, U.S. Pat. No. 5,863,708, U.S. Pat. No. 5,980,704, U.S. Pat. No. 6,331,439, U.S. Pat. No. 6,159,171, U.S. Pat. No. 6,313,164, U.S. Pat. No. 5,924,848, U.S. Pat. No. 5,938,412, U.S. Pat. No. 6,012,902, U.S. Pat. No. 6,171,067, U.S. Pat. No. 6,394,759, U.S. Pat. No. 6,568,910, U.S. Pat. No. 5,454,922, U.S. Pat. No. 5,567,287, U.S. Pat. No. 5,538,605, U.S. Pat. No. 5,427,870, U.S. Pat. No. 5,593,522, U.S. Pat. No. 5,855,761, U.S. Pat. No. 5,997,821, U.S. Pat. No. 5,707,499, U.S. Pat. No. 6,042,704, U.S. Pat. No. 5,785,688, U.S. Pat. No. 5,744,014, U.S. Pat. No. 5,932,204, U.S. Pat. No. 6,060,196, U.S. Pat. No. 5,951,538, U.S. Pat. No. 6,109,539, U.S. Pat. No. 6,045,055, U.S. Pat. No. 6,283,461, U.S. Pat. No. 6,220,267, U.S. Pat. No. 6,327,426 U.S. Pat. No. 6,591,133, U.S. Pat. No. 6,787,008, U.S. Pat. No. 7,047,069, U.S. Pat. No. 6,575,961, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003023187, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003028124, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003040682, U.S. Pat. No. 6,059,736, U.S. Pat. No. 6,485,437, U.S. Pat. No. 6,843,254, U.S. Pat. No. 6,019,882, U.S. Pat. No. 6,277,257, U.S. Pat. No. 6,572,749, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003171401, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2004157884, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2005106205, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2005129737, U.S. Pat. No. 6,541,021, U.S. Pat. No. 6,689,373, U.S. Pat. No. 6,613,211, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003140976, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2004094220, U.S. Pat. No. 6,675,821, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2002070116, U.S. Pat. Application No. 20020156461, U.S. Pat. No. 6,575,961, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2002175191, U.S. Pat. No. 6,491,684, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2004208751, U.S. Pat. No. 6,460,974, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003085024, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2004089442, U.S. Pat. No. 6,991,024, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003062149, U.S. Pat. No. 6,942,018, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003068229, U.S. Pat. No. 6,619,925, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2003205582, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2004138588, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2005235732, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2005238503, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2005248606, U.S. Pat. No. 6,916,159, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2004120827, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2004147907, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2005126912, U.S. Pat. Application No. 2005055014, and PCT publication Nos. WO 2004070085, WO 2004069390, WO 2005016558 WO 9615576, WO 9916162, WO 9901663, WO 2000055502, WO 9723178, WO 2000055502, WO 2000054745, WO 2001031322, WO 2002095341, WO 2003029731, WO 2003028862, WO 2003028861, WO 2002094440, WO 2002069935, WO 2004036136, WO 2001061314, WO 2003092662, WO 9943383, WO 20044032994, WO 2004061958,U.S. Pat. Application No. 20060116663, U.S. Pat. Application No. 20040147907, U.S. Pat. Application No. 20030205582, U.S. Pat. Application No. 20060052768, U.S. Pat. Application No. 20060041229, and U.S. Pat. Application No. 2006/0116641, the entire contents of each of which are incorporated by reference.

EXAMPLES

Example 1

Mathematical Modeling of Electro-Osmotic Pump Elements

Electro-osmotic (EO) pump technologies are undergoing evaluation for implantable drug delivery devices, particularly in view of their relatively small size, cost and simplicity. EO drug delivery pumps could offer a competitive advantage over ALZET® and DUROS® osmotic pumps in that EO pumps are amenable to control and shut-down. Applications of EO drug delivery devices include the continuous delivery of biological TNF-α inhibitors and interferon for the treatment of sciatic pain and hepatitis C, respectively.
A mathematical model is presented for the “flush-CATEK” EO pump design, which is illustrated in FIG. 1, which provides a schematic of a Flush-CATEK electro-osmotic pump. In this schematic, the volume and average solute (NaCl) concentration of each compartment are Vi [m3] and Ci [mM], respectively. The volume of the two channels (conduits) connecting the two compartments is mathematically lumped into V2. This model is based on the observed behavior of device prototypes, as well as the independent characterization of the physical and chemical processes believed to be of importance. Model parameter sensitivity analyses are presented that led to the design, construction and testing of new device prototype configurations. The observed pump dynamics are in agreement with the trend predicted by the mathematical model and support the model's validity. Conclusions are presented regarding the relative importance of the physical processes responsible for the pump's operation as well as guidelines future device design.

Mathematical Model

The flush-CATEK pump design is illustrated by FIG. 1. The majority of the fluid in the pump engine is contained within the Osmotic and Reservoir Compartments, each of which is mathematically modeled as a well-mixed control volume. The mathematical model for the device consists of the mass-balances and rate expressions described by Equations 1-8 below. Definitions of the model parameters and variables are provided in FIG. 1 as well as Table 1, which also lists the center-point values and ranges used in the first sensitivity analysis. The system of model equations was solved using a MATLAB program. The main Matlab program file used to perform the model calculations as well as the Matlab script file that contains the model system of differential equations are provided at the end of this Example.

Osmotic Compartment Mass Balances

$\begin{matrix} Water \\ \frac{ρ_{w}}{M_{w}} (\frac{\partial V_{1}}{\partial t}) = F_{EO, w} + F_{OS, w} - F_{D} = 0 & [1] \\ Solute (NaCl) \\ V_{1} \frac{\partial C_{1}}{\partial t} = F_{EO, s} - F_{BD, s} - F_{EX} & [2] \end{matrix}$

Reservoir Compartment Mass Balances

$\begin{matrix} Water \\ \frac{ρ_{w}}{M_{w}} (\frac{\partial V_{2}}{\partial t}) = F_{D} & [3] \\ Solute (NaCl) \\ \frac{\partial (C_{2} V_{2})}{\partial t} = F_{EX} & [4] \end{matrix}$

Rate Expressions

$\begin{matrix} Electro - osmosis \\ F_{EO, i} = \frac{T_{i} \langle i_{e} \rangle}{F} & [5] \end{matrix}$
Osmosis (Neglecting Back-Pressure)
F _OS,w=2A _m P _w,s RT(C ₁ −C _out) [6]
Solute Back-Diffusion into Surroundings
F _BD,i =A _m P _m,s(C ₁ −C _out) [7]
$\begin{matrix} Solute Exchange Between Compartments \\ F_{EX, s} = (\frac{M_{w}}{ρ_{w}}) C_{1} F_{D} + K_{EX} (C_{1} - C_{2}) & [8] \end{matrix}$

TABLE 1

MODEL INPUT PARAMETERS.

Parameter			Center	Sensitivity
Name	Description	Source	Value	Analysis Range	Units

A_m	Membrane Area	Prototype	0.495	0.25-0.99	cm²
		dimensions¹
C_out	External NaCl	Physiology	154	77-310	mM
	Concentration
i_e	Electrical Current	Ohm's law	20	5-80	μA
K_EX	Compartment	Equal to	0.69	0.069-69	μL/hour
	Exchange Coefficient	model-
		calculated
		steady-state
		flowrate,
		Pe = 1
P_m,w	Membrane Hydraulic	Independent	5	2.5-10	×10⁻¹⁴mole-
	Permeability	Measurement			H₂O/Pa-s-
	(Fumapem)				cm²
P_m,s	Apparent Membrane	Independent	4.5	0.45-22	×10⁻⁸m/sec
	Permeability to NaCl	Diffusion
	(Fumapem)	Cell
		Measurement
T_w	Transference	Estimate	6	1-20	mole-H₂O/
	Number for H₂O	from			mole-e⁻
		literature
V₁	Volume of Osmotic	Prototype	36	18-72	μL
	Chamber (fixed)	dimensions¹
V₂0	Initial Volume of	Prototype	140	70-280	μL
	Reservoir Chamber	dimensions¹

The Peclet Number
The Peclet Number, Pe, is the ratio of convective to diffusive transport in a conduit. Assuming that there is no significant convective contribution to K_EX, the Peclet Number is defined by Equation 9.
$\begin{matrix} Pe = \frac{Q (t)}{K_{EX}} & [9] \end{matrix}$
Here Q is the instantaneous volumetric pump flowrate, which is related to the other model parameters by Equation 10.
$\begin{matrix} Q = \frac{\partial V_{2}}{\partial t} = (\frac{M_{w}}{ρ_{w}}) F_{D} & [10] \end{matrix}$
K_EXcan be expressed in terms of more fundamental parameters, as stated by Equation 11.
$\begin{matrix} K_{EX} = \frac{{NDA}_{c}}{L_{c}} & [11] \end{matrix}$
Here N is the number of conduits (or channels) [−] and D is the diffusion coefficient of solute (NaCl) in water [cm²/s]. The length and cross-sectional area of each conduit are L_c[cm] and A_c[cm²/s], respectively. Equation 12 is derived by combining Equations 9-11, which relates Pe to the volumetric flowrate, the solute diffusivity, and the conduit geometry.
$\begin{matrix} Pe (t) = \frac{Q (t) L_{c}}{{NDA}_{c}} & [12] \end{matrix}$

Model Calculations

FIG. 2 presents the model variables calculated for the center-point parameter values, as well as their sensitivity to variation in the parameter KEX. For the input parameters considered, the model calculates that the majority of the water transported into the device during steady-state operation is effected by osmosis instead of electro-osmosis, per se (refer to the “OS to EO Ratio”). Nevertheless, the electrical current controls the rate of NaCl generation in the osmotic chamber, which modulates the rate of osmosis and pump flowrate. Furthermore, the Peclet Number is shown to be highly sensitive to KEX, while the steady-state flowrate is not. FIG. 2 shows pump behavior calculated for a 30-day operational period followed by a 45-day shut-down (center-point Pe=1). According to the model and the input parameters considered, the majority of the water taken in by the pump is by osmosis and not electro-osmosis during steady-state operation (refer to the “OS to EO Ratio”=FOS/FEO). Pe is shown to be highly sensitive to KEX, while the steady-state flowrate is not. FIG. 3 presents the dynamic behavior of the pump flowrate calculated for the center-point parameter values and the sensitivity of the pump dynamics to variations in KEX (or Pe). For the center-point value of KEX=0.7 mL/hr (Pe=1), the start-up response time is calculated to be 15-hours, while the shut-down response time is calculated to be greater than 300-hours. However, a 20% increase in KEX (or 25% increase in Pe) results in a greater than 10-fold decrease in the calculated shut-off response time. Therefore, for the center-point parameter values listed in Table 1, the dynamic behavior of the pump predicted by the model is very sensitive to variations in KEX or Pe. Furthermore, the model provides evidence that in order to minimize the start-up and shut-off response times, flush-CATEK devices should be designed so that the steady-state operational Peclet Number is very large (Pe>>1).
The start-up and shut-off times observed for many of the prototypes studied were observed to be on the order of 10 hours. However, a fraction of the pump prototypes exhibit shut-down times that are orders of magnitude larger. A review of the prototype design and assembly procedure revealed that the Peclet number had not been controlled up to that point in time, as the spacing between the pump housing and volume filler was well-defined. This fact, combined with the model calculations presented in FIG. 3, provide a rational explanation for the amount of variability in the observed pump response times.
Table 2 summarizes the results from the sensitivity analysis described in Table 1. For the parameter values considered, the model is found to be insensitive to variations in Cout, Tw, and V20. The calculated steady-state flowrate is sensitive to i_e, Pm,w and Pm,s, while the pump dynamics are sensitive to Am, i_e, KEX, Pm,s and V1.

TABLE 2

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS RESULTS SUMMARY FOR PE = 1 (VARIES WITH KEX).
For each parameter, the sensitivities of the steady-state flowrate and response times are
reported as subjectively determined from the model calculations. The model has been deemed
insensitive to the parameters reported on the black background.





*Artifact of dividing by V₂ ⁰

The sensitivity analysis presented in Tables 1-2 and FIGS. 2-3 motivated the performance of a second sensitivity analysis with a center-point Pe=100. The results are summarized in Table 3 and are similar to that of the first analysis (Pe=1, Table 2), except that the model is now insensitive to KEX and the pump dynamics are now insensitive to i_e. This finding is noteworthy from the perspective of control theory, as it is desirable to have the system dynamics (time constants) to be independent from the control input variable (i_e).

TABLE 3

SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS RESULTS SUMMARY FOR PE = 100.
CENTER-POINT KEX = 0.0069 μL/HR.
For each parameter, the sensitivities of the steady-state flowrate and response times are
reported as subjectively determined from the model calculations. The model has been deemed
insensitive to the parameters reported on the black backgound.





*Artifact of additional pump volume with increasing i_e
**Artifact of dividing by V₂ ⁰

Experimental

To assess the validity of the model prediction that the Peclet Number affects pump dynamics, four device prototype configurations were constructed and concurrently tested using the environmentally-controlled balances located at MicroLin. Table 4 and FIG. 4 provide descriptions of these configurations. The pumps were housed in 37° C. TBS (Tris buffered saline: 12.5 mM Tris Hydrochloride, 3.62 mM Tris base, 150 mM NaCl, pH=7.4) for the duration of the experiment and were operated at the 1× nominal flowrate (1.4 μL/hr, R=46,282Ω) for 3 weeks, after which time the devices were switched off and the dynamic responses were recorded. The observed shut-off response times for each configuration are reported in Table 4 and FIG. 5, where Pe is found to have a significant effect (ANOVA, p<0.01). This is in agreement with the trend predicted by the model (FIG. 3): the shut-off time for devices with Pe<1 will be much greater than the shut-off time for Pe>1.

TABLE 4

FLUSH-CATEK DEVICE CONFIGURATIONS AND
OBSERVED SHUT-OFF RESPONSE TIMES

Config-	Device			Shut-Off
uration No.	Designation	Conduit Description	Pe	Time [hr]

1	31-CFL1A	No Volume Filler	0.05	112
	32-CFL1B			25
	33-CFLC			104
2	19-CFL2C	Volume Filler* with	1.8	5.9
	27-CFL2B	Single Regular Channel,		5.6
	37-CFL2A	0.71-mm width,		25
		37-mm length
3	1-CFL3A	Volume Filler*with	14	0.0
	3-CFL3B	Single Tube,		6.6
	4-CFL3C	10-mil diameter,		3.4
	5-CFL3D	37-mm length		3.2
4A	6-CFL4aA	Volume Filler* with	89	4.1
	8-CFL4aC	Single Tube, 4-mil		0.0
	10-CFL4aD	diameter, 37-mm length		2.5

The reported shut-off time is the time required to reach the maximum weight on the balance after opening the pump's electrical circuit.
*The space between the volume-filler and the pump housing was filled with epoxy to ensure a well-defined Pe.

The model disclosed herein calculates that the majority of the flowrate generated by the pump during steady-state operation is primarily effected by osmosis instead of electro-osmosis, for the input parameters considered. Nevertheless, the electrical current controls the rate of NaCl generation in the osmotic chamber, which modulates the rate of osmosis and pump flowrate.
The model disclosed herein indicates that flush-CATEK devices should be designed with a large steady-state operational Peclet Number (Pe>>1) to minimize the: 1) start-up and shut-off response times and 2) sensitivity of the response times to the electrical current (i_e). These characteristics are important from the perspective of process control theory.
The model disclosed herein indicates that the flush-CATEK device design is sensitive to the properties of the ion-exchange membrane (P_m,sand P_m,w) and geometry of the Osmotic Compartment (A_mand V₁), for Pe>>1 and the other parameter values considered. These model parameters can be considered to be the important design variables for the flush-CATEK device (it is assumed that i_eis a control variable).

Main Matlab Program File Used to Perform the Model Calculations

- clear;
- close all;
- %2-Compartment Model for flush CATEK Device adapted from “run_CATEK_flush_batch2.m” 9/25/2006
- % This program models a CATEK device being turned on and then turned off
- % Output Directory and Filename
- % DirName=‘C:\Documents and Settings\grovee2\Desktop\flush_CATEK_Model\output\’;
- DirName=‘C:\Documents and Settings\grovee2\Desktop\MATLAB_output\’;
- % Specify Response Time Normalized Response Criterion
- response_crit=0.95;

Claims

1. A fluid delivery apparatus comprising:

a first osmotic compartment coupled to a semi-permeable membrane; wherein the semi-permeable membrane permits fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment;

a medication reservoir including a fluid outlet for delivering a fluid medication from the medication reservoir;

a fluid conduit that operably connects the first osmotic compartment to the medication reservoir, wherein the dimensions of the fluid conduit, the first osmotic compartment or the medication reservoir are such that the rate of convective fluid transport within the fluid conduit is greater than the rate of diffusive fluid transport within the fluid conduit; and

a displaceable barrier member coupled to the medication reservoir that is displaced in response to alterations in osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment, wherein

the fluid medication is delivered from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet upon displacement of the displaceable barrier member.

2. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 1, wherein the dimensions of the fluid conduit are such that the Peclet Number of the fluid conduit is at least 1, 10, 25, 50 or 100.

3. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the semi-permeable membrane, wherein:

the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment;

the first osmotic compartment includes a first electrode and the second osmotic compartment includes a second electrode so as to form an electrochemical cell; and

the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes and further wherein the first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to or received from the first or second electrodes.

4. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 3, further comprising a switch or gate that modulates osmotic, electro-osmotic or hydrodynamic fluid flow within the apparatus.

5. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 1, further comprising a moveable impermeable barrier that assumes a first position disposed over the semi-permeable membrane so as to inhibit fluid migration across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment; and a second position not disposed over the semi-permeable membrane.

6. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 1, wherein the semi-permeable membrane is a cation-selective membrane.

7. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 1, further comprising at least one one-way fluid flow valve.

8. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 1, wherein the dimensions of the fluid conduit, the first osmotic compartment and the medication reservoir are such that the compartment exchange coefficient (K_EX) is at least 0.5, 0.7 or 0.9 μL/hr.

9. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 1, further wherein the characteristic length scale (Li [cm]) of all fluid conduits within the device are designed so that the diffusion time scales for fluid flow with the fluid conduits is controlled to be less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τresp [sec]).

10. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 3, further comprising a battery operatively coupled to the controller, wherein the battery and the controller function to provide a constant current in the electrochemical cell during operation of the fluid delivery apparatus.

11. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 10, wherein an anode of the electrochemical cell comprises a composition that releases substantially no bioincompatible ions into an in vivo environment in which the apparatus is implanted.

12. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 11, wherein the anode comprises a platinum composition.

13. The fluid delivery apparatus of claim 10, wherein an anode of the electrochemical cell is disposed on an external portion of the apparatus architecture so as to facilitate contact with an in vivo environment in which the apparatus is implanted.

14. A method of delivering a fluid medication from a medication reservoir within a fluid medication delivery apparatus, wherein the apparatus comprises:

a fluid conduit that operably connects the first osmotic compartment to the medication reservoir; and

the design geometry of a fluid chamber within the apparatus are such that:

L<√{square root over (Dτ _resp)}

wherein L is any characteristic length scale (L_i[cm]) in the design geometry of a fluid chamber within the apparatus, τresp [sec] is the apparatus response time and D is the diffusion coefficient of solute in water [cm²/s];

the method comprising:

placing the fluid medication delivery apparatus into an environment where the semi-permeable membrane contacts a fluid which can migrate across the membrane and into the first osmotic compartment in an amount sufficient to alter the osmotic pressure within the first osmotic compartment so as to deliver fluid medication from the medication reservoir through the fluid outlet.

15. The method of claim 14, wherein the dimensions of the fluid conduit are controlled so that the Peclet Number of the fluid conduit is at least 1, 10, 25, 50 or 100.

16. The method of claim 14, wherein the dimensions of the fluid conduit are controlled so as to control the time period required to initiate fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus.

17. The method of claim 14, wherein the dimensions of the fluid conduit are controlled so as to control the time period required to shut-off the fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus.

18. The method of claim 14, wherein the apparatus comprises an electro-osmotic cell having a second osmotic compartment coupled to a portion of the stationary semi-permeable membrane, wherein the second osmotic compartment contains a fluid capable of migrating from the second osmotic compartment across the stationary semi-permeable membrane into the first osmotic compartment; and

the first osmotic compartment includes a first electrode and the second osmotic compartment includes a second electrode so as to form an electrochemical cell,

wherein the first and second osmotic compartments include a fluid electrolyte in communication with the first and second electrodes and further wherein the first and second electrodes are coupled to a controller that controls an electrical signal sent to or received from the first or second electrodes, and wherein activation of the controller is used to further modulate fluid delivery from the medication reservoir.

19. The method of claim 14, wherein the apparatus further comprises at least one one-way fluid flow valve.

20. The method of claim 14, wherein the thickness, hydrophobicity, immobilized charge density and/or partition coefficient properties of the semi-permeable membrane are selected so as to control fluid flow from the fluid medication delivery apparatus.

21. The method of claim 18, wherein the apparatus further comprises a battery operatively coupled to the controller, wherein the battery provides a constant current in the electrochemical cell during operation of the fluid delivery apparatus.

22. The method of claim 18, wherein an anode of the electrochemical cell comprises a composition that releases substantially no bioincompatible ions into an in vivo environment in which the apparatus is implanted.

23. The method of claim 22, wherein the anode comprises a platinum composition.

24. The method of claim 18, wherein an anode of the electrochemical cell is disposed on an external portion of the apparatus architecture so as to facilitate contact with an in vivo environment in which the apparatus is implanted.

25. A method of identifying a dimension suitable for a fluid conduit used in an osmotic fluid medication delivery apparatus, the method comprising:

identifying a characteristic length scale (Li [cm]) of the fluid conduit having properties such that the diffusion time-scale for fluid flow with the fluid conduit is less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τresp [sec]);

so that a fluid conduit dimension suitable for a fluid conduit used in an osmotic fluid medication delivery apparatus is identified.

26. The method of claim 25, wherein the characteristic length scale of the fluid conduit having the diffusion time-scale for fluid flow less than a predetermined start up or shut down apparatus response time (τ_resp[sec]) is determined using the equation:

L<√{square root over (Dτ _resp)}

wherein L is the characteristic length scale (L_i[cm]) and D is the diffusion coefficient of solute in water [cm²/s].

27. The method of claim 26, wherein the Peclet Number (Pe) of the fluid conduit is greater than 1 as determined using the equation:

Pe \equiv \frac{{QL}_{c}}{{NDA}_{c}}

wherein Pe is the Peclet Number, Q is the volumetric flowrate [cm³/s], N is the number of conduits, L_c[cm] is the length of the conduit and Ac [cm²/s] is the cross-sectional area of the conduit.

28. A method of claim 27, wherein the Peclet Number (Pe) of the fluid conduit is greater than 10, 25, 50 or 100.