PreCm Geology of Finland - Lehtinen Et Al - 2005 - BOOK PDF

Developments in Precambrian Geology, 14
PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY
OF FINLAND
KEY TO THE EVOLUTION OF THE
FENNOSCANDIAN SHIELD
DEVELOPMENTS IN PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY
Advisory Editor Kent Condie
Further titles in this series
1. B.F. WINDLEY and S.M. NAQVI (Editors)

Archaean Geochemistry
2. D.R. HUNTER (Editor)
Precambrian of the Southern Hemisphere
3. K.C. CONDIE
Archean Greenstone Belts
4. A. KRNER (Editor)
Precambrian Plate Tectonics
5. Y.P. MELNIK
Precambrian Banded Iron-formations. Physicochemical Conditions of Formation
6. A.F. TRENDALL and R.C. MORRIS (Editors)
Iron-Formation: Facts and Problems
7. B. NAGY, R. WEBER, J.C. GUERRERO and M.SCHIDLOWSKI (Editors)
Developments and Interactions of the Precambrian Atmosphere, Lithosphere
and Biosphere
8. S.M. NAQVI (Editor)
Precambrian Continental Crust and Its Economic Resources
9. D.V. RUNDQVIST and F.P. MITROFANOV (Editors)
Precambrian Geology of the USSR
10. K.C. CONDIE (Editor)
Proterozoic Crustal Evolution
11. K.C. CONDIE (Editor)
Archean Crustal Evolution
12. P.G. ERIKSSON, W. ALTERMANN, D.R. NELSON, W.U. MUELLER and
O. CATUNEANU (Editors)
The Precambrian Earth:Tempos and Events
13. T.M. KUSKY (Editor)
Precambrian Ophiolites and Related Rocks
Developments in Precambrian Geology, 14
PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY
OF FINLAND
KEY TO THE EVOLUTION OF THE
FENNOSCANDIAN SHIELD
Editors:
M. LEHTINEN
University of Helsinki, Finland
P.A. NURMI
Geological Survey of Finland
Espoo, Finland
.. ..
O.T. RAMO
University of Helsinki, Finland
ELSEVIER
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Table of contents ...............................................v zonation pattern ...............................56
Varpaisjrvi granulite complex ........57
Preface ........................................................ xiii Rautavaara complex .........................58
2.4. Ranua terrain ....................................59
1. Overview ....................................................1 Oijrvi greenstone belt .....................60
(M. Vaasjoki, K. Korsman, T. Koistinen) Siurua granulite complex .................60
1. Location, subdivision, timing, and general 3. The Karelian domain in northern
charateristics................................................4 Finland.......................................................61
2. Regional geographic nomenclature .............7 3.1. Koillismaa terrain .............................62
3. The Archean bedrock ................................13 3.2. Napapiiri terrain ...............................62
4. Faulting of Archean crust and emplace- Suomu terrain ...................................63
ment of Paleoproterozoic cover rocks .......13 3.3. Tuntsa terrain....................................64
5. The Svecofennian bedrock ........................13 Granitoid complexes ........................65
6. Rapakivi magmatism and the Jotnian Tuntsa and Tulppio supracrustal
period ........................................................15 belts .................................................68
7. The Vendian period and the Paleozoic era 15 3.4. Pomokaira terrain .............................68
8. Late events affecting the bedrock ..............16 3.5. Muonio terrain .................................69
3.6. Ropi terrain ......................................69
2. Archean rocks .........................................19 4. The Kola domain in Finland......................70
(P. Sorjonen-Ward, E.J. Luukkonen) 4.1. Inari terrain.......................................71
1. Introduction to the Archean of Finland .....22 4.2. Srvaranger terrain...........................71
1.1. The extent of the Archean in 5. Insights into the deeper Archean crust
Finland .............................................22 in Finland ..................................................73
1.2. Classifying and subdividing the 5.1. Exhumed deep crustal sections in
Archean bedrock of Finland .............26 Finland? ............................................73
2. The Karelian domain in eastern Finland ......28 5.2. Distribution and composition of
2.1. Ilomantsi terrain ..............................28 buried Archean crust .......................75
Hattu supracrustal belt .....................29 5.3. Xenoliths and deep seismic
Kovero supracrustal belt...................36 studies...............................................76
Nunnanlahti and Ipatti supra- 6. Discussion and synthesis ...........................78
crustal belts ......................................36 6.1. Archean thermal regimes and
Lieksa complex granitoids tectonic consequences ......................78
and high-grade gneisses ...................37 6.2. Regional scenarios and corre-
Granitoids intruding the Hattu lations ...............................................81
and Kovero supracrustal rocks .........38 6.3. Comparisons and contrasts
2.2. Kianta terrain ...................................40 between Archean and Svecofen-
Suomussalmi greenstone belt ...........43 nian crustal processes .......................83
Kuhmo greenstone belt ....................44
Tipasjrvi greenstone belt ................47 3. Layered mafic intrusions of the
Granitoids, gneisses, and crustal TornioNrnkvaara belt ...................101
evolution in the Kianta terrain .........48 (M. Iljina, E. Hanski)
Nurmes gneiss complex ...................52 1. Introduction .............................................104
2.3. Iisalmi terrain ...................................53 2. Geologic setting of the TornioNrn-
Proterozoic reworking and the kvaara belt .............................................104
boundaries of the Iisalmi terrain ......53 3. Cumulus sequences .................................106
Origin of the present metamorphic 3.1. General characteristics ...................106
PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND v

3.2.
Kemi intrusion................................106 4.1. ~2440 Ma intrusions in Lapland ....167
3.3.
Penikat intrusion ............................108 Akanvaara intrusion .......................167
3.4.
Portimo layered igneous complex ..111 Koitelainen intrusion ......................169
3.5.
Koillismaa layered igneous Parental magma ..............................170
complex ..........................................114 Isotope geology ..............................171
4. Parental magmas and isotope studies ......118 4.2. ~2220 Ma differentiated sills .........171
4.1. Parental magmas ............................118 4.3. ~2050 Ma intrusions ......................172
4.2. Isotope studies ................................120 Keivitsa intrusion ...........................172
5. Mineral deposits ......................................120 5. Lapland granulite belt .............................174
5.1. Ore types ........................................120 5.1. Metamorphic conditions ................175
5.2. Kemi chromite deposit ...................122 5.2. Radiogenic isotopes .......................175
5.3. Mustavaara Fe-Ti-V oxide deposit, 6. Summary and discussion .........................176
Koillismaa complex .......................123 6.1. Mantle plume(s) and cracking of
5.4. PGE reefs of the Penikat intrusion .123 the craton ........................................176
5.5. Marginal series Cu-Ni-PGE and 6.2. Cratonic sedimentation and
reef-type mineralization of the volcanism .......................................177
Koillismaa complex .......................124 6.3. Primitive volcanism and
5.6. Diverse Cu-Ni-PGE minerali- deepening basins ............................177
zations in the Portimo complex ......125 6.4. Breakup of a supercontinent? .........178
5.7. PGE geochemistry .........................130 6.5. Ocean floor volcanism ...................179
6. Summary and discussion .........................131 6.6. Acid magmatism related to ob-
duction? ..........................................181
4. Central Lapland greenstone belt ........139 6.7. Foreland basin ................................181
(E. Hanski, H. Huhma) Terrestrial sedimentation and
1. Introduction .............................................142 volcanism .......................................181
2. Main geologic units of northern Finland.142 Correlation with Svecofennian
3. Central Lapland greenstone belt .............144 sedimentation and volcanism .........182
3.1. General features .............................144 Relationship to the exhumation of
3.2. Lithostratigraphy ............................144 granulites ........................................182
3.3. Salla Group ....................................146 7. Conclusions .............................................183
Geochemistry and Nd isotopes ......149
Geochronology ...............................149 5. Paleoproterozoic mafic dikes
3.4. Onkamo Group ...............................150 in NE Finland .......................................195
Geochemistry and Nd isotopes ......150 (J. Vuollo, H. Huhma)
Geochronology ...............................154 1. Introduction .............................................198
3.5. Sodankyl Group............................154 2. Geological background ...........................201
Geochemistry and geochronology. .155 3. Mafic dike swarms ..................................203
3.6. Savukoski Group ............................156 3.1. ~2.45 Ga dike swarms ....................204
Geochemistry .................................156 Boninitenorite dikes .....................205
Geochronology ...............................157 Gabbronorite dikes .........................205
3.7. Kittil Group ..................................158 Low-Ti tholeiitic dikes ...................205
Stable isotopes................................158 Fe-tholeiitic dikes ...........................207
Field characteristics and geochem- Orthopyroxene-plagioclase-phyric
istry of mafic metavolcanic rocks ..159 dikes ...............................................207
Geochronology of mafic rocks .......160 3.2. Geochemical and isotopic charac-
Nuttio serpentinites and related teristics ..........................................207
dikes ...............................................161 3.3. ~2.32 Ga dike swarm and
Felsic rocks.....................................162 intrusions ........................................211
3.8. Lainio and Kumpu Groups .............164 3.4. ~2.2 Ga layered sills and dikes.......212
Metasediments ...............................164 3.5. ~2.1 Ga dike swarms ......................215
Metavolcanic rocks ........................165 3.6. ~1.98 Ga dike swarm .....................223
Isotope studies of conglomerate 4. Tectonic significance of the dike
clasts and detrital minerals ............166 swarms.....................................................226
4. Mafic plutonism ......................................167 4.1. Paleoproterozoic rifting events in
vi PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND

the Archean Kuhmo block ..............226 5.4. SaariKiekki belt............................299
4.2. Uplifted Archean high-grade 5.5. Sariola cover of the layered intru-
terranes ...........................................228 sions within the basement com-
plexes..............................................300
6. Ophiolites ..............................................237 5.6. Kuusamo belt .................................300
(P. Peltonen) 5.7. Perpohja belt .................................300
1. Introduction .............................................240 5.8. Other Sariola occurrences ..............301
2. Significance of ancient ophiolites ..........241 6. Sub-Kainuu unconformity.......................301
3. Age constrains for Finnish ophiolites .....243 7. Kainuu tectofacies ...................................303
4. The Jormua ophiolite ..............................244 7.1. Kainuu belt .....................................303
4.1. The crustal unit ..............................246 Korvuanjoki Group in Kainuu .......303
Petrology of the basalts ..................246 Middle and Upper part of the
Gabbros and plagiogranites ............251 Central Puolanka Group .................305
4.2. The mantle section .........................252 7.2. North Karelia .................................305
Serpentinites...................................253 7.3. Kuusamo and Kuusijrvi ................306
Clinopyroxenitic and hornblen- 7.4. Perpohja ........................................306
ditic mantle dikes of the western 7.5. Other occurrences ..........................306
block ...............................................254 8. Sub-Jatuli unconformity ..........................307
5. Outokumpu-type ultramafic massifs .......255 9. Jatuli tectofacies ......................................310
5.1. Ultramafic rocks .............................257 9.1. Koli and Kiihtelysvaara areas in
5.2. Basaltic rocks .................................258 North Karelia .................................310
5.3. Cu-Co-Zn-NiAu sulfide deposits .261 9.2. East Puolanka Group and corre-
6. The Nuttio serpentinite belt ....................262 sponding groups in Kainuu ............311
7. Comparative geochemistry of the 9.3. Kuusamo ........................................311
Finnish ophiolites ....................................264 9.4. Perpohja ........................................313
7.1. Metaperidotites...............................264 9.5. Other occurrences ..........................313
7.2. Lavas and dikes ..............................266 10. Sub-Lower Kaleva unconformity ............313
8. Environments of ophiolite formation ......268 11. Lower Kaleva tectofacies ........................314
9. Concluding remarks ................................273 11.1. Kainuu belt .....................................314
11.2. Hytiinen basin, North Karelia ....315
7. Karelian supracrustal rocks ................279 11.3. Kuopio area ....................................315
(K. Laajoki) 11.4. Salahmi belt....................................317
1. Introduction ............................................282 11.5. Kiiminki belt ..................................317
2. Geological setting and basin classi- 11.6. Perpohja ........................................318
fication ....................................................282 12. Sub-Upper Kaleva unconformity ............318
2.1. Regional distribution of the supra- 13. Upper Kaleva tectofacies ........................319
crustal belts ...................................282 13.1. Upper Kaleva in Kainuu.................319
2.2. Metamorphism ...............................285 13.2. Upper Kaleva within the Outo-
2.3. Tectonic features ............................287 kumpu nappe complex and the
2.4. Basin classification .........................287 KuopioPielavesi area ....................319
3. Sumi tectofacies ......................................290 14. Problematic younger Karelian for-
3.1. Supracrustal rocks ..........................290 mations ....................................................320
3.2. 2440 Ma layered intrusions ............292 14.1. Vihajrvi Group and Haapalan-
4. Sub-Sariola unconformity .......................292 mki and Jokijyrkk conglo-
5. Sariola tectofacies ...................................295 merates ...........................................320
5.1. North Karelia .................................295 14.2. Pyssykulju Formation.....................321
Glaciogenic rocks of the Urkka- 14.3. Northern margin of the Perpoh-
vaara Formation..............................295 ja belt ..............................................323
5.2. Eastern part of the Kainuu belt ......297 14.4. Himmerkinlahti Member and Kol-
Glaciogenic rocks of the Honka- miloukkonen Formation in Posio ...323
jrvi Group .....................................297 15. Karelian metadiabases.............................324
Kurkikyl Group ............................297 16. Previously proposed basin models ..........324
5.3. Western part of the Kainuu belt .....299 16.1. Continental and pericontinental
Puolankajrvi Formation ................299 Karelia (sensu stricto) basins .........324
PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND vii

16.2. Kaleva basins .................................325 10. Discussion ..............................................388
17. Paleogeographic reconstructions .............325 10.1. Correlation of the Pohjanmaa belt
17.1. Continentalmarginal Karelian to northern Sweden ........................388
sequences .......................................326 10.2. Correlation of the Uusimaa belt
17.2. Kaleva sequences ...........................326 to the Bergslagen field....................390
18. Synopsis ..................................................326 10.3. Correlation of the Hme and
18.1. Karelia (sensu stricto) basin de- Uusimaa belts .................................391
velopment .......................................326 10.4. Tiirismaa-type quartz arenites ........392
18.2. Lower Kaleva development ............331 10.5. Angular unconformities? ...............393
18.3. Upper Kaleva development ............331 11. Summary .................................................393
18.4. Closing comments ..........................331
9. Svecofennian maficultramafic
8. Svecofennian supracrustal rocks ........343 intrusions ..............................................407
(Y. Khknen) (P. Peltonen)
1. Introduction .............................................346 1. Introduction .............................................410
2. Geologic setting ......................................346 2. Classification of the intrusions ................410
2.1. General aspects ..............................346 3. Intrusions close to the craton margin
2.2. Proterozoic cover deposits of the (Group Ia) ................................................412
Archean craton ..............................349 3.1. Laukunkangas ................................414
2.3. Division of the Svecofennian 3.2. Kotalahti .........................................415
domain ............................................350 3.3. Lapinlahti gabbroanorthosite .......416
2.4. U-Pb zircon ages and Nd isotopes .351 4. Intrusions of the Tampere and Pirkan-
3. Geochemical and tectonomagmatic maa belts (Group Ib) ...............................417
characterization of the volcanic rocks ....354 4.1. Ultramafic intrusions of the Vam-
4. Savo belt ..................................................355 mala Ni province ............................419
4.1. General ...........................................355 4.2. Porrasniemi layered gabbro ............422
4.2. PielavesiPyhsalmi region............356 4.3. Kaipola layered intrusion ...............423
4.3. Rautalampi region ..........................358 5. Synvolcanic intrusions of the Arc com-
4.4. Volcanic rocks of the Virtasalmi plex of southern Finland (Group II) ........426
region .............................................358 5.1. Forssa gabbro .................................426
5. Pohjanmaa belt ........................................361 5.2. Hyvink layered intrusion ............426
5.1. General ..........................................361 6. Ti-Fe-P gabbros of the Central Finland
5.2. Evijrvi field...................................362 granitoid complex (Group III).................428
5.3. Ylivieska field ................................362 6.1. Kauhajrvi gabbro province ...........428
6. Tampere and Pirkanmaa belts .................365 Kauhajrvi gabbro ..........................429
6.1. General ...........................................365 Permaa gabbro ..............................430
6.2. Central Tampere belt ......................365 6.2. Koivusaarenneva layered
6.3. Western and eastern Tampere belt ..369 intrusion .........................................430
6.4. Pirkanmaa belt................................371 7. Chemical and isotope composition
7. Supracrustal belts within the Central of the maficultramafic intrusions...........432
Finland granitoid complex .....................374 8. Economic aspects and petrogenesis of the
8. Hme belt and Saimaa area .....................375 ores ........................................................435
8.1. General ...........................................375 9. Concluding remarks ................................437
8.2. Volcanic rocks of the Hme belt ....375
8.3. Volcanic rocks of the Saimaa area .377 10. Proterozoic orogenic granitoid rocks ...443
8.4. Sedimentary rocks of the Saimaa (M. Nironen)
area .................................................378 1. Classification of plutonic rocks ...............446
9. Uusimaa belt ...........................................380 2. Preorogenic rocks ....................................449
9.1. General aspects ..............................380 2.1. Preorogenic rocks of central
9.2. KemiJrvenp field ...................380 Finland (1.931.91 Ga) ..................449
9.3. NauvoKorppoo field .....................385 2.2. Preorogenic rocks of northern
9.4. Pellinki field ...................................385 Finland (1.951.91 Ga) ..................449
9.5. Sedimentary carbonates of the 3. Synorogenic rocks ...................................450
Uusimaa belt ..................................388 3.1 Synkinematic rocks of southern
viii PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND

and central Finland (1.89 5.4. Subduction reversal and switch-
1.87 Ga) ..........................................451 over: prelude to the Fennian
3.2. Postkinematic rocks of central orogeny at 1.90 Ga .........................505
Finland (1.881.86 Ga) ..................452 5.5. Fennian orogeny: a northsouth
3.3. Synorogenic rocks of northern accretion stage at 1.891.87 Ga .....507
Finland (1.891.86 Ga) ..................455 5.6. Attempted orogenic collapse
4. Lateorogenic granites ..............................456 and related magmatism at
4.1. Lateorogenic granites of southern 1.891.87 Ga ................................508
Finland (1.841.81 Ga) ..................456 5.7. The end of the Fennian orogeny at
4.2. Lateorogenic granites of northern 1.871.85 Ga: orogenic collapse ....509
Finland (1.841.80 Ga) ..................458 5.8. Svecobaltic orogeny: Andean-type
5. Postorogenic rocks ..................................459 active margin and continentcon-
5.1. Postorogenic rocks of southern tinent collision at 1.841.80 Ga .....511
Finland (1.811.77 Ga) ..................459 5.9. The Nordic orogeny: continent
5.2. Postorogenic granites of northern continent collision at 1.821.79
Finland (1.801.77 Ga) ..................462 Ga ...................................................513
6. Geochemical comparison and petro- 5.10. End of the Nordic orogeny and
genetic implications ................................462 orogenic collapse at 1.791.77 Ga..514
6.1. Preorogenic rocks ...........................462 6. Gothian evolution at 1.731.55 Ga .........515
6.2. Synorogenic rocks ..........................468 7. Discussion ...............................................516
Synkinematic rocks of southern 7.1. Comparison with modern ana-
and central Finland .........................468 logues .............................................516
Postkinematic rocks of central 7.2. Comparison with earlier studies
Finland ...........................................468 and models .....................................517
Synorogenic rocks of northern 8. Concluding remarks ................................520
Finland ...........................................469
6.3. Lateorogenic granites .....................469 12. Rapakivi granites .................................533
6.4. Postorogenic rocks .........................470 (O.T. Rm, I. Haapala)
7. Discussion ..............................................471 1. Introduction .............................................536
8. Summary .................................................474 2. What is rapakivi granite? ........................536
3. Distribution, mode of occurrence,
11. Paleoproterozoic tectonic evolution .....481 and age ....................................................537
(R. Lahtinen, A. Korja, M. Nironen) 4. Lithologic association .............................539
1. Introduction .............................................484 4.1. Felsic plutonic rocks ......................540
2. Geologic outline .....................................489 4.2. Mafic plutonic rocks.......................545
3. Pre-1.92 Ga crustal components and 4.3. Intermediate plutonic rocks............546
crustal-scale boundaries .........................493 4.4. Dikes and volcanic rocks ...............546
3.1. LaplandKola area .........................494 5. Chemical composition.............................549
3.2. Karelian craton ...............................496 6. Origin of the rapakivi texture ..................550
3.3. Norrbotten Archean nucleus and 7. Origin of the rapakivi magma .................552
attached island arcs .......................497 8. Tectonic scenarios ...................................556
3.4. Keitele microcontinent and 9. Future challenges ....................................557
attached island arc ..........................498
3.5. Bothnia microcontinent and 13. Sedimentary rocks, diabases, and
attached island arc ..........................498 late cratonic evolution ...........................563
3.6. Bergslagen microcontinent and (J. Kohonen, O.T. Rm)
Tavastia island arc ..........................499 1. Introduction .............................................566
4. Terminology related to the Paleoprote- 2. Mesoproterozoic sedimentary
rozoic tectonic evolution .........................499 sequences ................................................567
5. Tectonic model ........................................500 2.1. Regional setting..............................567
5.1. Breakup of the Archean craton (or 2.2. The Satakunta Formation and its
cratons) at 2.06 Ga ........................500 submarine extensions .....................569
5.2. LaplandKola orogen .....................501 2.3. The Muhos Formation and its
5.3. LaplandSavo orogen .....................504 submarine extensions ....................573
PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND ix

2.4. Minor occurrences .........................574 14. Kimberlites, carbonatites, and alka-
3. Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks ..............574 line rocks ...............................................605
3.1. Introduction ...................................574 (H.E. OBrien, P. Peltonen, H. Vartiainen)
3.2. The ~1265 Ma magmatism ............574 1. Introduction .............................................608
Regional setting..............................574 2. Description of alkaline rock complexes
Petrography and geochemistry .......575 of Finland ................................................608
Source characteristics and magma- 2.1. The Archean Siilinjrvi carbo-
tic evolution ....................................576 natite ...............................................608
3.3. The 11001000 Ma magmatism ....577 2.2. Proterozoic Kortejrvi and Laiva-
Regional setting..............................577 joki intrusions.................................611
Geochemistry and source charac- 2.3. Proterozoic lamprophyre dikes ......615
teristics ...........................................579 2.4. Proterozoic Halpanen carbonatite ..617
4. Neoproterozoic and early Paleozoic 2.5. Proterozoic Group II kimberlites
sedimentary sequences ............................579 olivine lamproites (K2L) ................617
4.1 Regional setting..............................579 2.6. Neoproterozoic Group I kimber-
4.2. The Hailuoto Formation and its lites .................................................619
submarine extensions .....................580 2.7. Devonian Sokli carbonatite
4.3. The Lauhanvuori Formation...........580 complex ..........................................621
4.4. The bottom of the Bothnian and 2.8. Devonian Sokli ultramafic
land seas ......................................581 lamprophyre dikes ..........................627
4.5. The Dividal Group of north- 2.9. Devonian Iivaara alkaline complex .628
western Lapland .............................582 3. Geochemistry of kimberlites, carbo-
4.6. Minor occurrences .........................583 natites, and alkaline rocks .......................629
5. Allochthonous rocks of the Finnish 4. Isotope composition of kimberlites,
Caledonides .............................................584 carbonatites, and alkaline rocks ..............633
5.1. Introduction and regional setting ...584 5. The kimberlite mantle sample .................636
5.2. The Lower Allochthon (Jerta 5.1. Mantle xenoliths .............................636
Nappe) ............................................585 5.2. Mantle xenocrysts ..........................638
5.3. The Middle Allochthon (Nalganas 5.3. Diamonds .......................................639
and Nabar Nappes) .........................585
5.4. The Upper Allochthon (Vaddas 15. Drift history of the shield......................645
Nappe) ............................................585 (S. Mertanen, L.J. Pesonen)
6. Paleosols and Cenozoic sedimentary 1. Introduction .............................................648
remnants ..................................................586 2. Remanent magnetization in the Fenno-
7. Tectonic evolution from the Meso- scandian Shield .......................................648
proterozoic to the Cenozoic ....................587 3. Fennoscandian drift history in the Pre-
7.1. Introduction ....................................587 cambrian ..................................................650
7.2. The intracratonic rift basin stage 3.1. Neoarchean.....................................651
(~16001300 Ma) ..........................588 3.2. Continental rifting at 2.4 Ga ..........652
7.3. Crustal extension episodes and the 3.3. Jatulian rifting and magmatism
Sveconorwegian orogeny (~1300 at 2.22.0 Ga ..................................653
900 Ma) ..........................................589 3.4. Onset of the Svecofennian orogeny
7.4. The Neoproterozoic exhumation at 2.01.9 Ga ..................................654
stage (~900600 Ma) .....................589 3.5. Svecofennian orogeny at
7.5. The stage of platform sedimen- 1.91.8 Ga ......................................654
tation (~600420 Ma) ....................591 3.6. Subjotnian magmatic interval at
7.6. The Caledonian foreland stage 1.651.5 Ga ....................................655
(~420350 Ma) and the final 3.7. Postjotnian time at ~1.26 Ga ..........655
exhumation of the shield ................593 3.8. Dike magmatism at 1.11.0 Ga ......655
7.7. Concluding remarks .......................593 4. Position of the Fennoscandian Shield
in the continental assemblies of the
Precambrian ............................................656
4.1. Early Paleoproterozoic ...................656
x PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND

4.2. Middle Paleoproterozoic ................658 3. Research organizations............................686
4.3. Late Paleoproterozoic ....................659 3.1. From the Geological Commission
4.4. Middle Mesoproterozoic ................660 to the Geological Survey ................686
4.5. Late Mesoproterozoic ....................661 3.2. Universities ....................................687
5. Conclusions .............................................661 3.3. Mining enterprises .........................689
3.4. Other research organizations ..........690
16. Paleoproterozoic carbon isotope 4. Main fields of research ............................691
excursion ................................................669 4.1. Petrology and physical geology......691
(J.A. Karhu) 4.2. Geochemistry and isotope geology 695
1. Introduction .............................................672 4.3. Mineralogy .....................................696
2. Early records ...........................................672 4.4. Economic geology..........................698
3. Fennoscandian 13C data .........................673 5. Synopsis ..................................................699
4. Global 13C data ......................................675
5. Discussion ..............................................676 Contributors .................................................703
6. Conclusions .............................................678
Index of persons and institutions ................707
17. History of Finnish bedrock research ...681
(I. Haapala) Locality index ...............................................709
1. Introduction .............................................684
2. Finnish geology in the 19th century ........684 Subject index ................................................715
PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND xi

xii PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND
PREFACE
The Fennoscandian (or Baltic) Shield represents the largest outcropping domain
of Precambrian bedrock in Europe, covering more than a million km2 throughout
Norway, Sweden, Finland, and northwestern Russia. This book focuses on Fin-
land, which occupies the central part of the shield and which, since the advent
of modern geology in the 19th century, has been instrumental in a number of
fundamental insights and advances in understanding Earth processes. Wilhelm
Ramsay, who was the Professor of Geology and Mineralogy at the University
of Helsinki in 18991928 and who introduced the term Fennoscandia, made
an outstanding contribution to the understanding of alkaline rocks through his
studies of the Devonian Kola province in the northeasternmost part of the shield.
Meanwhile, J.J. Sederholm, Director of the Geological Survey of Finland in
18931933, pioneered the application of actualistic principles to Precambrian
terrains and the systematic study of Precambrian granites, introducing the
concepts of migmatites and anatexis in 1907, and published acclaimed mono-
graphs on orbicular textures and the rapakivi granite association. Pentti Eskola,
who succeeded Ramsay in the Chair of Geology and Mineralogy at Helsinki
in 19291953, is particularly renowned for defining the metamorphic facies
concept, based initially on the Orijrvi district near Helsinki, and which now
underpins studies in metamorphic petrology worldwide.
Further developments in analytical chemistry and elemental and isotope
geochemistry, by Th.G. Sahama and Kalervo Rankama, paved the way for iso-
topic calibration of Precambrian rocks and events, which has been essential to
attaining our present understanding of crustal evolution. Concurrent advances in
geophysical techniques and instrumentation, while driven mainly by exploration
applications, have played an equally significant role in mapping the country
in recent decades, especially in poorly exposed areas, by providing detailed
airborne survey as well as deep seismic sounding data. As a consequence, the
Finnish part of the Fennoscandian Shield can rightfully be considered as one
of the best-documented Precambrian terrains in the world.
This compilation provides the first modern account of the geology of Fin-
land. The seventeen chapters of the book have been written by geologists and
geophysicists who have actively contributed to the research in their respective
fields. In addition to a general overview chapter on the Precambrian of Finland
and an account of the history of Finnish bedrock research, the book contains
twelve chapters on specific lithologic and crustal entities (the Archean in the
eastern part of the country; Paleoproterozoic supracrustal belts, mafic and
PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND xiii

ultramafic intrusions, mafic dike swarms, ophiolites, and granitoid rocks; the
rapakivi granites in their type terrain, and subsequent supracrustal successions
and mafic magmatism; Neoproterozoic/Phanerozoic kimberlites, carbonatites,
and alkaline rocks), as well as chapters on Paleoproterozoic tectonic evolution,
carbon isotope stratigraphy, and the paleomagnetically defined drift history of
the shield. The aim of the book is thus to provide the international geological
community with an up-to-date account of the geologic framework and concep-
tual interpretation of the bedrock of Finland and to serve as a basis for future
research. The book will also be a valuable reference for exploration activities,
which at present are focused on gold, platinum-group metals, nickel, and dia-
monds in particular.
This book would not have been possible without the contribution from
the Geological Society of Finland (the society published a precursor to this
book in Finnish in 19981), the commitment of the authors, and help from de-
voted reviewers (Andrey Bekker, Walter Boyd, Carl Ehlers, Sten-ke Elming,
Roland Gorbatschev, Eero Hanski, Yrj Khknen, Jarmo Kohonen, Asko
Kontinen, Raimo Lahtinen, Laura Lauri, Matti I. Lehtonen, Arto Luttinen,
Hannu Makkonen, Satu Mertanen, Heikki Niini, Hugh OBrien, Richard W.
Ojakangas, Juhani Ojala, Heikki Papunen, Riku Raitala, Peter Sorjonen-Ward,
Matti Vaasjoki, Pr Weihed, Alan Woolley). We would also like to thank Kent
Condie, the Series Editor, for accepting this volume to be included in Elseviers
Developments in Precambrian Geology Series, and Patricia Massar and Friso
Veenstra for excellent collaboration in technical and administrative matters. Our
special thanks go to Sakari Haapaniemi, who patiently manufactured the final
electronic manuscript of the book in the course of an overly long and tedious
editorial process.
Martti Lehtinen Pekka A. Nurmi O. Tapani Rm
1
Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P., Rm, T. (Eds.), 1998. Suomen kallioper3000
vuosimiljoonaa. Geological Society of Finland, Helsinki.
xiv PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND

Chapter 1
OVERVIEW
M. Vaasjoki, K. Korsman, T. Koistinen
1
Cover page: Paleoproterozoic migmatic and gneissic granodiorite containing gabbro fragments cross-
cut by tiny granite pegmatite dikes (in the background). Porkkalanniemi, Kirkkonummi, ~30 km west
of Helsinki. Photo: Jari Vtinen.
2
Vaasjoki, M., Korsman, K., Koistinen, T., 2005. Overview. In:
Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A., Rm, O.T. (Eds.), The Precambrian
Geology of Finland Key to the Evolution of the Fennoscandian
Shield. Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 118.
The bedrock of Finland belongs to the Precambrian East European craton of

northern and eastern Europe and northwestern Russia. Precambrian crystalline
rocks crop out only in the northern and southwestern parts of the craton, in the
Fennoscandian and Ukrainian shields, respectively; elsewhere they are covered
by platform sediments. In Sweden and Norway, the Fennoscandian Shield is
delimited by the Caledonides. In Estonia in the south and Russia in the south-
east, the Precambrian bedrock plunges at a shallow angle under Phanerozoic
sedimentary rocks.
The most important events during the evolution of the Finnish bedrock oc-
curred at 28002700 Ma and 19001800 Ma. In those times, continental crust
was segregated from the Earths mantle in two major (probably multiphase)
orogenies. The resultant Archean and Paleoproterozoic crust of Finland is
divided into 25 areas with characteristic lithologic traits. This chapter gives an
overview of Finlands bedrock and its evolution from the Mesoarchean to the
present time.
CHAPTER 1 OV E RV I E W 3
1. Location, subdivision, timing, and Mesoproterozoic, Neoproterozoic, and Phanero-
general characteristics zoic rocks
Permo-Carboniferous igneous rocks
including the Oslo rift
Finland forms about one third of the Fenno- Vendian to Cambrian and Devonian
scan dian Shield which crops out among alkaline igneous rocks
younger sedimentary rocks and the Cale- Caledonian orogenic belt
donian mountain chain. It can be divided into Lower Paleozoic intrusive rocks
four areas clearly deviating from each other:
Caledonian supracrustal rocks
the Archean, the Svecofennian, and the Sveco-
norwegian domains, and the Transscandina- Fennoscandian Shield
vian igneous belt lying between the latter two Mesoproterozoic to Paleoproterozoic rocks
(Figure 1.1). The northern and eastern parts Supracrustal rocks, predominantly
metasedimentary
of Finland belong to the >2.5 Ga Archean Sveconorwegian igneous and metamor-
domain, divided usually into the Kola and phic rocks
Karelia blocks, while the central and southern Rapakivi granites and coeval igneous
rocks
parts comprise the Svecofennian Paleoprote-
Paleoproterozoic rocks (1.961.75 Ga)
rozoic rocks, 1.931.80 Ga in age. Only a
Migmatizing granites
small part of the Finnish bedrock is younger
than 1.8 Ga; the most significant of the young- TIB 1 and Revsund granites
er formations are the 1.651.54 Ga rapakivi
granites. After the intrusion of the rapakivi Granitoids and metavolcanic rocks
batholiths no major magmatism has occurred Supracrustal rocks
in Finland, but considerable graben forma-
tion took place during the Mesoproterozoic Paleoproterozoic rocks in the LaplandKola
and at least southern Finland was covered by orogen
Granulite, amphibolite, anorthosite
PaleozoicMesozoic sediments.
The first isotope datings from Finland Paleoproterozoic rocks (2.501.96 Ga)
were carried by Olavi Kouvo during his stay Intrusive rocks, mainly mafic and ultra-
in the United States in the mid-1950s, and his mafic
Supracrustal rocks
doctoral thesis (1958) caused a fundamental
change in the understanding of the Finnish Archean rocks
Precambrian. It had been generally accepted TTG-complex
that there were two great Precambrian oroge-
nies in Finland: the older Svecofennian and the Greenstone belts
younger Karelian, but Kouvos results showed
that the lithologic units associated with these
orogenies were in fact coeval and that the
granite-gneiss domain northeast of Karelides
was much older than the southwestern part of
the country. The existence of an ancient plate
boundary along the RaaheLadoga zone be- terminations and other isotope measurements
came an accepted fact, not a mere working hy- has steadily increased. Figure 1.2 depicts the
pothesis, during the 1960s (Simonen, 1971). current data base for igneous rocks on chrono-
The laboratory for isotope geology at the grams, where the age results are plotted simply
Geological Survey of Finland was established in an ascending order. On this kind of pre-
in 1964, and since then the amount of age de- sentation, plateaus represent clusters in ages,
4 C H A P T E R 1 OV E RV I E W
Kola Block
D Karelia Block
B
Svecofennian
TIB
C
Sveconorwegian
F
N
W E
TIB
S
300 0 300 600 km
Fig. 1.1. Simplified geological map of the Fennoscandian Shield after Koistinen et al. (2001). TIB de-
notes the Transscandinavian igneous belt. The subdivisions of the Svecofennian are: (A) The Primitive
arc complex of central Finland; (B) The Accretionary arc complex of central and western Finland; (C)
The Accretionary arc complex of southern Finland; (D) The Skellefte district; (E) The Bothnian basin;
and (F) The Bergslagen district.
while gaps indicate times with no significant the Geological Survey of Finland.
igneous activity. The data are mainly based The border zone between the Archean
on U-Pb zircon analyses, but include also and Paleoproterozoic rocks is sharp and has
baddeleyite and columbite U-Pb data as well been accurately delineated by geological,
as some Sm-Nd results. Details of the data isotope geological, and geophysical methods.
compilation can be obtained on request from Archean rocks are found in northern and
eastern Finland, whereas the bedrock of central
and southern Finland consists of rocks of the
Svecofennian. The latter are divided on the
current 1:1,000,000 bedrock map [Korsman
et al., 1997; based on the 1:400,000 (whole
country) and the 1:100,000 mapping (~2/3
of the country) as well as abundant special
studies] into the primitive, central Finland
and southern Finland arc complexes. Paleopro-
terozoic metasedimentary and metavolcanic
rocks cover large areas of the Archean domain,
which is also penetrated by 2.52.0 Ga, mainly
mafic igneous rocks emplaced while the Arch-
ean crust was rifted and eroded. There is no
sign of a major inherited Archean component
within the igneous rocks of the Svecofennian
domain, which has led to the conclusion that
the Svecofennian bedrock represents new
continental crust segregated from the mantle
(Huhma, 1986). The Lapland granulite belt
in northern Finland is a geologically sig-
nificant formation, which has been thrusted
from lower continental crust into its present
environment.
In the early 1980s evidence on plate
tectonic activity in early Precambrian times
was insufficient. When the almost completely
preserved 1950 Ma ophiolite at Jormua in east-
central Finland was discovered in the 1980s, it
constituted strong evidence for the operation
of plate tectonic processes already in Paleo-
proterozoic times (Kontinen, 1987).
Within the Svecofennian island arc sys-
tems an unusually large amount of granites
formed and the upper parts of the crust reached
a high temperature. This caused an intense
metamorphism of the volcanic and sedimenta-
Fig. 1.2. Chronograms showing published U-Pb
ry rocks. In its course, the rocks partly melted
zircon and baddeleyite ages from igneous rocks
and migmatites were formed. Thus migmatites
in Finland (data compiled at the Geological Sur-
vey of Finland; details available from the Survey and granites are the most widespread rocks in
upon request). The results of these analyses are southern Finland. According to J.J. Sederholm,
interpreted as indicating the times of intrusion about 53% of the Finnish bedrock are granites
or extrusion of the rocks. and about 22% migmatites. Mafic igneous
rocks, schists, quartzites, and limestones form
a relatively small fraction. Metavolcanic rocks
are more frequent in Lapland than in southern
Finland. of both ages, and at lest some of these are
The Precambrian mountain chains of the Proterozoic and were deposited upon Archean
Fennoscandian Shield have been leveled a crust. Gabbros and granodiorites of 1.951.93
long time ago and only ~3% of the bedrock Ga age are found as conformable bodies in the
is directly visible. Therefore, it has been Proterozoic gneisses.
difficult to delineate the continuity of rock
formations and to obtain a three dimensional 2. Lapland granulite belt. The rocks of the
picture of the bedrock by geological methods belt are felsic, generally intensely deformed
alone. The mapping and study of the bedrock garnet and pyroxene gneisses that have been
is assisted by high quality geophysical data metamorphosed at granulite facies. The gneis-
(Figures 1.3 and 1.4) and has required close ses are migmatitic especially in the center of
collaboration between geophysicist and bed- the belt. Mafic, pyroxene-bearing 1.931.91
rock geologists. Ga igneous rocks of are found as elongate
bodies among the gneisses.
2. Regional geographic 3. Enonteki area. The northwestern part,

nomenclature divided by a broken line, is covered by Cale-
donian assemblages. The Archean rocks in the
As probably in most other countries, Finn- northwest are granitoid gneisses with small
ish geological literature is plagued by a greenstone belts and ultramafic bodies. The
multitude of regional names, often used for Proterozoic rocks in the southeast are mafic
overlapping areas and sometimes with con- and felsic volcanic rocks as well as arkosic
flicting meanings. In this volume an attempt rocks and quartzites that are crosscut by ~1.88
has been made towards consistency in this Ga monzonites and granodiorites.
respect, and it has been chosen to apply the
terminology proposed by an ad hoc working 4. Central Lapland area. In the northeast-
group (Nironen et al., 2002; Figure 1.5). It ern part of the belt there are felsic gneisses
should be emphasized, that the names are and amphibolites that are considered Archean.
lithological-geographical and do not have a Moreover, Archean (3.12.7 Ga) gneisses
genetic connotation, hence rocks of similar are found as tectonic windows among the
age and origin may be found in several areas. Proterozoic assemblages. In the eastern part,
The names were given according to the old- there are maficultramafic layered intrusions
est rocks, generally supracrustal ones, in each with an age range of 2.442.05 Ga. Most
area. Belt defines an area with linear shape of the Proterozoic supracrustal rocks were
and internal structures, and complex means deposited upon Archean crust. Lowermost
a fault-bounded part of bedrock, or an igne- in the sequence are mafic volcanic rocks,
ous complex. The areas cover the Archean and overlain by arkosic rocks and mica schists.
Paleoproterozoic bedrock; Mesoproterozoic Two groups of mafic volcanic rocks, with an
and younger lithologic units are separated by age range of 2.12.0 Ga, constitute the large
broken lines in Figure 1.5. A short description greenstone belt in the western part of the belt:
of each area is given below. the first were erupted in a rift zone and the
second upon oceanic crust. These rocks are
1. Inari area. The area consists of para- crosscut by ~1.88 Ga monzonites and grano-
and orthogneisses that are Archean (2.72.6 diorites. Quartz arenites and conglomerates
Ga) in the east and Proterozoic in the west. were deposited after 1.88 Ga in the southern
Greenstone belts are found among gneisses part of the belt.
Fig. 1.3. Generalized aeromagnetic map of Finland after Ruotoistenmki (1992).
Undefined
0 100 200 km
Fig. 1.4. Generalized gravity anomaly map of Finland after Elo (1992).
1
3 2
4
5
7 8
15
12
14
16
10 11
21
17 13
20 18
19
22
23
24
25
Fig. 1.5. The geographic distribution of various geological regions of Finland according to Nironen et
al. (2002). Note that the divisions have been arrived at on lithological and geographic grounds only
and bear no genetic connotations.
5. Eastern Lapland complex. The Archean amphibolitic migmatites metamorphosed at
complex mainly consists of 2.82.7 Ga tona- high grade in large areas. The complex also
litic gneisses. In addition to these gneisses contains Archean paragneisses and an Archean
there is a belt of gneissic sedimentary rocks carbonatite complex. Proterozoic granites and
and several greenstone belts, consisting of diabase dikes have intruded the gneisses, and
ultramafic and mafic volcanic rocks as well as Proterozoic deformation and alteration have
sedimentary rocks. Archean granitoid intru- locally strongly overprinted the gneisses.
sions crosscut the gneisses.
11. Eastern Finland complex. This large
6. Central Lapland granitoid complex. complex mainly consists of 2.852.69 Ga
This poorly studied complex mainly consists granitoids and migmatites. In addition, there
of 1.8 Ga granites that migmatize and cross- are paragneiss-dominated areas as well as sev-
cut mica schists and arkosic gneisses. There eral greenstone belts. Proterozoic granites and
are also Proterozoic mafic plutonic rocks diabase dikes have intruded the gneisses, and
and remnants of Archean gneisses within the Proterozoic deformation and alteration have
complex. locally caused strong overprinting especially
in the western part of the complex.
7. Perpohja belt. The rocks of this belt
were deposited and extruded upon Archean 12. Kuhmo belt. The greenstone belt con-
crust. There is a swarm of 2.44 Ga mafic lay- sists mainly of volcanic rocks. The marginal
ered intrusions along the southern boundary. parts consist of 2.97 Ga mafic and intermedi-
The rest of the belt consists of mica schists ate volcanic rocks, and 2.79 Ga mafic lavas
and quartzites with dolomites, metaconglo- with ultramafic parts and iron-formations as
merates, black schists, and mafic volcanic well as interlayers of mica schist are found in
rocks as interlayers. These rocks are crosscut the central parts.
by ~1.88 Ga monzonites.
13. Ilomantsi belt. The greenstone belt is
8. Kuusamo belt. The central part of the part of a larger belt that extends to Russia. The
belt is occupied by 2.44 Ga intermediate and predominant and oldest rocks are 2.752.70
felsic volcanic rocks, followed by mafic and Ga old and of sedimentary origin. Iron-for-
ultramafic volcanic rocks. The mafic rocks mations are found higher in the sequence,
in the southern part were deposited upon Ar- and mafic lavas are the youngest rocks of the
chean crust. They contain sericite and mica belt.
schist as well as carbonate rocks as interlayers,
and on top of the strata there are quartzites as 14. Kainuu belt. The eastern part of the
a thick pile. belt mainly consists of autochthonous mafic
volcanic rocks and conglomerates overlain by
9. Pudasjrvi complex. This poorly known quartzites. The latter are unconformably over-
complex consists of Archean gneisses and lain by mica schists with metaconglomerates,
granitoids as well as amphibolites that are iron-formations, and black schists as interlay-
presumably remnants of Archean greenstone ers. Highest in the strata are homogeneous
belts. Proterozoic granites and diabase dikes mica schists. Part of the mica schists as well
have intruded the gneisses. as the 1.95 Ga Jormua ophiolite complex are
allochthonous.
10. Iisalmi complex. The complex con-
sists of 3.22.6 Ga tonalitic gneisses and 15. Kiiminki belt. The metasediment-dom-
inated belt contains conglomerates and arkosic 20. Central Finland granitoid complex.
rocks lowermost in the sequence. These are The complex consists of 1.891.88 Ga syn-
followed by a thick pile of turbiditic gray- kinematic tonalites, granodiorites, and gran-
wackes, and on top there are mafic volcanic ites, and 1.881.86 Ga postkinematic quartz
rocks with quartzites, black schists, dolomite monzonites and granites. In addition, there
rocks, and iron-formations as interlayers. are minor areas of subvolcanic intermediate
rocks, mafic igneous rocks, and remnants of
16. Savo belt. The belt is characterized by supracrustal belts.
numerous shear zones. The predominant rocks
are mica gneisses, which contain volcanic 21. Pohjanmaa belt. The predominant
rocks, graphite schists, black schists, and car- rocks are turbiditic mica schists and gneisses,
bonate rocks as interlayers. The volcanic rocks with mafic and intermediate volcanic rocks,
in the center of the belt consist of two groups: black schists, metacherts, and carbonate rocks
a 1.92 Ga bimodal group, and a 1.891.88 Ga as interlayers. The conglomerates and arkosic
maficintermediate group. 1.92 Ga gneissic rocks in the northern part represent the young-
tonalites and 1.891.88 Ga granitoids are also est sedimentation in the belt. Metamorphic
found within this belt. grade increases in the center of the belt toward
granulite facies. Granitoids of 1.88 Ga age
17. Hytiinen belt. The northeastern part crosscut the supracrustal rocks.
of the belt consists of autochthonous or par-
autochthonous conglomerates, arkosic rocks, 22. Tampere belt. The belt consists of
and quartzites. The main part is dominated by 1.901.88 Ga intermediate and felsic volcanic
turbiditic mica schists with some interlayers of rocks as well as turbiditic mica schists with
conglomerates and mafic volcanic rocks. conglomerate interlayers. Mafic volcanic
rocks are found lowest and highest in the
18. Outokumpu area. The predominant sequence. Granitoids of 1.88 Ga age crosscut
rocks are homogeneous, turbiditic mica schists the supracrustal rocks.
that contain interlayers of black schists. The
rocks are migmatitic mica gneisses in the 23. Pirkanmaa belt. The belt mainly con-
southwestern part of the area. The 1.97 Ga sists of migmatitic, turbiditic mica gneisses
Outokumpu association, consisting of lens- with black schists and graphite-bearing schists
oid serpentinite bodies, carbonates, skarns, as interlayers. Mafic and ultramafic plutonic
and sulfide mineralization, is in the center of rocks as well as 1.88 Ga granitoids crosscut
the area. The whole-rock sequence is alloch- the supracrustal rocks.
thonous.
24. Hme belt. The belt is characterized
19. Saimaa area. The predominant rocks by volcanic rocks which may be grouped
in the area are turbiditic mica schists that grade into older, of intermediate and younger, of
into migmatitic mica gneisses and garnet-cor- maficintermediate composition. The western
dierite gneisses toward south. Mafic volcanic part of the belt is dominated by metasedimen-
rocks are found mainly in the northern part of tary rocks. 1.88 Ga granitoids of as well as
the area. Crosscutting 1.891.88 Ga granitoids 1.841.82 Ga granites crosscut and migmatize
are found throughout the area. Moreover, the supracrustal rocks.
1.841.81 Ga granites migmatize and crosscut
the supracrustal rocks in the southern part. 25. Uusimaa belt. This sedimentary-
dominated belt contains mica schists and
gneisses with relatively common carbonate 4. Faulting of Archean crust and
rock inter layers. Also felsic sedimentary emplacement of Paleoproterozoic
rocks of volcanic provenance are typical of cover rocks
the belt. The volcanic rocks are generally
maficintermediate in composition, but in When the Archean orogenic movements
the western part of the belt volcanism was ceased, there commenced a period of pene-
bimodal. Granitoids of 1.88 Ga age as well as planation, which lasted for several hundred
1.841.82 Ga granites crosscut and migmatize million years. However, crustal scale faulting
the supracrustal rocks. with associated volcanic activity and forma-
tion of sedimentary basins occurred within
the eroding and peneplaning Archean crust.
3. The Archean bedrock A characteristic feature are numerous 2.44 Ga
layered mafic intrusions in northern Finland
The oldest rocks in Finland lie within the and northwestern Russia.
Archean domain in the eastern and northern The faulting started to ease up about 2.4
parts of the country, and several occurrences Ga ago. At this time, weathering was well-ad-
of rocks older than 3 Ga are known. However, vanced and the Archean bedrock was in many
they are all of local nature and lie widely places covered by quartz sands, which later
dispersed from each other with emplacement formed the so-called Jatulian quartzites. Vol-
ages ranging from 3.1 to 3.5 Ga (Figure 1.2). canic activity occurred also during the Jatulian
The oldest known rock is trondhjemite gneiss period, and is manifested as mafic lava flows
found at Siurua, where ionprobe results from and numerous diabase dikes that penetrated
zircons, supported by conventional zircon data the Archean and its cover rocks 2.21.97 Ga
and Sm-Nd whole-rock data, indicate an intru- ago. The cratonization of the Archean bedrock
sion age of ~3.5 Ga (Mutanen and Huhma, over a period of 500 Ma is especially diversely
2003). There are, however, indirect Sm-Nd and observable in Lapland.
common lead indications suggesting that the Fundamental atmospheric changes oc-
3.5 Ga crust in Finland may have been more curred at the same time as the rifting phase of
wide-spread. the Archean continent ended. For the evolu-
Greenstone belts formed by volcanic and tion of life most important was the increase
sedimentary rocks are characteristic of all of the oxygen contents of the atmosphere
Archean terranes of the world. The mainly 2.8 almost to its present level about 2.1 Ga ago.
Ga old greenstone belts especially in eastern This information, relevant to the evolution of
Finland have been compressed into narrow the entire Earth, has been obtained by careful
sequences between Archean granitoid rocks, stratigraphic and isotope geological studies
which are mainly ~2.7 Ga granodiorites and of the Finnish Karelian formations (Karhu,
gneissose tonalites. This period of evolution 1993).
is well evident in the isotope ages (Figure
1.2), although ion microprobe data suggest
that some rocks both in the Suomussalmi 5. The Svecofennian bedrock
and Ilomantsi areas contain also inherited
zircons older than 3 Ga. A peculiarity of the The Jormua ophiolite demonstrates that oce-
Finnish Archean is the 2610 Ma carbonatite anic mantle had formed and plate tectonics
at Siilinjrvi, one of the oldest of its kind in operated at least 1950 Ma ago, but, accord-
the world. ing to some interpretations, some kind of
primitive Svecofennian continent may have
formed already 2.1 Ga ago. However, so far continent. During the collision and the ensu-
no continental crust of that age has been found ing tectonic thickening, molten rock material
within the Fennoscandian Shield. The only was injected into the collision zone from the
indications are the zircon age distribution underlying mantle. The mantle-derived mag-
of younger metasedimentary rocks, Sm-Nd ma caused melting of the lower crust, which
model ages, and some geochemical features lead to the intrusion of magmas close to the
suggesting that Svecofennian granites may then existing erosional level. Thus the tem-
have resulted from remelting of older crust, perature even in the upper parts of the crust
perhaps 2.1 Ga in age. was raised, leading to recrystallization and
The oldest Svecofennian volcanic rocks partial melting of rocks. The metamorphism
of primitive island arc type and associated and the magmatism generated from the lower
gneisses are 19301920 Ma old and occur crust are coeval at ~1885 Ma in the collision
along the ArcheanProterozoic boundary in zone between the Archean and Svecofennian
central Finland. Observations from the Lap- domains. After this strong pulse of magmatism
land granulite complex indicate, however, that and recrystallization, cooling commenced
subduction was already occurring in that area, within the collision zone.
as the ocean in the (present) north had already The collision of the Svecofennian island
closed and the granulites were being thrust arc complex also affected the cratonized Ar-
from lower crustal levels into their present chean continent. Easily observed evidence
geological environment. This belt, called the about the reactivation of the Archean continen-
LaplandKola orogen, formed more or less si- tal crust during the Svecofennian orogeny are
multaneously with the Svecofennian orogeny, found up to 150 km from the collision zone:
and extends from the granulite belt in Finland 1.91.86 Ga rocks with Archean Nd isotope
to the southern part of the Kola Peninsula. signature, titanite and monazite U-Pb ages in
Evolved island arc volcanic rocks and the 1.91.8 Ga range, and reset biotite K-Ar
associated metasediments in central and ages in Archean granitoids.
southern Finland are 19101890 Ma old. A The migmatite-forming lateorogenic
particularly well-known volcano-sedimen- microcline granites in southern Finland form
tary entity is the Tampere schist belt, where large, sheet-like bodies with usually diffuse
systematic studies have been carried out for contacts. They are about 1.83 Ga old, and their
over 100 years. Primary structures of the emplacement was associated either with the
volcanic and sedimentary rocks have been extensional collapse of Svecofennian orogen
preserved at many locations within the belt, or transpressional faulting. In any case, the
facilitating conclusions on the origin of rock migmatization of the Svecofennian bedrock
formations. in southern Finland is best regarded as a quite
The Svecofennian crust is exception- separate event from the main phase of the
ally thick, up to 65 km in the Paleoprotero- Svecofennian orogeny.
zoicArchean boundary zone. The crust was A special feature of the Svecofennian is
thickened first during the collision when the also the survival of the 65 km thick crust,
newly created crustal plates were thrust upon as the usual thickness of continental crust is
each other. There is little reliable informa- about 40 km. Crust thickened during a colli-
tion on the incipient part of the collision and sion of continents is in a disequilibrium. The
its beginning can be timed only indirectly at light crust returns to equilibrium either by
about 19101900 Ma. It had concluded 1870 uplift or collapse, as is the case in the Pha-
Ma ago, because at that time the Svecofennian nerozoic mountain chains. There are signs
bedrock was already attached to the Archean of an incipient collapse within the Svecofen-
nian, but the process was left incomplete, as tially, into a bedrock on which the so-called
the light crust thickened by the collision was Jotnian sediments had started to deposit in
quickly stabilized by magmatism originated topographic shallows. The deepening of basins
in the mantle. Due to this unusually quick and sedimentation continued still long after
isostatic equilibration the thick crust became the rapakivi magmatism. The Jotnian sand-
permanent. It is still thick, although erosion and claystones are preserved on the continent
has removed the top 15 km! at Muhos and Satakunta, and the Satakunta
The orogenic movements waned in south- sandstones continue into the Gulf of Bothnia
ern Finland about 1.8 Ga ago. As the bedrock covering large submerged areas. The Jotnian
cooled, fissures opened and made way for sedimentary rocks are cut by 1.26 Ga tholeiitic
deep-seated magmas, which crystallized in (Postjotnian) diabase dikes and sills. However,
the upper crust as the so-called postorogenic a recent result from the Valamo (Valaam) sill
(1.811.77 Ga) granites. in the Ladoga basin, 1.46 Ga, suggests that
this continental sedimentation at least in that
area was well advanced much earlier on than
6. Rapakivi magmatism and the belived so far. In Lapland, there are young dike
Jotnian period rocks in local rifts: 1100 Ma at Salla and 1000
Ma at Laanila. These represent the youngest
A period of 150 Ma of geological quiescence parts of the Finnish bedrock, because only
followed after the emplacement of the post- rocks which were deposited or crystallized
orogenic granites. There are very few signs before the Vendian period (>650 Ma ago) are
of strong bedrock movements from this time, considered bedrock.
which indicates that the crust was being pe-
neplaned through erosion. The quiescence
terminated when the rapakivi granites intruded 7. The Vendian period and the
into the rigid bedrock 16501540 Ma ago. Paleozoic era
More than ten rapakivi intrusions, often
with associated gabbroic and anorthositic At the beginning of the Vendian period (~650
rocks, are known in southern Finland. The Ma ago) the Finnish bedrock had been eroded
largest are the Wiborg, land, Laitila, and almost to its present level. Shallow-water
Vehmaa batholiths. Coeval with the rapakivi sandstones were deposited on the continental
granites are tholeiitic (Subjotnian) diabase peneplane. Cambrian sandstone is found in fis-
dikes. sures in the southwest Finnish archipelago, at
Rapakivi granites are not limited to the Lauhanvuori in northern Satakunta, and at Sul-
Finnish bedrock. They are found in all Precam- va (Sderfjrden) south of Vaasa. At Lumparn
brian shield areas, but the origin of the rapakivi in the land Islands Ordovician limestones are
magmas as remelted lower continental crust known. At Muhos, the sedimentation, which
has been successfully explained in Finland had started in Jotnian times, lasted into the
(Rm, 1991). According to the prevailing beginning of the Vendian period. Alkaline ig-
view, the formation of rapakivi granites was neous rocks (e.g., kimberlites) were emplaced
not a direct consequence of the Svecofennian in eastern Finland at ~600 Ma.
orogeny. Some scientists have, however, con- The Paleozoic sediments deposited west of
sidered the formation of rapakivi granites to Fennoscandia were folded against the craton
reflect the last phase of the stabilization of the 450400 Ma ago. An overthrusted nappe of the
Svecofennian crust. Caledonides has been found in Finland only
Rapakivi granites intruded, at least par- in the far northwestern part of the country.
Other effects of the Caledonian orogeny on the postglacial isostatic uplift result in tensions
the Finnish bedrock are not well known. The within the bedrock which trigger earthquakes.
370360 Ma alkaline intrusions at Iivaara The tremors are, however, so mild that they
and Sokli may have a causal relationship to damage buildings or cause any alarm only in
the Caledonian orogeny, and faulting is likely exceptional circumstances.
to have occurred in the foreland of the Cale- Generally, recognizable traces of asteroids
donides, i.e., in Finland. have survived only locally. There are at least
ten positively identified impact craters in
Finland, of which Lappajrvi (impact at 75
8. Late events affecting the Ma), Sderfjrden (~530510 Ma), Sksjrvi
bedrock (~515 Ma), Lumparn, Karikkoselk, Suvas-
vesi, and Paasselk are the most widely known
Although movements strongly affecting the (e.g., Lehtinen, 1976; Pesonen et al., 2000).
bedrock waned decisively already ~1.8 Ga The main features of the Finnish bedrock
ago, many shear zones remained active for are ancient. As in many other Precambrian
hundreds of millions of years after the Sveco- shield areas (e.g., Canada, Greenland, China)
fennian orogeny. Some of them are weakly they were formed principally during late
active even today, although the amount of Archean and early Proterozoic times. Thus
movement is relatively small. detailed results from the Fennoscandian Shield
The Svecofennian metasedimentary and often have also a global bearing, which is one
metavolcanic rocks were deposited 1890 Ma the reasons for the compilation of the present
ago, but subsided within a few million years to volume.
a depth of about 20 km within the crust, which
demonstrates the rapidity of changes during
ancient plate collisions. The present erosional References
level lay at a depth of 15 km even 1.8 Ga ago.
The denudation which brought the Svecofen- Elo, S., 1992. Painovoima-anomaliakartat - Grav-
nian metavolcanic and metasedimentary rocks ity anomaly maps. In: T. Koljonen (Ed.),
Suomen geokemian atlas. Osa 2: Moreeni
back to surface lasted at least 200 Ma, as the
The Geochemical Atlas of Finland. Part 2:
intrusion of the rapakivi granites into the upper
Till. Geol. Surv. Finland, Espoo. 7075.
crust occurred at a depth of ~5 km. The present Huhma, H., 1986. Sm-Nd, U-Pb and Pb-Pb isotopic
erosional level had been definitely reached at evidence for the origin of the early Protero-
the onset of the Cambrian period about 600 zoic Svecokarelian crust in Finland. Geol.
Ma ago, as is demonstrated by the deposition Surv. Finland, Bull. 337, 148.
of Cambrian sandstones and their preservation Karhu, J.A., 1993. Paleoproterozoic evolution of
in bedrock cracks. the carbon isotope ratios of sedimentary
The Pleistocene continental glaciation carbonates in the Fennoscandian Shield.
eroded the bedrock mainly by polishing the Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 371, 187.
weathering surfaces and sharpening the shear Koistinen, T., Stephens, M.B., Bogatchev, V., Nord-
zones. Preglacial weathering surfaces formed gulen, ., Wennerstrm, M., Korhonen,
J. (Comps.), 2001. Geological map of the
before the glaciation have survived in a few
Fennoscandian Shield 1:2 000 000. Espoo :
places only, most notably in Lapland. The
Trondheim : Uppsala : Moscow; Geol. Surv.
shallow Finnish lakes are found mainly in Finland : Geol. Surv. Norway : Geol. Surv.
shear zones dredged deeper by the continental Sweden : Min. Nat. Res. Russia.
ice sheet. Kontinen, A., 1987. An early Proterozoic ophiolite
The widening of the Atlantic Ocean and the Jormua mafic-ultramafic complex,
northern Finland. Precambrian Res. 35, 2000. Meteorite impact structures in Fenno-
313341. scandia a new look at the database. In:
Korsman, K., Koistinen, T., Kohonen, J., Wenner- J. Plado, L.J. Pesonen (Eds.), Meteorite
strm, M., Ekdahl, E., Honkamo, M., Id- Impacts in Precambrian Shields. Program-
man, H., Pekkala, Y. (Eds.), 1997. Suomen me and Abstracts, the 4th Workshop of
kallioperkartta - Berggrundskarta ver the European Science Foundation Impact
Finland - Bedrock map of Finland 1:1 000 Programme, Lappajrvi - Karikkoselk
000. Geol. Surv. Finland, Espoo. - Sksjrvi, Finland, May 24-28, 2000.
Kouvo, O., 1958. Radioactive age of some Finnish Geol. Surv. Finland and University of Hel-
Precambrian minerals. Bull. Comm. gol. sinki. 20 p.
Finlande 182, 170. Rm, O.T., 1991. Petrogenesis of the Proterozoic
Lehtinen, M., 1976. Lake Lappajrvi, a meteorite rapakivi granites and related basic rocks of
impact site in western Finland. Geol. Surv. southeastern Fennoscandia: Nd and Pb iso-
Finland, Bull. 282, 192. topic and general geochemical constraints.
Mutanen, T,. Huhma, H., 2003. The 3,5 Ga Siurua Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 355, 1161.
trondhjemite gneiss in the Archaean Pudas- Ruotoistenmki, T., 1992. Magneettiset anomalia-
jrvi Granulite Belt, northern Finland. Bull. kartat - Magnetic anomaly maps. In: T.
Geol. Soc. Finland 75, 5168 Koljonen (Ed.), Suomen geokemian atlas.
Nironen, M., Lahtinen, R., Koistinen, T., 2002. Suo- Osa 2: Moreeni - The Geochemical Atlas
men geologiset aluenimet yhtenisempn of Finland. Part 2: Till. Geol. Surv. Finland,
nimikytntn! Summary: Subdivision of Espoo. 7679.
Finnish bedrock an attempt to harmonize Simonen, A., 1971. Das finnische Grundgebirge.
terminology. Geologi 54 (1), 814. Geol. Rundschau 60 (4), 14061421.
.Pesonen, L.J., Abels, A., Lehtinen, M., Plado, J.,
Chapter 2
ARCHEAN ROCKS
P. Sorjonen-Ward, E.J. Luukkonen

Cover page: Archean banded iron-formation. Ukkolanvaara, Ilomantsi.
Photo: Peter Sorjonen-Ward.
Sorjonen-Ward, P., Luukkonen, E.J, 2005. Archean rocks.In:
Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A., Rm, O.T. (Eds.), Precambrian
There have been few attempts in recent years to synthesize the nature and evolu-
tion of the Archean geological record in Finland. Therefore, the main purpose of
this review is to describe the principal features of the Archean bedrock in Fin-
land as currently known, primarily in terms of lithological units and structures.
Through comparisons with the Proterozoic record of Finland, we then briefly
consider whether the Archean bedrock of Finland reflects a distinctive style of
crustal evolution, related to secular variations in thermal regime and rates of
crustal growth and recycling. We are therefore also concerned with attempting
to discriminate between processes relating to crustal formation and those that
rework existing crust. For example, is the evolution of high-grade terrains in
the deep crust level necessarily coeval with and complementary to lower grade
supracrustal units, as for example in paired metamorphic belts in modern con-
vergent accretionary settings? Alternatively, does the pattern of metamorphic
grade represent a direct consequence of vertical crustal differentiation related
to thermal and gravitational instability? Does crustal zonation with depth differ
from that of younger continental crust and to what extent has the existence of
Archean lithosphere predetermined subsequent crustal development?
Although this review commences with brief descriptions of each of the
various Archean rock units currently recognized, including a discussion of age
relationships and possible correlations, we concentrate on those areas that are
best known and which have begun to yield useful insights into Archean crustal
processes. We conclude with a discussion of Archean thermal regimes and
their tectonic consequences, the stabilization of the shield, and some regional
scenarios and correlations, including a comparison between Archean and Pa-
leoproterozoic crustal proceses in the Fennoscandian Shield.
CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 21

1. Introduction to the Archean of large crustal domains the Kola, Karelian,
Finland and Svecofennian domains (Figure 2.1A).
These three crustal units have shared a com-
1.1. The extent of the Archean in mon history since amalgamation at about 1.8
Finland Ga. The Karelian domain is the largest unit,
forming a coherent late Archean (3.22.7 Ga)
Although the distribution and nature of Ar- cratonic nucleus exceeding 200 000 km2 in
chean rock types in Finland has been relatively area in eastern Finland and adjacent Russia
well defined from regional reconnaissance (Figure 2.1B and 2.2). The Karelian domain
scale mapping, a systematic framework for un- is flanked to the northeast by the Kola domain,
derstanding Archean crustal evolution has yet which represents a complex tectonic collage of
to emerge. Indeed, in some cases there is still Archean and early Proterozoic terranes, and to
uncertainty over the age affinities of rock units. the southwest by the essentially Paleoprotero-
This applies particularly to extensive tracts of zoic Svecofennian domain (Figures 2.1A and
migmatitic gneisses intruded by Svecofennian B). The Karelian domain is characterized by a
potassic granite neosomes in the northern part number of narrow northerly trending low-pres-
of the country (Vaasjoki et al., 2001), as well sure greenstone and metasedimentary belts
as some metasedimentary complexes that (Figures 2.1B and 2.2), intruded by discrete
contain exclusively Archean detrital zircons, plutons of dominantly granodioritic to monzo-
but otherwise show evidence for reworking or granitic compositions. Higher grade medium-
partial melting during the Svecofennian orog- pressure metasedimentary gneiss complexes
eny (Huhma et al., 2000). Detailed studies ad- are also present, some of which represent older
dressing generic issues of crustal evolution are relict enclaves with younger migmatites, while
few and restricted largely to lower grade su- others appear to be coeval with the greenstone
pracrustal greenstone belts which, by analogy sequences. The Archean of the Kola domain
with similar terrains elsewhere, are considered includes granitoid gneisses, migmatites,
prospective for komatiite-hosted nickel and char nockites, aluminous metasedimentary
orogenic lode gold deposits. For example, a rocks, and iron-formations (Merilinen, 1976;
comprehensive commodity database for gold Gal et al., 1989; Rundquist and Mitrofanov,
in Finland, prepared by Eilu (1999) includes 1993), and also a distinctive suite of alkaline
attribute information for all known Archean intrusions and gabbroanorthosite intrusions
occurrences and their geological context. In (Zozulya et al., 2001).
recent years attempts have also been made to The nature and age of the boundary zone
understand the composition, thermal structure between the Kola and Karelian domains in
and evolution of the deeper crust and mantle Russia has long been contentious, largely
lithosphere through seismic and other geo- due to the presence of both Archean and
physical techniques and by studying exposed Proterozoic isotope ages from medium- to
higher grade terrains (Hltt, 1997; Hltt high-pressure gneisses of the intervening Be-
and Paavola, 2000; Hltt et al., 2000a,b) as lomorian terrain (Figure 2.1A) (named from
well as xenolith suites sampled by Paleozoic the Russian term for the White Sea). Intense
kimberlites (Kukkonen and Peltonen, 1999; deformation and medium-pressure metamor-
Hltt et al., 2001). phism in unequivocally Proterozoic rocks, and
It is convenient, as first suggested by widespread thermal resetting of U-Pb isotopes
Gal and Gorbatschev (1987), to consider in titanites, demonstrate significant tectonic
the Archean and Paleoproterozoic history of and thermal reworking of the Belomorian ter-
the Fennoscandian Shield in terms of three rain between 1.91.8 Ga, which is attributed
22 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

0 100 200
en km Post-Archean rocks
fot Bar
Lo ent Phanerozoic sedimentary
s Se rocks
AY Murmansk
a
RW Proterozoic and Caledonian
O orogenic domains
N
RUSSIA Archean crustal domains
Kola domain
SWEDEN
Rovaniemi Karelian domain
Belomorian terrain
Exposed Archean rocks in
Lule Sweden and Norway
Boundary zone between
nia Kola and Karelian domains
th
Bo Boundary between Karelian
of
ulf Kuopio
and Svecofennian domains
G Limit of isotopically defined
Archean crust in Sweden
Petrozavodsk
FINLAND Figure 2.12 B
32 E
Helsinki 66 N
A Kemi
Figure 2.10
Oulu
Post-Archean rocks Figure 2.9
Svecofennian orogenic domain
Kajaani
Paleoproterozoic sequences Kuhmo
within Karelian domain Figure 2.5
Archean Karelian domain

Iisalmi
Granitoids, migmatites, and
high-grade gneisses
Lower grade supracrustal belts Kuopio
Belomorian terrain Joensuu
32 E
Significant Svecofennian 62 N
tectonic overprint 0 50 100
km
Fig. 2.1. Regional distribution of Archean rocks in the Fennoscandian Shield. (A) Principal crustal
domains. (B) Distribution of greenstone belts and granitoid terrains within the Karelian domain in
eastern Finland and adjacent Russia, showing locations of more detailed regional scale maps.

Kuusamo
Oi
Koillismaa NORWAY Srvaranger
Kemi
Inari
Ranua
Pudasjrvi Inari RUSSIA
Suo Ivalo
mmnsaari
RUSSIA Ropi Pomokaira
Muonio
Kianta Kittil Tuntsa
Kuh Sodankyl
Kuhmo SWEDEN Savukoski
Napapiiri
Tip Suomu
Iisalmi Rovaniemi
Nurmes Kuusamo
Iisalmi Rautavaara Lieksa Ranua
Siilinjrvi Hat
Nun
Kaavi Fig. 2.3. Archean terrains in northern Finland,
Kuopio Kov as defined and described in this review.
0 100 200 Joensuu
Ilomantsi
km
within the Karelian domain. On this basis,
Fig. 2. 2. Supracrustal greenstone belts and
the granitoid gneisses exposed as basement
respective terrains within the Karelian domain in
windows beneath the Paleoproterozoic Lap-
eastern Finland, as defined and described in this
review. OiOijrvi, SuoSuomussalmi, KuhKuh- land greenstone belt, assigned here to the
mo, TipTipasjrvi, NunNunnanlahti, HatHattu, Pomokaira terrain (Figure 2.3), also belong
KovKovero. to the Karelian domain. The Kola domain
is thus only represented in Finland by the
Inari and Srvaranger terrains, in northeast
to collision between the Karelian and Kola Lapland (Figures 2.1A, 2.3, and 2.16). These
domains (Bibikova et al., 1996, 2001; Daly et are separated from the Karelian domain by
al., 2001). Nevertheless, there is considerable the Paleoproterozoic Lapland granulite belt
evidence accumulating to support the initial (Figures 2.1A and 2.16), which has been thrust
juxtaposition of the granitoid-greenstone ter- southwards along a gently dipping detach-
rains of the Karelian domain and high-pressure ment surface that can be traced seismically to
assemblages of the Belomorian terrain dur- middle crustal depths (Gal et al., 1989; Korja
ing the late Archean (Samsonov et al., 2001; et al., 1989; Luosto et al., 1989).
Slabunov and Bibikova, 2001). The Ropi terrain in the northwestern part
The Belomorian terrain appears to be of Finland (Figures 2.1A and 2.3) forms part
contiguous with the high-grade supracrustal of an extensive region in northern Sweden
gneisses of the Tuntsa terrain in northern and Norway that is at least partly underlain
Finland (Figures 2.1A and 2.3). Although by Archean rocks (Skild and hlander,
this area has also been strongly affected by 1989; hlander et al., 1993; Martinson et
Paleoproterozoic deformation, it is evident al., 1999). The Ropi terrain is separated from
that boundaries between Archean crustal the western part of the Karelian domain by a
units are discordant to Proterozoic trends, highly strained zone of high-temperaturelow-
which lends further support to interpreting pressure metamorphism and abundant Sveco-
the Belomorian terrain as a higher grade unit fennian granitoids of both calc-alkaline and

potassic post-collisional affinity. This suggests of relationships between Archean structures
that the current juxtaposition of these two and lithic units, caused confusion in dating
Archean crustal units was a consequence of events isotopically (Martin and Barbey, 1988;
Svecofennian collisional tectonics. Vaasjoki, 1989; Tourpin et al., 1991; Gruau et
Tectonically and thermally reworked al., 1992), and frustrated the characterization
Archean rocks are also found farther south, of hydrothermal fluids in Archean gold de-
in deep crustal windows and demonstrably posits (OBrien et al., 1993a,b). On the other
allochthonous thrust sheets, along the western hand, the characteristics and distribution of
margin of the Karelian domain, recording deep Proterozoic magmatism and sedimentation,
crustal imbrication during the Svecofennian and deep xenoliths sampled by early Paleozoic
orogeny (Park and Bowes, 1983; Korsman et kimberlites provide valuable insights into the
al., 1999). Although the Svecofennian event stability of Archean lithosphere and the ex-
does not appear to have exposed deep Archean tent to which the deep crust might have been
crustal sections, the remarkable possibility ex- modified over time. For example, isotope and
ists that the serpentinized harzburgites of the petrological investigations of lower crustal and
1.95 Ga Jormua ophiolite complex represent mantle xenoliths from kimberlites penetrating
Archean subcontinental lithospheric mantle both the Karelian and Kola provinces reveal a
exhumed during Paleoproterozoic extension population of zircons that apparently record
and rifting along the southwest margin of the a thermal event around 1.8 Ga, immediately
Karelian domain (see Kontinen, 1987; Pel- after the initial stages of Svecofennian col-
tonen et al., 1998; Chapter 6). The discovery lision (Hltt et al., 2000a,b; Markwick and
of Archean zircons from dikes intruding these Downes, 2000). The Karelian domain was
harzburgites (Peltonen et al., 2003) now pro- also widely and repeatedly affected by mafic
vides an unparalleled opportunity for attempt- magmatism throughout the early Proterozoic,
ing to correlate late Archean deep lithospheric as recorded by several sets of dike swarms,
events with the magmatic record preserved in lava fields and layered intrusions. It is there-
the Archean mafic and ultramafic greenstone fore likely that the Archean lower crustal and
sequences of eastern Finland. mantle lithosphere of Finland and indeed the
There is also considerable evidence for Fennoscandian Shield in general has been
a Proterozoic thermal overprint across much at least partially modified by the addition of
of the Karelian domain itself (Kontinen et al., underplated magmas, cumulates or residual
1992; Kontinen and Paavola, 1996; Bibikova assemblages (Kempton et al., 2001). Hence,
et al., 2001; Pajunen and Poutiainen, 1999). deep crustal and mantle characteristics in-
The boundary zone between the Karelian and ferred from deep seismic reflection and refrac-
Svecofennian domains in Finland is neverthe- tion and magnetotelluric surveys may not be
less considered to represent the true edge of representative of the state of the lithosphere
the Archean crust of the Karelian craton or during the Archean. Nevertheless, careful in-
at least coincides with one rifted margin of a tegration of these sources of data with surface
formerly greater crustal block, as U-Pb, Sm- observations will no doubt eventually lead to
Nd, and Hf-Lu isotope studies of crustally a four dimensional picture of the evolution
derived granites in the Svecofennian province of the cratonic lithosphere of Finland, even
tend to indicate early Proterozoic source ages though at present this picture is fragmentary
(Patchett et al., 1981; Patchett and Kouvo, and far from clear.
1986; Huhma,1986).
This Proterozoic tectonic and thermal
reworking has complicated our understanding

1.2. Classifying and subdividing the Archean crustal processes and the evolution
Archean bedrock of Finland of the Archean crust in Finland. This is not
to deny that such processes were involved in
Prior to the application of isotope dating tech- crustal formation and deformation; recent tec-
niques to the Precambrian of Finland (Kouvo tonic syntheses in adjoining Russian Karelia,
and Tilton, 1966), uniformitarian principles invoke either interaction between plates and
had long been used in recognizing distinct and plumes (Puchtel et al., 1998, 1999) or collision
superimposed orogenic events (Sederholm, and subduction of the the Karelian province
1897). Following this example, Frosterus and beneath the Belomorian province at around
Wilkman (1924) mapped a widespread uncon- 2720 Ma, with supporting evidence including
formity separating a Proterozoic sedimentary a proposed intervening accretionary prism, the
cover sequence from a predominantly granitic chemical characteristics of granitoid plutons
and gneissose basement in eastern Finland. and the fabric of deep crustal seismic reflectors
Within this basement terrain Frosterus and (Berzin et al., 2001; Slabunov and Bibikova,
Wilkman (1920) further recognized that gran- 2001). This contrasts with earlier more tradi-
ites intruded enclaves of still older, variably tional interpretations for the Russian part of
metamorphosed supracrustal rock units, and the Karelian domain (Kratz and Mitrofanov,
so inferred another yet older orogenic cycle. 1980) in which vertical crustal differentia-
Moreover, by identifying allochthonous and tion was seen as significant, and higher grade
inverted basement-cover relationships and granulite terrains being generally considered
mapping intrusions that cut both the Pro- older. This conceptual model led to the sug-
terozoic sediments and the older basement, gestion that there were two separate Archean
they clearly demonstrated that both groups of orogenic events in Fennoscandia the early
rocks were affected by a younger Alpine style Archean (3.12.9 Ga) Saamian cycle, repre-
orogenic event now known as the Svecofen- sented by high grade metamorphic migmatite
nian orogeny. and granitoid terrains, and the late Archean
It is important to realize however, that (2.92.7 Ga) Lopian cycle, characterized by
no depositionally unconformable relation- granitoidgreenstone complexes of lower
ships have been unequivocally demonstrated metamorphic grade.
between any Archean rock units in Finland, In contrast, a simple statistical representa-
even though evidence for derivation of tion of available Archean U-Pb age determina-
sedimentary, volcanic, and granitoid rocks tions from Finland reveals that the majority
from older crustal sources is widepread. of granitic and tonalitic intrusive rocks, as
Instead, all exposed contacts between rock well as volcanics, formed within the interval
units are either highly strained or obviously 2.752.60 Ga, while a smaller population ex-
intrusive. Neither have the tectonic elements tends back as far as 3.23.3 Ga (Figure 2.4).
and magmatic signatures of modern crustal However, because of the effective overlap in
accretionary and collisional processes been rocks of granitic and tonalitic and gabbroic
definitively recognized, although geochemi- composition, this approach does not provide
cal characteristics of volcanic and granitoid a useful discriminant between primary crustal
rocks have been used to infer paleotectonic formation and intracrustal reworking pro-
settings and processes (Martin et al., 1983b, cesses. It also needs to be emphasized that
1984; Jgouzo and Blais, 1995). The lack of a at present, isotope ages within Finland do
clearly defined foreland substrate or orogenic not appear to define any readily discernible
polarity has been an impediment to develop- regional spatial patterns.
ing a coherent understanding of large scale It is quite probable that even if the Archean

A
Fig. 2.4. Histograms displaying frequency distribution of Archean ages from Finland, based on compila-
tion by Matti Vaasjoki of U-Pb analytical data, principally from multigrain zircon separates. (A) Histo-
gram of total data, clearly indicating the importance of crustal formation and reworking between 2600
Ma and 2750 Ma. (B) Frequency distribution after discrimination of data according to rock type. There
is considerable overlap between the various rock types, although there is a weak tendency for rocks
of granitic composition to extend to younger ages, and conversely, tonalites to record older ages.
crust of Finland formed through plate tectonic earlier, isotope studies do indicate that some
accretionary crustal processes, original tec- detrital components in metasedimentary rocks
tonic elements and terrain boundaries could and some inherited zircons in granitic rocks
have been significantly disrupted and obscured are derived from older crustal sources (Vaas-
during subsequent crustal reworking. As noted joki et al., 1993). Isotope studies have also

revealed that structurally complex, highly 2. The Karelian domain in eastern
strained migmatites and homogeneous weakly Finland
deformed intrusions cannot be discriminated
on the basis of age alone (Vaasjoki et al., The Karelian domain is generally regarded
1999). This underscores the need for careful as the cratonic nucleus to the Fennoscandian
and systematic documentation of structural Shield. This is certainly valid from the per-
evolution and intrusive sequences, rather than spective of Proterozoic deformation, since it
attempting to make correlations and infer tec- acted as the foreland upon which Svecofen-
tonic settings simply on the basis of lithology, nian nappes were emplaced, initially from
strain state or geochemical characteristics. the southwest around 1.9 Ga, as well as the
The difficulties in defining boundaries Belomorian terrain and Lapland granulite belt,
between rock units in the field can be partly which were thrust from the opposite direc-
overcome by using magnetic signatures to tion during the broadly coeval KolaLapland
delineate geophysical provinces. High-resolu- orogeny (Figures 2.1 and 2.16). The Karelian
tion magnetic data have also been important in domain also formed a stable substrate for
detailed structural and stratigraphic mapping intracratonic volcanism and sedimentation
of the Archean (Sorjonen-Ward, 1993). At all throughout the Paleoproterozoic indeed
scales however, it is necessary to take into the earliest supracrustal units of the Lapland
account the effects of processes that generate greenstone belt, deposited unconformably
or consume ferromagnetic minerals (Airo, on the Karelian craton, strictly straddle the
1999). ArcheanProterozoic boundary (Manninen et
The classification that follows reflects in al., 2001). In terms of Archean crustal growth,
a broad sense the thermal and strain history however, the Karelian domain records a com-
recorded by the Finnish bedrock, in that it is plex pattern of ages dating back to at least
based on discriminating predominantly green- 3.5 Ga, with a regionally coherent structural
schist facies supracrustal sequences and higher framework emerging only after 2.7 Ga.
grade terrains, supplemented by information
from isotope studies of intrusive events and 2.1. Ilomantsi terrain
source rock ages. Another useful discriminant
is the regional dip of the enveloping surface to The Ilomantsi terrain as defined here in-
major structures or lithic units, for this relates cludes several well-preserved greenschist to
closely to the interaction between deformation amphibolite facies supracrustal sequences,
and granitoid emplacement, which may also be namely the Hattu, Kovero, Nunnanlahti, and
a function of both crustal depth and the degree Ipatti supracrustal belts (Figures 2.2 and 2.5).
of thermal reworking. The Hattu schist belt in particular has been
The hierarchy for classification used in studied in considerable detail because of its
this review proceeds from domain through demonstrated potential for structurally con-
terrain to complex or supracrustal belt; the trolled lode gold mineralization (Nurmi and
use of the term terrain is descriptive only and Sorjonen-Ward, 1993).
is not intended to imply that adjacent crustal The distribution of preserved supracrustal
units were juxtaposed by accretionary plate sequences is principally controlled by variably
tectonic processes. Indeed, in most cases the sized and strained granodioritic and tonalitic
boundaries between terrains are either unde- plutons, with age ranges suggesting a close
fined in terms of kinematic history or obscured relationship between volcanism, deformation
by younger rocks. and pluton emplacement. The southwestern
part of the Ilomantsi terrain is unconformably

overlain by Paleoproterozoic supracrustal Zircon U-Pb zircon ages from the supra-
sequences (Figure 2.5). Svecofennian granit- crustal sequence, ranging from 2754 6 Ma
oids with evolved Nd isotope characteristics for pyroclastic deposits low in the sequence
(Figure 2.5) also indicate thermal reworking to 2726 15 Ma for porphyry clasts in con-
of deeply buried Archean crust farther to the glomerate, overlap statistically with those for
southwest (Huhma, 1986). syntectonic granitoids (2746 6 to 2725
The western part of the Ilomantsi terrain, 6 Ma). Although this indicates rapid crustal
defined here as the Lieksa complex, includes evolution, isotope studies of heterogeneous
abundant porphyritic granitoids, commonly detrital and magmatic zircon suites indicate
containing pyroxene; granulite facies supra- the presence of an older crustal component
crustal enclaves indicate that an extensive in granitoid source material as well as detrital
high-grade terrain is present, as yet mapped sediments (Vaasjoki et al., 1993), with some
only at reconnaissance scale. The ages of the xenocrysts from the Silvevaara granodiorite
granitoids, their source materials, and the yielding ages up to 3.18 Ga (Sorjonen-Ward
metamorphism appear to be around 2.732.72 and Clauo-Long, 1993). The involvement
Ga (Halla, 1998, 2002) and therefore their of older continental crust in the tectonic pro-
development must be closely connected with cesses that deformed the Hattu schist belt is
the evolution of the adjacent lower grade further attested to by the presence of some
supracrustal sequences. Migmatitic gneisses highly evolved granitoids, including tourma-
are also widespread, so that the transition be- line-muscovite leucogranites (Figure 2.8G),
tween the Lieksa complex and the supracrustal which appear to be analogous to those in
gneisses of the Nurmes gneiss complex and Phanerozoic collisional belts. In spite of these
the Kianta terrain is not precisely defined features, no evidence for unconformities or
(Figure 2.5). any kind of depositional substrate to the Hattu
schist belt has been found. The supracrustal
Hattu supracrustal belt sequence may commence with pillowed mafic
The Hattu schist belt, located in the eastern- volcanic rocks (Figure 2.8D) but consists
most part of the Ilomantsi terrain, has been predominantly of felsic pyroclastic and epi-
studied extensively in recent years, with clastic deposits. Laterally persistent but volu-
emphasis on the structural architecture and metrically minor tholeiitic intercalations, and
its influence upon orogenic-style lode gold some komatiites occur in the upper part of the
mineralization (Nurmi and Sorjonen-Ward, succession, typically associated with a variety
1993). Isotope data indicate that deposition, of silicic and sulfidic banded iron-formations
deformation and granitoid intrusion were very (Figure 2.8C). An abundance of depositional
closely related in time, the ages of the earliest younging criteria indicate that the major folds
supracrustal units effectively overlapping with in the greenstone belt are upward facing, thus
those of syntectonic granitoids. All exposed tending to militate against interpretations in-
contacts between the Hattu schist belt and voking early recumbent folding (Figures 2.6
these granitoids are intrusive (Figures 2.6 and and 2.7). The only exceptions to this are local
2.7), or else tectonically modified, and hence in nature and are currently ascribed to soft-
the granitoids cannot represent depositional sediment slumping. The well-defined stratig-
basement to the greenstone belt. No other raphy and good correlation between magnetic
depositional basement to the Hattu schist belt properties and lithology, particularly at higher
has been identified, nor have any unconfor- stratigraphic levels, has enabled the structural
mities been recognized within the mapped geometry to be further clarified (Figures 2.6
sequence. and 2.7A). Hence, in spite of locally intense

2900E Kianta 3000E
Tipasjrvi terrain
Significant Svecofennian deformation
Archean basement windows
Boundaries between Archean rock units
0 50
Nurmes
km
Iisalmi
terrain Lieksa
Ilomantsi
terrain
Juuka Ipatti
Nunnanlahti
Hattu
Figure 2.6
6300N
Kaavi
Hattu
Ags
Pgm
Eno Nd(2750)-2.1
Nd(1860)-6.0 Figure 2.7
Kontiolahti
Sotkuma Ilomantsi
Outokumpu Kovero
Joensuu
Juojrvi Kovero
Suhmura Kiihtelysvaara
Ilomantsi terrain
Felsic volcanic and volcaniclastic rocks
Oravisalo Turbiditic graywackes
Pgk Mafic and ultramafic volcanics and sills
Migmatites, leucocratic monzogranites,
Nd(1870)-3.6 typically accompanying late orogenic
transpressional deformation
Nd(1800)-6.9 Biotite tonalitic and hornblende/pyro-
Post-Archean rock units xene granodioritic plutons; granulite facies
assemblages present in Lieksa complex
Proterozoic granites, typically Pgp Kianta terrain
recording isotope evidence for
Archean crustal derivation Granitoids, gneisses, and migmatites
3000E
Allochthonous Proterozoic su- Tipasjrvi greenstone belt
pracrustal units, emplaced onto
Karelian domain at 1.9 Ga Nurmes complex supracrustal gneisses
Paleoproterozoic (2.42.0 Ga) Iisalmi terrain
sedimentary and volcanic units
overlying the Karelian domain Granitoids and supracrustal gneisses
Fig. 2.5. Regional synthesis of the Ilomantsi terrain in easternmost Finland. Extent of Proterozoic
tectonic disruption and derivation of granitoids from buried Archean crust are also indicated. AgsSil-
vevaara granodiorite, PgkKermavesi granodiorite, PgmMaarianvaara granodiorite, and PgpPuruvesi
monzogranite. Semitransparent gray shades relate to total magnetic intensity recorded by regional
airborne surveys (reproduced from Geological Survey of Finland databases).

Pat
High strain zones

Undifferentiated
metasediments
Kot
0 1
km
Vig
Tat
Pampalo Formation
Komatiitic pyroclastic flows and
talc-chlorite-actinolite schists
Medium- to coarse-grained
massive metadolerite
Intermediate to mafic volcanic
rocks and volcaniclastic deposits
Massive tholeiitic basalts
Quartz-grunerite-magnetite
banded iron-formation
Tiittalanvaara Formation Pat

Thin-bedded metapelites
Polymicitic conglomerates and
feldspathic turbiditic graywackes
Vig
Mg-rich tholeiitic basalts
Sivakkajoki Formation Granitoid intrusions

Polymictic conglomerates and Tat Tasanvaara tonalite
cross-bedded feldspathic arenites
Basaltic and andesitic volcanic Kot Korpivaara tonalite
Thin-bedded sulfide-bearing Vig Viluvaara tonalite
metapelites and graywackes
Feldspathic epiclastic and pyro- Pat Pampalonuurro porphyritic
clastic deposits tonalite dike complex
Fig. 2.6. Geological map of part of the Pampalo structural domain within the Hattu supracrustal belt
of the Ilomantsi terrain (after Sorjonen-Ward, 1993).

Granitoid intrusions A Silvevaara granodiorite
Medium-grained biotite tonalite
and leucotonalite
U-Pb(zircon)27574 Ma
Potassium feldspar-porphyritic
hornblende granodiorite
Nd(2750)0.4 to 2.1
Hattu schist belt
Geophysically responsive, mainly
thin-bedded metapelites
Graywackes, mica schists and
hydrothermally altered schists Kuittila tonalite
Basaltic to intermediate volcanic

and volcaniclastic intercalations U-Pb(zircon)27469 Ma
Polymictic conglomerates and

feldspathic turbiditic graywackes Nd(2750)+0.4 to +2.3
Highly strained metabasalts and
banded iron-formations
Depositional younging direction

High strain zones associated with
progressive folding
0 1
Trace of F2 antiformal hinge
km
qz
gar
po
B C
Fig. 2.7. Rock types and their distribution in the southern part of the Hattu supracrustal belt of the
Ilomantsi terrain. (A) Geological and structural map of part of the Kuittila structural domain (af-
ter Sorjonen-Ward, 1993), emphasizing relationship between deformation and emplacement of the
Kuittila tonalite. (B) Detail of contact between turbiditic graywacke and the Kuittila tonalite. Note
brittleductile fracture zones transecting tonalite and more ductile strain recorded in metasediments.
Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length. (C) Photomicrograph in plane-polarized light showing strain
partitioning around garnet porphyroblast (gar), recorded by dynamically recrystallized intergrowth
of quartz (qz), biotite, and pyrrhotite (po). Scale bar is approximately 1 mm in length. Photos: Peter
Sorjonen-Ward.

and complex deformation (Figures 2.8A, B, relationship between tightening of folds,
C), the Hattu schist belt has retained a high attenuation of fold limbs, development of
degree of stratigraphical coherence (Figures shear zones with strike-slip displacements,
2.6 and 2.7A), which has enabled the delinea- and the propagation of new folds due to strain
tion of two distinct and partially overlapping incompatibilities between shear zones. Refold
felsic volcanic complexes, developed within interference patterns or attenutation and exci-
sporadically emergent but generally turbidite- sion of certain units at outcrop and map scale
dominated basins. therefore most likely represent progressive
Sorjonen-Ward (1993) defined a number deformation of initially upright structures
of formations within the Hattu supersequence. with strain becoming more partitioned within
The lowest is the Sivakkojoki Formation, discrete narrow zones. The kinematic histo-
which consists mainly of feldspathic gray- ries of these zones suggest the importance of
wackes, representing resedimentation of pene- regionally coaxial and vertical constrictional
contemporaneous volcanics and older felsic strains, although evidence for more localized
crust. Conglomerate interbeds within the for- local strike-slip deformation is certainly pre-
mation contain clasts from many sources and sent (Figure 2.8A). Deformation of the Hattu
exhibit local cross-bedding indicating deposi- schist belt was closely associated with gran-
tion in shallow water, suggesting that volcanic itoid emplacement. In particular a distinctive
edifices may have locally become subaerial. suite of biotite tonalites intruded the sequence,
The Hosko Formation in the northern part of initially as tabular semiconcordant (though
the area appears to show an upwards transition not necessarily subhorizontal) sheets during
from turbidites to more proximal volcaniclas- the early stages of fold propagation, and were
tic rocks, with widespread sericitic alteration subsequently deformed along with their host
and replacement of plagioclase by microcline. rocks (Figures 2.6 and 2.7). This was accom-
The Hosko granite might be a synvolcanic panied by structurally controlled hydrothermal
shallow intrusion responsible for hydrother- alteration and gold mineralization, which was
mal alteration, but structural relationships subsequently recrystallized and deformed
are not yet confirmed. The turbidites of the under upper greenschist to lower amphibolite
Kuljunki Formation (Figure 2.8B) may be facies conditions. Microstructural evidence
correlative with the Hosko Formation, as it clearly indicates dynamic recrystallization of
records the same distal to proximal transi- hydrothermally altered assemblages. Annealed
tion. The Kuljunki Formation is overlain by textures with garnet and locally, staurolite
the Tiittalanvaara Formation, which includes and kyanite porphyroblasts indicate that the
coarse polymictic conglomerates (Figures 2.6 thermal metamorphic peak was synchronous
and 2.8A), and records transgression, culmi- with or outlasted deformation (Figures 2.7C
nating in turbidites and sulfide-facies banded and 2.8E, F).
iron-formations. This marks the transition to A progressive, rather than episodic in-
a diverse but restricted phase of volcanism, terpretation of deformation is therefore pre-
defined as the Pampalo Formation, which con- ferred, due to the geometrical congruence of
tains tholeiitic basalts, doleritic sills, mafic to overprinting phases and the relatively short
intermediate pyroclastic deposits and a single time span between volcanism, deformation,
distinctive volcaniclastic komatiite unit. and granitoid emplacement. Thus, younger
The structural architecture of the Hattu structures appear to represent the partition-
schist belt is characterized by upward-facing of deformation into more discrete, high-
ing, generally steeply dipping structures. It strain zones, with an increasing component
is possible to establish a close, sequential of vertical constrictional strain accompanying

A B
C D
ky
and
ky
E F
G H

emplacement and deformation of syntectonic to banded iron-formations (Figure 2.8C),
plutons. This progressive evolution can result while shortening of mafic units has in some
in either distinct overprinting fabrics, or else instances been accommodated by the devel-
transposition and recrystallization of early fab- opment of strike-slip duplexes, as shown by
rics, thus requiring care in defining sequential the imbrication of the Pampalo Formation in
deformational phases. The mechanical behav- Figure 2.6. The resultant regional geometry
ior of various lithological units has clearly had suggests a transpressional regime with plutons
a significant influence on deformation style. being emplaced into dilatant sites within a
Major displacements were localized adjacent NNE-trending dextral shear system.
Fig. 2.8. (facing page) Rock types and microstructures from the Ilomantsi terrain. (A) Polymictic
conglomerate typical of the Tiittalanvaara Formation, in the upper part of the preserved stratigraphic
succession. Tiittalanvaara, northern part of Hattu supracrustal belt. Clasts and matrix consist pre-
dominantly of reworked intrabasinal volcanic and volcaniclastic deposits. Clasts are highly elongate
perpendicular to outcrop surface, and sinistral folds record a regional strain path involving vertical
constriction combined with transpression. Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length. (B) Intense dif-
ferentiated crenulation cleavage development (subhorizontal in photograph) and associated volume
loss by solution transfer in thin-bedded laminated turbidite package within mesoscopic fold hinge
zone. Kuljunki, northern part of Hattu supracrustal belt. Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length.
(C) Complex, inferred progressive deformation in quartz-grunerite-magnetite banded iron-formation
intercalated with metaturbidites at northeastern margin of Kuittila tonalite; quartz-vein in axial planar
orientation with respect to sinistral minor fold appears to be superimposed on tight to isoclinal
dextral folds. Apparent superimposed fold generations and transition from ductile flow to semibrittle
displacements may nevertheless represent a combination of strain rate control on rock behavior and
local rotation as larger scale fold limbs amplify and need not have regional tectonic significance. Scale
bar is approximately 1 dm in length. (D) Typical deformed pillow basalts, possibly representing the
substrate upon which the sedimentary and felsic volcaniclastic sequence of the Ilomantsi terrain were
deposited. Utrio, southeastern part of Hattu supracrustal belt. Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in
length. (E) Continuity of sericite and biotite alignment in pseudomorphed, inferred andalusite por-
phyroblast with deflected external fabric, from hydrothermally altered schist along western margin
of Kuittila tonalite. Kyanite (ky) clearly post-dates sericite crystallization but is confined to pseu-
domorphs. Therefore, relative timing with respect to continued deformation of the matrix remains
unresolved, and a Proterozoic metamorphic origin for the kyanite is possible. Crossed nicols. Scale
bar is approximately 1 mm in length. (F) Hydrothermally altered mica schist from near margin of
Kuittila tonalite, showing optically contiguous relicts of andalusite porphyroblast (and) partly replaced
by sericite aligned parallel to external foliation, with subsequent anoriented growth of kyanite (ky).
Crossed nicols. Scale bar is approximately 1 mm in length. (G) Typical banding, defined by variations in
tourmaline abundance, within the Naarva leucogranite, which intruded within the boundary zone be-
tween the Hattu supracrustal belt and the Lieksa complex. Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length.
(H) Pink potassic granite leucosomes discordant across highly strained migmatites, possibly repre-
senting progressive emplacement within the same magmatic system, and very characteristic of the
southwestern part of the Ilomantsi terrain. Such migmatites are nevertheless relatively late, as they
are associated with contractional shear zones that overprint the earlier tectonic and metamorphic
fabrics recorded in Ilomantsi terrain supracrustal rocks. Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length.
Photos: Peter Sorjonen-Ward.

Kovero supracrustal belt cally, the sequence is rather diverse, including
The Kovero schist belt (Nyknen, 1971; Tuuk- thin-bedded turbidites and mafic volcaniclastic
ki et al., 1987) appears to be contiguous with deposits, concordant felsic porphyritic sills
the Hattu schist belt (Figure 2.5), though the and sporadic basalts (Rossi, 1975).
intervening terrain is poorly exposed and at- The nearby Nunnanlahti greenstone belt
tempts to date the sedimentary and volcanic (Figure 2.5) is approximately 15 km long and
rocks, as well as intrusive granitoids have 23 km wide. Although it may originally have
so far been unsuccessful. The Kovero belt been contiguous with the Ipatti belt, it now
has also been affected by a younger phase of represents an almost allochthonous tectoni-
deformation, metamorphism, and granitoid cally imbricated remnant amongst both Pro-
emplacment that makes correlation more dif- terozoic and Archean rock units. This intense
ficult. The most common rock types within the Svecofennian tectonic reworking was already
greenstone belt are Fe-rich tholeiitic basalts, recognized by the earliest geologists to work
which appear to be lowest in the stratigraphy. in the region (Frosterus and Wilkman, 1920).
In many places they are associated with Mg- The main Nunnanlahti shear zone has had a
rich tholeiitic basalts and komatiitic olivine complex history, being interpreted as an early
(pyroxene) cumulates, now altered into ser- thrust, or steep frontal ramp within a thrust
pentinites and tremolite-chlorite rocks (Tuukki system, which emplaced the Nunnanlahti
et al., 1987; Tuukki, 1991). Together they greenstones over Proterozoic turbidites. The
probably represent a deeply eroded remnant deformation zone was then reactivated as an
of a submarine lava complex. Distinctive felsic oblique sinistral shear zone, with kinematics
volcanic rocks, with abundant hydrothermal deduced from rotated porphyroclasts, cleavage
pyrite deposits are closely associated with duplexes, fold asymmetry and truncations of
the ultramafic and mafic lavas. It is therefore lithological units and magnetic anomalies at
quite reasonable to correlate this stratigraphic map scale. In proximity to the Nunnanlahti
horizon with the Pampalo Formation in the shear zone, regional structural trends in both
Hattu supracrustal belt, allowing for lateral basement and cover rocks are progressively
facies variations. transposed into NW-orientations with an
intense moderately dipping foliation and S-
Nunnanlahti and Ipatti supracrustal plunging lineation. In the most highly strained
belts domains the foliations in the protomylonitic
Archean supracrustal rocks also occur along Archean granitoids, as well as the Nunnanlahti
the western margin of the Ilomantsi terrain, greenstones are essentially congruent with
and could correlate with either the Kovero those in the Proterozoic sediments (Kohonen
supracrustal belt, or the Tipasjrvi greenstone et al., 1991).
belt of the Kianta terrain (Figure 2.5). The Primary stratigraphic relationships within
Ipatti belt is exposed discontinuously beneath the Nunnanlahti greenstone belt are difficult
the Paleoproterozic unconformity and in plac- to establish, due to the complex deformation
es it can be shown that rocks have been leached history. Rock types range from massive and
during weathering and now comprise part of pillowed tholeiitic basalts, ultramafic rocks
the Paleoproterozoic Hokkalampi paleorego- and felsic volcanic rocks, with some pelitic
lith (Kohonen and Marmo, 1992). The Ipatti schists and chert (Kohonen et al., 1989). Ul-
supracrustal belt has also been affected by tramafic rocks include massive serpentinites,
Svecofennian deformation, particularly in its some of which are very homogeneous and
type area near Koli, where it is folded around appear to retain textures suggesting a dunitic
in a tight SW-plunging syncline. Lithologi- cumulate origin. Serpentinites have also been

extensively altered to talc-magnesite rocks, least metamorphosed under granulite facies
including the economically significant Kren- conditions. If the latter were the case, the
vaara soapstone deposits, and associated bio- results of Pb isotope studies on potassium
tite, tremolite, and chlorite schists. None of feldspar would suggest that very little time
the rocks types present in the area have been would have elapsed between emplacement
amenable to isotope dating and lithological and metamorphism, as the U-Pb zircon age of
boundaries are generally so highly strained 2730 20 Ma accords very well with the Pb
that any evidence for intrusive or truncat- whole-rockpotassium feldspar isochron age
ing relationships has been destroyed. Highly of 2728 Ma (Halla, 1998). The lead isotope
strained granitic dikes also truncate the Nun- studies of Halla (1998, 2002) further suggest
nanlahti greenstones, and although these have that the Lieksa complex granitoids could
not been dated, the absence of Proterozoic have been derived from a mixture of juvenile,
granitoids elsewhere in the region provides mantle-derived material and reworked older
another argument supporting an Archean age continental crust. The Silvevaara granodiorite,
for the Nunnanlahti greenstones. Likewise, which intrudes the Hattu schist belt to the east
Proterozoic mafic dikes have been observed of the Lieksa complex resembles the porphy-
to truncate serpentinite and foliated meta- ritic granites of the latter, and shares the same
basalt, further demonstrating that the Nunnan- prominent magnetic signature, wherever mafic
lahti greenstones are indeed Archean in age minerals and magnetite have avoided hydra-
(Sorjonen-Ward and Rossi, 1997). However, tion and retrogression (Sorjonen-Ward, 1993).
the timing of talc-carbonate alteration and Although this intrusion is evidently somewhat
soapstone formation is not fully constrained, older than the Lieksa complex, with an inter-
despite its significance to regional metamor- preted magmatic SHRIMP age of 2757 4
phic and tectonic studies. Only one example Ma (Sorjonen-Ward and Claou-Long, 1993),
of a tabular, Proterozoic mafic dike truncating it also indicates the existence of substantially
the talc-carbonate has been documented, from older material in the deep crust.
drill core (Tapio Kuivasaari, pers. comm., Neither the western boundary, nor the
2002). The dike shows a pronounced reaction internal features of the Lieksa complex have
selvage, although such features could also be been studied in detail. Because, however, the
expected where a tholeiitic dike within talc- porphyritic granitoids are exposed across an
carbonate rock was subjected to static regional area greater than normal crustal thickness,
metamorphism. Therefore, the extent to which the nature of their geometry at depth has
the talc-carbonate alteration represents a considerable relevance to understanding the
Proterozoic retrogression and fluid influx, as potential source and volume requirements
opposed to an entirely Archean phenomenon for magmatism and hence thermal and tec-
remains unresolved. tonic regime. Limited field data indicate that
while a regionally expressed steep foliation is
Lieksa complex granitoids and defined by biotite, gently dipping and folded
high-grade gneisses compositional banding is common, sometimes
The Lieksa complex is defined here as a NNE- with alignment of tabular potassium feldspar
ENE trending zone dominated by porphyritic phenocrysts in a weakly strained groundmass.
potassium feldspar granodiorites that com- This can be interpreted as a high-tempera-
monly contain pyroxene (Figure 2.5). Areas ture, emplacement related fabric, suggesting
of mafic granulite with orthopyroxene and that the granitoids might represent coalesced
clinopyroxene indicate that these porphyritic tabular sheets that were emplaced and crystal-
granitoids may have crystallized, or were at lized under granulite facies conditions during

regional compressive deformation, and were two units would most likely have been juxta-
progressively deformed during cooling and posed between 2.732.69 Ga.
uplift. Late kyanite has also been observed to lo-
The eastern boundary towards the Hattu cally overprint relict and sericitized andalusite
schist belt coincides with a relatively abrupt porphyroblasts (Figure 2.8E and F), belonging
transition to a zone of felsic granite sheets, to the typical biotite-garnet-staurolite peak
sometimes muscovite bearing, and migmatites metamorphic assemblages of the Hattu supra-
that clearly represent injection of felsic melt crustal belt (Sorjonen-Ward, 1993). Although
into amphibolite facies metasediments that this might be seen as evidence of an increase
probably represent higher grade and more in pressure related to Archean late orogenic
recrystallized equivalents of Hattu schist belt thrusting, the isolated nature of these kyanite
rock types (Sorjonen-Ward, 1993). The pres- occurrences and the convincing documenta-
ence of muscovite-bearing granites, and also tion of Svecofennian thermal overprinting
the distinctive Naarva leucogranite, which has that produced kyanite in the Kianta terrain
tourmaline as a major phase, together with (Pajunen and Poutiainen, 1999) makes this
biotite, muscovite and garnet, means that the interpretation less likely.
boundary zone between the Lieksa complex
and Hattu schist belt may be of fundamental Granitoids intruding the Hattu and
significance. As well as the strongly magnetic Kovero supracrustal rocks
character of the Lieksa complex, the regional In contrast to many granitoid-greenstone ter-
gravity data show a distinct negative anomaly rains in Finland, it has proven possible to map
coinciding with the Hattu supracrustal belt. discrete plutons within and around the Hattu
The later stages of deformation throughout supracrustal belt, and in some cases, to docu-
the Ilomantsi terrain are interpreted as a ment contact relationships (Sorjonen-Ward,
consequence of NEE-directed compression, 1993). Although geochemical studies so far
resolved as a combination of thrusting with a have emphasized lithogeochemical explora-
top to the east sense, and dominantly dextral tion aspects rather than petrogenesis (Nurmi
transpression (Sorjonen-Ward, 1993; Luuk- and Sorjonen-Ward, 1993), the available data
konen and Sorjonen-Ward, 1998). Therefore are sufficient for some general conclusions to
a plausible geodynamic scenario would be be made (OBrien et al., 1993a).
oblique emplacement of the Lieksa complex The Kuittila suite of enclave-poor biotite
over the Hattu schist belt, and hence coupling tonalites has been studied in most detail and is
of the exhumation of the granulite facies rocks particularly important in relation to constrain-
of the Lieksa complex with partial melting of ing the timing and style of deformation and
underthrust Hattu supracrustal belt sediments orogenic hydrothermal alteration processes
at depth. in the Hattu supracrustal belt. This is because
As yet, there are no isotope or chemical the Kuittila tonalite and Tasanvaara tonalite
data from the peraluminous leucogranites that both form elongate intrusions some 50 km2
would constrain the timing of this event or in extent (Figures 2.6 and 2.7A), with mar-
allow characterization of age and composi- ginal apophyses that clearly truncate lithic
tion of potential source material. However, units, while sharing an overall similar strain
based on the U-Pb zircon and Pb-Pb model history (Sorjonen-Ward, 1993). The western
ages from the Lieksa complex (Halla, 1998) margin of the Kuittila tonalite in particular is
and the U-Pb results for zircon, monazite, and characterized by plagioclase-phyric and quartz-
titanite from granitoids intruding the Hattu plagioclase-phyric dike swarms that are highly
supracrustal belt (Vaasjoki et al., 1993), the strained and concordant with the axial planar

foliation to mesoscopic and regional folds in et al., 1998), but revision of these analyses
the country rocks (Figure 2.7A and B). The now produces ages that coincide remarkably
overall geometry suggests emplacement into a well with the zircon dates. Although deriva-
releasing bend within a steeply dipping dextral tion from a crustal precursor of age greater
reverse sense shear system. The current shape than 2.8 Ga is therefore permissible, and such
of the pluton is considered to be primary, even crustal material is indeed widespread in mig-
though considerable post-emplacement strain matites of the Kianta terrain, calculated Nd(at
may be recorded by the enclosing sediments 2750 Ma) values of +0.9 to +2.1 also preclude
(Figure 2.7). This is deduced from arrays of source material from being significantly older.
molybdenite-bearing quartz veins attributed This is in contrast to the 3.03.2 zircon xeno-
to late- to post-magmatic processes in the crysts and TDM model ages and Nd(at 2750
Kuittila tonalite (Sorjonen-Ward, 1993), which Ma) values of 0.4 to 2.1 obtained from the
show little evidence of buckling or substantial nearby Silvevaara granodiorite (OBrien et
shear displacement. al., 1993a; Sorjonen-Ward and Claou-Long,
Similarly, it is difficult to interpret the 1993; Vaasjoki et al., 1993). The magmatic
northern and eastern margins of the Tasan- age determined from SHRIMP studies of the
vaara tonalite in any other way than fracture Silvevaara granodiorite may be marginally
controlled propagation of dikes and eventually older than that for the Kuittila tonalite and
more coherent batches of tonalitic magma into the Tasanvaara tonalite, though the two results
the east-younging eastern limb of the regional overlap statistically at 2 confidence levels;
N-plunging Pihlajavaara anticline, disrupting field relationships are not conclusive though
the stratigraphic sequence, quite possibly as it is inferred from aeromagnetic data that the
the fold was amplifying (Figure 2.6). Several Tasanvaara tonalite postdates the Silvevaara
kilometers to the north of the Tasanvaara to- granodiorite. Because the Silvevaara grano-
nalite, the Korpivaara tonalite also seems to diorite is also mineralogically very different,
be intimately associated with the localization containing hornblende and potassium feldspar
of deformation in the country rocks, in par- phenocrysts, it is interesting to speculate
ticular the Juttuhuhta oblique-sinistral duplex whether the two intrusive types were derived
and the related Pampalo shear system (Figure from different crustal sources and depths, or
2.6). Indeed, the orientation and kinematic record different degrees of interaction with
indicators in this area would be compatible an as yet undefined penecontemporaneous
with emplacement of the Korpivaara tonalite mantle-derived magmatic component.
occupying the hanging wall above an oblique The Kuittila suite shows REE profiles si-
normal shear system, especially as the eastern milar to those of other Archean TTG plutons,
margin of the pluton is also inward dipping, although HREE depletion is perhaps not so
resulting in a funnel-shaped cross-sectional marked (OBrien et al., 1993a). The Kuittila
geometry. pluton can be subdivided into a tonalitic outer
The Kuittila tonalite has a U-Pb zircon age phase and a leucotrondhjemitic interior, in addi-
of 2745 10 Ma, compared to 2748 6 Ma tion to the marginal porphyritic dikes swarms,
for the Tasanvaara tonalite and Sm-Nd data all of which appear to be geochemically con-
from both plutons produce a spread of TDM sanguineous. There is a systematic decrease
model ages, mostly in excess of the zircon age, in TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO, CaO, P2O5 , and Hf, Zr,
including several over 2.85 Ga. Molybdenite and LREE with increasing SiO2, which would
extracted from the magmatic-related W-Mo be expected for preferential source retention
mineralization in the Kuittila tonalite also of mafic minerals, and accessory phases,
initially yielded an age of near 2.85 Ga (Stein including apatite, zircon, and monazite. On

the other hand, the porphyry dikes, unlike the magnetic and appear to pass transitionally
tonalite and trondhjemite, do not show Eu northwards into the Lieksa complex, although
depletion, which is consistent with the abun- the nature, significance, and age of this transi-
dance of plagioclase phenocrysts. Unless they tion is obscure.
represent cumulate enrichment, this would be
compatible with derivation of tonalite from a 2.2. Kianta terrain
tholeiitic basaltic source, given that experi-
mental data indicate a broader stability field The Kianta terrain is critical to understanding
for plagiclase-biotite-quartz assemblages in the nature and origin of Archean greenstone
tonalitic rocks compared to tholeiitic basalt and granite terrains in Finland and has long
(Huang and Wyllie, 1986). been the subject of mapping programs by
Pitkjrvi (1988) also attempted petro- the Geological Survey of Finland (Wilkman,
genetic modeling of REE chemistry of trond- 1924; Matisto, 1958; Hyppnen, 1983; Luuk-
hjemitic granites in the southern part of the konen, 1986, 1987, 1992, and 1993) and
Ilomantsi terrain. He concluded that the most thematic investigations by research groups
appropriate source material would be of quartz from the universities of Oulu (Piirainen,
dioritic to tonalitic composition, with a calcu- 1988), Rennes (Martin et al., 1984), and Turku
lated modal mineralogy of plagioclase (56%), (Halkoaho et al., 1996; Papunen et al., 1989,
quartz (13%), biotite (12%), amphibole (17%) 2001). The Kianta terrain is bisected from
and accessory apatite and zircon. The process north to south by several greenstone belts,
was modeled with a high degree of melting of more than 200 km in length, but generally
plagioclase and quartz, and conversely small less than 10 km in width (Figures 2.2, 2.9, and
amounts of mafic and accessory minerals, re- 2.10). From north to south these are known
sulting in the observed HREE depletion, high as the Suomussalmi, Kuhmo, and Tipasjrvi
Sr and Ba values, and lack of Eu depletion. A greenstone belts, which are mutually similar
higher degree of melting of a tholeiitic source in terms of stratigraphy and tectonic events.
would also be plausible. Although attempts Intense deformation has obliterated primary
to accurately date the granitic rocks in this structures and textures in many places, but
area have so far been unsuccessful (Vaasjoki well-preserved low strain domains include the
et al., 1993), melting of an older tonalitic to SiivikkovaaraKellojrvi area in the Kuhmo
dioritic basement can easily be integrated belt (Papunen, 1960; Hanski, 1980; Halkoaho
with constraints from field mapping. The later et al., 2000), the Taivaljrvi area in the Tipas-
stage of deformation of the Kovero schist belt jrvi belt (Taipale, 1988; Papunen et al., 1989),
includes NEE-directed folding and thrusting and the Saarikyl (Engel and Dietz, 1989) and
that appears to control the emplacement of Kiannanniemi areas in the Suomussalmi belt
discordant felsic granitic sheets within older where, because of the potential for komatiite-
quartz dioritic-tonalitic-granodioritic plutons, hosted nickel mineralization, detailed field
including the Pogosta granodiorite, which has studies have been undertaken to better char-
a zircon age of 2724 5 Ma (Vaasjoki et al., acterize volcanic facies and eruptive processes
1993). However, it should be noted that this (Papunen et al., 2001). Although there is no
later magmatism is not exclusively trondhje- reason to correlate the supracrustal belts of
mitic. Potassic monzogranites are prominent the Ilomantsi and Kianta terrains, the general
and widespread, as stromatic highly strained similarities in structural architecture, and age
migmatites and discrete plutons along the and lithological characteristics of granitoids
western margin of the Kovero supracrustal suggests that by at least 2.74 Ga, they were
belt (Figure 2.8H). They are also distinctly developing as a single coherent terrane in

2900E 3000E
0 5 10
km
RUSSIA
Jumaliskyl
Moisiovaara
6430N
Hrmnkyl
Koskenmki
Kuhmo
Kuhmo greenstone belt

Polymictic conglomerates, turbiditic
graywackes, and sericitic quartzites Kianta terrain
Intermediate and felsic volcanic Post-Archean porphyritic monzo-
rocks and volcaniclastic deposits granite (2.452.39 Ga)
Tonalite and granodiorite intrusive
Komatiites and komatiitic olivine into greenstone belt rock units
( pyroxene) cumulates
Monzogranite intrusions post-dating
Mg-rich tholeiitic basalts and kom- greenstone belt rock units
atiitic basalts
Highly strained to cataclastic leuco-
Fe-rich tholeiitic basalts tonalite and leucotonalites
Tonalitic-trondhjemitic-granodioritic
Layered hornblende gabbros and migmatites and pelitic gneisses
uralite porphyry intrusives
Banded amphibolite, typically migmatites and gneisses, including
derived from tholeiitic basalts granulite facies domains
Fig. 2.9. Principal geological features of the Kuhmo greenstone belt and surrounding Kianta terrain (af-
ter Luukkonen and Sorjonen-Ward, 1998). Semitransparent gray texturing in Kianta terrain to the east
of the Kuhmo greenstone belt relates to total magnetic intensity recorded by regional airborne surveys
(reproduced from Geological Survey of Finland databases). Stronger patterning generally correlates with
either higher metamorphic grade or less intense Paleoproterozoic hydration and retrogression.

2900E
0 5 10
km
Post-Archean rock units

Iivaara alkaline intrusive complex (Late
Devonian)
Nrnkvaara layered mafic intrusive
complex (2.452.39 Ga)
Archean rock units

Younger granitoid intrusions
Tonalite and granodiorite intrusive into
greenstone belt rock units
Monzogranite intrusions post-dating
greenstone belt rock units
Peranka Selkoskyl
Younger greenstones (Saarikyl Group
and correlatives)
Komatiites and komatiitic olivine
( pyroxene) cumulates
Saarikyl
Mafic, intermediate, and felsic volcanic
rocks and volcaniclastic deposits Tormua RUSSIA
Older greenstones (Luoma Group Juntusranta

and correlatives)
Mafic, intermediate, and felsic volcanic Kiannanniemi
Banded amphibolite, typically as enclaves in
older TTG migmatites
Older granitoids 6500N

migmatites and gneisses
Fig. 2.10. Principal geological features of the Suomussalmi greenstone belt of the Kianta terrain (after
Luukkonen and Sorjonen-Ward, 1998).
response to the same craton-wide tectonomag- coherent way led to considerable controversy,
matic processes. due to the use of different isotope techniques.
The relationships between the greenstone This was principally manifest in Rb-Sr whole-
belts of the Kianta terrain and surrounding rock ages being systematically younger than
granite-gneiss terrains have also been studied zircon ages from the same plutonic rocks (Mar-
in detail. However, the earliest attempts to date tin et al., 1984; Luukkonen, 1985; Halliday et
magmatic processes and tectonic events in a al., 1988; Martin and Barbey, 1988; Martin,

1989; Vaasjoki, 1989). Those who favored the greenstone belts after 2.74 Ga (Luukkonen,
zircon dates as recording plutonic ages argued 1988a, 1992; Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1997). The
that there was widespread resetting of the Rb- petrogenetic studies of Martin et al. (1983a,b)
Sr system during a Paleoproterozoic thermal and Martin (1986, 1987a,b) have also provided
event. In contrast, those who claimed that the the basis for generic comparisons of calc-al-
Rb-Sr data were robust records of igneous kaline plutonic magmatism in Archean and
cooling interpreted the older zircon ages as younger convergent regimes.
representing xenocrysts inherited from the
melting of older crust. Although this particular Suomussalmi greenstone belt
controversy has been conclusively settled in The Suomussalmi greenstone belt is located
favor of magmatic zircon reflecting emplace- at the northern end of the Kianta terrain,
ment (Martin, 1989; Vaasjoki, 1989; Vaasjoki where northerly trends abruptly change to an
et al., 1999), other studies have demonstrated easterly trend, marking the boundary with the
the inheritance of older zircon in some parts Koillismaa terrain (Figure 2.10). Two distinct
of the Karelian domain (Sorjonen-Ward and geological units have been recognized in the
Claou-Long, 1993; Vaasjoki et al., 1993) and Suomussalmi greenstone belt, the Luoma
the issue is still highly relevant, especially for Group and Saarikyl Group, separated by a
felsic volcanic rocks. Moreover, all of these mylonitic zone with intense albite-sericite
studies have effectively drawn attention to the alteration. Isotope age determinations indi-
complexity of the region, and demonstrated cate that the Luoma Group may be the oldest
that crustal evolution involved at least two well-preserved supracrustal unit documented
major stages, with considerable tectonic and from Finland (Vaasjoki et al., 1999). However,
thermal reworking. Thus, the earliest well- although Engel and Dietz (1989) proposed
documented event in the Kianta terrain was that an angular discordance existed between
amphibolite to granulite facies metamor- the Luoma and Saarikyl groups, no informa-
phism and formation of tonalitetrondhjemite tion is available concerning the structural and
migmatites during pervasive deformation at metamorphic history of the Luoma Group
2843 18 Ma (D2 event of Luukkonen, 1985, prior to deposition of the Saarikyl Group.
1988a). Some evidence exists for eruption of Both units were, however, affected by the main
mafic lavas (now greenstones) on this older pervasive deformation recorded throughout
continental substrate and has led to the cur- the Kuhmo and Suomussalmi greenstone belts,
rently preferred model of the greenstone belt and were intruded by granitoids around 2.7 Ga
as essentially an ensialic rift (Luukkonen, (Patchett et al., 1981).
1988a, 1992). Luukkonen (1988b) dated a The Luoma Group consists of mafic,
differentiated mafic sill, which is believed to intermediate, and felsic lavas and pyroclastic
be cogenetic with the greenstone sequence rocks which were deposited in shallow water
at 2790 12 Ma, while Tulenheimo (1999) or possibly even in a subaerial environment,
reported an age of 2757 20 Ma from an ultra- and include sporadic stratiform Ag-Zn-Pb
mafic cumulate complex that has assimilated mineralization (Kopperoinen and Tuokko,
granitic wallrocks. These relationships are of 1988). The presence of andesitic compositions
fundamental significance to any interpretation is rather unusual for Archean rocks in Finland,
of the evolution of the region as they imply as is the U-Pb zircon age of 2966 9 Ma.
that the migmatites do in some sense form a Whole-rock Rb-Sr results (Martin and Querr,
basement to the Kuhmo greenstone belt. The 1984) and Pb-Pb isotope data (Vidal et al.,
second major phase of granite generation and 1980) nevertheless indicate that the rocks of
intrusion accompanied the deformation of the the Luoma Group were subjected to some

kind of thermal disturbance at 2500 100 Ma, 1980; Jahn et al., 1980; Martin et al., 1984; Pii-
which has not been recorded in other parts of rainen and Taipale, 1985; Luukkonen, 1988a;
the Suomussalmi greenstone belt (Vaasjoki Halkoaho and Pietikinen, 1999; Papunen et
et al., 1999). Given that there is evidence for al., 2001). Stratigraphic relationships are rela-
zircon inheritance and heterogeneity in other tively well understood, and many units can be
felsic sequences in Finland (Vaasjoki et al., traced along the entire length of the belt, and
1993), it is also conceivable that the eruptive indeed correlated with equivalent stratigraphic
age of the Luoma Group age is considerably levels in the Tipasjrvi supracrustal belt to the
younger, especially in view of the fact that south, and the Suomussalmi greenstone belt
these rocks do not record the 2.862.83 Ga to the north. In general, the greenstone belt
migmatite event documented throughout the defines a synclinorial structure, formed during
Kianta terrain, but instead display typical D3 regional D3 deformation (Luukkonen, 1988a,
structures (Luukkonen, 1985, 1988a). 1992). Even though strain is locally intense,
The Saarikyl Group in the eastern and primary depositional and eruptive features are
central part the Suomussalmi greenstone belt widely preserved (Figure 2.11A). The strati-
is dominated by komatiitic olivine (pyrox- graphic sequence appears to begin with felsic
ene) cumulates and komatiitic and tholeiitic volcanic rocks, but is dominated by mafic
basalts (Figure 2.11D). These rocks represent rocks. The former are found as several isolated
the deeply eroded remnants of shield vol- occurrences along the eastern and western
canoes or lava ridges formed by submarine marginal areas of the Kuhmo greenstone belt
fissure eruptions. The komatiitic olivine and are correlated stratigraphically with the
(pyroxene) cumulates probably represent more extensive Koivumki Formation in the
deeply eroded parts of the lava flows and/or Tipasjrvi supracrustal belt (see below). This
the lava channels of this large lava complex. is consistent with U-Pb zircon ages of 2798
The komatiitic and tholeiitic basalts are mas- 15 Ma from the Juurikkaniemi Group in the
sive, with pillow structures, but because of Ontojrvi area and 2810 48 Ma from the
the intense deformation primary structures felsic unit at Vuosanka (Luukkonen, 1992).
have often been destroyed. Layered mafic However, primary stratigraphical transitions
sills up to tens of meters thick intrude the between felsic and inferred overlying mafic
lavas. Intermediate and felsic volcanic rocks, volcanic rocks have not been observed. In
volcaniclastic rocks, and graphitic schists the northern part of the Kuhmo greenstone
overlie the mafic lavas. A number of nickel belt, at Moisiovaara, mafic sills have been
prospects have been identified in association dated to 2790 18 Ma (Luukkonen, 1988b).
with the komatiitic and tholeiitic cumulates, These provide important constraints to the
such as at Hietaharju and Peura-aho (Kojonen, geodynamic setting and timing relationships
1981) and the region is currently under active between various elements of the Kianta ter-
investigation because of its gold prospectivity rain, as komatiitic dikes evidently truncate
(Papunen et al., 2001). tholeiitic banded gneisses that had already
been affected by one or more deformation
events (Figure 2.11B). In the southern part of
Kuhmo greenstone belt the belt, however, the only age determination
The Kuhmo greenstone belt has been the available from within the mafic to ultramafic
subject of detailed study from the point of sequence is 2757 20 Ma (Tulenheimo, 1999).
Archean crustal evolution and komatiitic Therefore, it is possible that stratigraphic or
magmatic processes, as well as for nickel and structural breaks are present.
gold exploration (Papunen, 1960; Hanski, The type stratigraphic sections have been

A B
C D
Fig. 2.11. Representative rock types in the Kianta terrain. (A) Polygonal jointing in komatiite flow at
Ntniemi, in relatively weakly strained domain at southern end of Kuhmo greenstone belt. Scale
bar is approximately 1 dm in length. (B) Intrusive relationships between fine-grained komatiitic dikes
related to the main greenstone sequence in the Kuhmo greenstone belt and older banded tholeiitic
amphibolites. Such relationships are critical in demonstrating that greenstone belt magmatism oc-
curred at least partly within an older continental crustal context. Deformation of komatiitic dikes
relates to the principal tectonomagmatic event recorded through the Kianta and Ilomantsi terrains.
Repolampi, northern end of Kuhmo greenstone belt. Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length. (C)
Complex relationships between deformation, anatexis, and melt migration in multiply deformed
migmatites characteristic in particular of the eastern part of the Kianta terrain. Kelkkakangas, com-
pass diameter is nearly 7 cm. (D) Pillow basalts in low-strain domain at Peura-aho in the Suomus-
salmi greenstone belt. Note hyaloclastic breccia in interstices and amygdales with radiate orientation,
typical for shallow eruption depths. Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length. Photos: Peter Sorjonen-
Ward.
defined in the Siivikkovaara area in the south- ogy. Ultramafic rocks (Figure 2.11A) thus
ern part of the belt, where primary features have serpentine-talc-magnesite in cumulus
are best preserved, although nomenclature layers, and tremolite-chlorite-albite-chro-
remains to be formalized (Papunen, 1960; mite-carbonate in former spinifix layers and
Hanski, 1980; Hyppnen, 1983). It should have commonly lost their original magnetic
also be noted that regional metamorphism and character. Mafic rocks contain garnet-horn-
hydrothermal alteration have led to textural blende-plagioclase-chlorite. The lowermost
replacement and loss of primary mineral- and thickest unit exposed is the Pahakangas

Formation (Papunen, 1960; Hanski, 1980; also show subtle differences in chemistry, in-
Halkoaho et al., 2000). This comprises a thick cluding LREE enrichment, that are attributed
succession of submarine massive and pillowed to assimilation of felsic material. Further
tholeiitic basalt flows, commonly separated evidence of assimilation, and confirmation of
by magnetite-grunerite-quartz BIF horizons a rifted continental crustal setting is indicated
that show considerable variations in thickness, by the presence of granitic enclaves in serpen-
suggesting that the basalts also accumulated in tinite cumulate bodies.
a regional topographic depression. Individual The Kellojrvi cumulate complex is 24
flows may attain a thickness of 70 m, and the km2 in extent and consists of serpentinites
total sequence exceeds 1000 m. and talc-magnesite rocks derived principally
Gruau et al. (1992) discussed the effects from olivine adcumulates and mesocumulates
of Proterozoic metamorphism with respect to and minor olivine-clinopyroxene adcumulates.
REE mobility and Sm-Nd isotope resetting in An original thickness of 1.52.5 km has been
the Siivikkovaara area, so that geochemical inferred. Sheared mylonitic talc-carbonate
data need to be selected and evaluated care- rocks occur at tectonic contacts between
fully. Pahakangas tholeiitic basalts were also the cumulates and the granodioritic country
subject to primary or diagenetic interaction rocks. However, erosional and flow structures
with intercalated BIF but in general display are well preserved within the complex, while
flat REE patterns and lack of Eu anomalies, detailed mapping of the marginal zones has
as would be expected from the primitive char- demonstrated partial melting and assimila-
acter of the melt. tion in several areas, thus providing evidence
The basaltic Pahakangas phase of vol- for eruption on an older granitic substrate
canism terminated with the deposition of a (Halkoaho et al., 1996; Tulenheimo, 1999).
sulfide-facies iron-formation, followed by As a result, the margins of the complex are
eruption of komatiitic lavas that represent characterized by hybrid cumulates of pyrox-
both distal and proximal flow regimes. The Sii- enitic composition, varying from 20 to 50 m
vikko komatiitic volcanism includes abundant thick. There is therefore abundant evidence for
relatively thin lava flows, especially towards interaction between the komatiitic cumulates
the base but also a significant proportion of and a felsic substrate. Enclaves of Pahakangas-
cumulates, in particular the Kellojrvi cumu- type tholeiites moreover indicate the complex
late complex. Four zircon fractions from the extruded through the earlier lavas and to the
Niittylahti gabbro, which belongs to the Kel- surface. Mobilization of granitic country rock
lojrvi cumulate complex, yielded a U-Pb age in this way can clearly lead to potential con-
of 2757 20 Ma, which is so far the only direct fusion when attempting to determine timing
date obtained from the mafic and ultramafic relationships between greenstones and grani-
sequence (Tulenheimo, 1999). toid magmatism.
The base of the Siivikko volcanic phase Although significantly disrupted by small-
is marked by tremolite rock interpreted as scale faulting, the upper part of the section
a product of assimilation of underlying BIF at Siivikkovaara shows a transition from
by komatiitic magma. The first three flows komatiite to pillowed and variolitic komatiitic
recorded are fractionated with orthocumulate high-Mg basalts and eventually to a distinctive
and spinifex textures, overlain by a large num- suite of Cr-rich basalts (Halkoaho et al., 2000).
ber of flows characterized by orthocumulates, The high-Cr basalts are also associated with
polygonal jointing and flow top breccias, sug- sporadic komatiite flows but are distinguished
gesting a progressively increasing supply of from the underlying high-Mg komatiitic ba-
magma or proximity to vent. The lower flows salts by Cr values ranging from 1300 to 4500

ppm. Quartz-filled drainage cavities in some previously deformed banded amphibolites in
pillows indicate shallow water depths for the northern part of the Kuhmo greenstone
eruption and flows range from 0.5 to 5 m in belt, and also the evidence for assimilation
thickness. No evidence of relict chromite or of crustal material recorded in the Kellojrvi
chromian magnetite has been found, despite cumulate complex. There is little doubt that
the preservation of these minerals in other, plume impingement beneath late Archean
equally metamorphosed and recrystallized continental crust could also trigger partial
rock types in the Kuhmo greenstone belt. melting of the lower crust, given fertile rock
Therefore Halkoaho et al. (2000) considered compositions, in which case bimodal magma-
that Cr was originally in clinopyroxene rather tism could also be explained. If this were the
than spinel. Because there is no evidence for case, there ought to be geochemical and miner-
cumulate concentrations of clinopyroxene alogical evidence for melting at relatively low
in these flows, nor hydrothermal alteration, pressures, compared to slab or mantle wedge
Halkoaho et al. (2000) concluded that the Cr melting in subduction zones.
enrichment was a primary magmatic feature
related to a relatively low oxygen fugacity in Tipasjrvi greenstone belt
the source region, but were unable to estab- The Tipasjrvi greenstone belt is considered
lish whether this was an inherent feature of to be a southwards continuation of the Kuhmo
the Archean mantle or a relatively local phe- and Suomussalmi greenstone belts (Figures
nomenon, possibly related to fractionation of 2.2 and 2.5). It forms two narrow branching
olivine from the associated komatiites. belts of predominantly mafic and felsic volca-
The Cr basalt and komatiite sequence nic rocks, each just under 30 km long, with a
at Siivikkovaara area are evidently overlain maximum width of 4 km. Depositional young-
discordantly by a poorly exposed sequence ing directions are sporadically preserved in the
of graded and current-bedded mafic to felsic western branch (Taipale, 1988; Taipale et al.,
pyroclastic and epiclastic deposits, including 1993) and indicate a tight synformal structure,
lahar breccias that contain clasts of komatiite possibly with tectonic repetition of strati-
and high-Cr basalt; no basement granitoid graphy as well. Intense sericitic and kyanite
clasts have been found (Nieminen, 1998). hydrothermal alteration is associated with the
Various tectonic and magmatic models felsic pyroclastic deposits, including quartz-
have been presented to explain the origin of the phyric crystal tuffs, that host the Taivaljrvi
mafic and ultramafic volcanism of the Kuhmo Ag-Pb-Zn deposit (Kopperoinen and Tuokko,
greenstone belt, including gravitational insta- 1988; Papunen et al., 1989). Metamorphism
bility on a continental substrate (Barbey et al., of altered rocks has locally produced kyanite-
1984) and arc volcanism above a subduction quartz and plagioclase-cordierite assemblages.
zone that generated TTG magmatism, presum- According to Taipale (1983, 1988) and Koppe-
ably during the regional D3 event (Piirainen, roinen and Tuokko (1988), the felsic volcanic
1988). Luukkonen (1992) did not couple the rocks form the lower part of the stratigraphic
mafic and ultramafic volcanism to granitoid sequence, defined as the Koivumki Forma-
generation and compressive deformation but tion. The transition to the overlying Vuo-
proposed that the greenstone belt was initiated riniemi Formation is marked by the onset of
by rifting of a continental substrate due to the sporadic mafic volcanism, though a hiatus is
impingement of a mantle plume at the base indicated by the presence of a persistent hori-
of the lithosphere (cf. Campbell and Griffiths, zon of sulfidic and graphitic siliceous pelites
1992). This concept is consistent with the evi- and magnetite facies BIF. These are overlain
dence for komatiitic and mafic sills truncating by tholeiitic basalts, basaltic tuffs, distinctive

Cr-rich basalts and komatiitic lavas with spini- rozoic in age and consists of porphyritic
fex structure, assigned to the Kallio Formation granite plutons and dike swarms, in places
and finally by mica schists. Zircons from felsic with rapakivi feldspar texture, and is clearly
volcanic rocks within the ore zone have been discordant with respect to Archean orogenic
dated at 2791 8 Ma, which is considered to structures (Figure 2.9). The U-Pb zircon date
be one of the more reliable age constraints on of 2435 12 Ma (Luukkonen, 1988a) shows
volcanism in the Kianta terrain (Vaasjoki et that these represent a bimodal aspect to the
al., 1999). Galena, pyrite, and sphalerite from extensive mafic layered intrusive complexes,
the Taivaljrvi deposit have also been analysed which can be traced across the northern end
and are relatively homogeneous with respect of the Ranua terrain, and along the boundary
to Pb characteristics. Moreover, the galena between the Koillismaa and Kianta terrains
isotope composition lies along the same chord (Figures 2.10 and 2.12; Chapter 3).
as whole-rock Pb-Pb results from unaltered Regional mapping to the east of the Kuh-
host rocks, suggesting a close relationship be- mo greenstone belt has shown that this area is
tween volcanism and mineralization (Vaasjoki dominated by complex and diverse stromatic
et al., 1999). If correlation with the Kuhmo and nebulitic migmatites, typically tonalitic to
greenstone belt is attempted, the Tipasjrvi trondhjemitic in composition (Figure 2.11C),
greenstone belt corresponds to the upper part with abundant enclaves of banded mafic am-
of the sequence at Kuhmo. The Hattu schist phibolites (Luukkonen, 1986, 1987, 1993).
belt shows many lithological similarities with Compositionally, the banded amphibolites
the Tipasjrvi greenstone belt, and there too, were Fe-rich tholeiites, of uncertain age, and
mafic to ultramafic volcanic rocks occur to- were regarded by Luukkonen (1992) as dis-
wards the top of a substantial felsic volcanic rupted remnants of an earlier mafic crust that
and epiclastic succession. However, current was isotopically homogenized during a major
age constraints preclude direct correlation, melting event, accompanying amphibolite
the lowest exposed rock units in the Hattu facies metamorphism and pervasive ductile
schist belt being some 40 Ma younger than deformation. This event was classified as D2 in
at Tipasjrvi. An appraisal of the possibility the regional structural framework established
of variable degrees of zircon heterogeneity, by Luukkonen (1985, 1988b). Enveloping
either inherited from source regions, or by surfaces to D2 structures are typically gently
wall-rock contamination during ascent and to moderately dipping, though locally steeper,
eruption, may be warranted, but is beyond the in contrast to the generally steep structures
scope of this review. associated with the younger stages of deforma-
tion. The composite S1-S2 fabric and differen-
Granitoids, gneisses, and crustal tiated banding in the amphibolites is defined
evolution in the Kianta terrain by dimensional alignment of plagioclase and
The granitoids and migmatites of the Kianta hornblende or actinolite. This pervasive and
terrain have been studied intensively with widepsread tectonic and magmatic event has
respect to structural evolution (Luukkonen, been dated by several isotope methods, includ-
1985, 1988a, 1992) and petrogenesis (Martin ing a Rb-Sr whole-rock isochron of 2.86
et al., 1983a,b, 1984; Martin, 1987a,b). Reso- 0.09 Ga for tonalitic gneisses, corroborated
lution of apparent contradictions in isotope by Sm-Nd studies (Martin et al., 1983a). The
dating (Martin, 1989; Vaasjoki, 1989) has paleosome from banded migmatites at Lyly-
now led to a consensus from which it is clear vaara also yielded a zircon U-Pb age of 2843
that three stages of granitic magmatism are 18 Ma (Luukkonen, 1985).
represented. The last of these is Paleoprote- Martin et al. (1983a,b) and Martin (1987a,

b) referred to these banded migmatitic rocks as source that underwent melting in the stability
the Kivijrvi gray gneisses and have attempted field of garnet and hornblende, Martin (1986,
to model their origin and crystallization. Com- 1987a,b) then argued that the Archean oro-
positionally they represent tonalites, trond- genic geothermal gradient permitted melting
hjemites and granodiorites, in which banding of subducted ocean crust, before the subducted
is due to variations in mafic mineral abun- slab was completely dehydrated.
dances, notably biotite and hornblende, with This older generation of TTG intrusions
felsic minerals being plagioclase and quartz; apparently formed the basement to the supra-
potassium feldspar is present but rare. crustal magmatism of the Kuhmo greenstone
Chemically these rocks are typical for belt (Luukkonen, 1988a, 1992; Lukkonen and
Archean TTG series granitoids, though nota- Sorjonen-Ward, 1998, Piirainen, 1988). This
bly peraluminous. Initial Sr isotope ratios are has been deduced primarily from truncation
low (0.7023), close to the mantle evolution of the pre-D2 foliated mafic amphibolites by
trend for the late Archean; Sm-Nd results and ultramafic dikes at Repolampi (Figure 2.11B),
common lead data (Vidal et al., 1980) also and an extensive differentiated mafic sill at
militate against derivation of these rocks from Moisiovaara, which includes a pegmatoid
a source dominated by isotopically evolved old gabbro phase with zircon dated at 2790 18
continental crust. This places some constraints Ma (Luukkonen, 1988a). No granitoid intru-
on petrogenetic models that require two-stage sions coeval with the felsic volcanism within
melting via a crustal source, rather than direct the Kuhmo greenstone sequences have been
derivation from mantle rocks. Martin (1987a, specifically identified, whereas deformation
b) used fractionation of REE as the basis for of the greenstone belt during the regional
ascertaining likely source compositions for the D3 event of Luukkonen (1985, 1988a) was
TTG magmas, for degrees of partial melting accompanied by widespread granitic mag-
considered realistic under Archean geothermal matism (Figure 2.9). Some of these tonalitic
gradients. Some fractional crystallization of to granodioritic plutons demonstrably intrude
plagioclase and hornblende has evidently oc- supracrustal units of the Kuhmo greenstone
curred, to explain the presence of granodioritic belt, particularly in the south and east of the
compositions, but has not had a significant region (Horneman et al., 1988), and have ages
effect on overall REE patterns, which tend of 2739 8 Ma and 2694 13 Ma (Hyppnen,
to show pronounced HREE depletion, but no 1983).
negative Eu anomaly. As well as discrete plutons, structurally
Martin (1987a,b) concluded that direct controlled magmatism is characteristic of
derivation from mantle rocks, whether mod- D3, represented by agmatites and neosomes
eled with spinel lherzolite or garnet lherzolite intruded within axial surfaces of F3 folds,
compositions failed to produce REE fraction- both within the Kuhmo greenstone belt and
ation consistent with observed data, nor was in the surrounding older migmatite terrain
high degree of melting of tholeiitic basalt un- (Luukkonen, 1985, 1988a). Chemically and
der eclogite facies conditions appropriate. On petrographically, the D3 intrusions resemble
the other hand, tholeiitic amphibolites contain- the earlier generation of TTG magmas (Martin
ing 1025% residual garnet, at 1045% melt- et al., 1983a,b; Martin, 1987b; Horneman et
ing produced REE fractionation patterns, high al., 1988) and also have a low intial Sr isotope
La/Yb ratios and depleted Yb values within ratio (0.7024), suggesting similar melting
the range observed for the Kivijrvi gneisses. conditions and sources.
After concluding that the TTG magmas were In general, contacts between the green-
extracted from a relatively young tholeiitic stones and the older TTG migmatites were

Post-Archean rock units
Kuopio (K-Kuo) A
and Kaavi (K-Kaa) hja o
kimberlite clusters p
o am
r Ranua us
Neoproterozoic red- Pe terrain Posio Ku
bed sequence
Svecofennian granites Ranua Koillismaa
with partial derivation
from Archean crust terrain
Paleoproterozoic Simo
supracrustal units Kemi
Paleoproterozoic Simo Oijrvi Taivalkoski
(2.452.39 Ga) mafic
layered intrusions Siurua
Kianta
Significant Svecofennian deformation zones Pudasjrvi terrain
Boundaries between Archean rock units
Simo granitic gneiss complex

Oijrvi greenstone belt
Siurua granulite and granite complex Puolanka mmnsaari
Highly strained supracrustal gneisses
Sii Siilinjrvi carbonatite complex

Var Varpaisjrvi granulite complex
Rau Rautavaara gneiss complex u
Man Manamansalo granitic gneiss complex Man a inu
K
Pir Pirttimki granitic gneiss complex
Kaj Kajaani granitic gneiss complex
Pir Kajaani
Kaj
Iisalmi
terrain
Rau
Var
Iisalmi Rautavaara
Varpaisjrvi
Sii
B Siilinjrvi
K-Kuo
K-Kaa
vo
Sa Kuopio
Outokumpu
0 50
km

obscured, or tectonically modified during D3 Haasianvaara tonalite and its amphibolitic and
such that the boundary zone is typically marked felsic supracrustal enclaves may correlate with
by leucocratic medium-grained foliated and the 2.862.83 Ga amphibolite facies deforma-
nebulitic cataclastic tonalite (Luukkonen, tion and migmatite event in the northern part
1988a,b). The D3 event has been responsible of the Kianta terrain (Martin et al., 1983a;
for imparting the presently observed structural Luukkonen, 1985, 1988a, 1992). However, if a
architecture of the Kuhmo greenstone belt, in basement cover interface is preserved in this
which NNE dextral transpression and EW area, the resultant structural pattern becomes
compression has produced a combination of quite complex, and considerable tectonic dis-
fold interference patterns and dextral brittle placement might be invoked.
ductile shear zones (Figure 2.9). Neosomes Each of the tonalitic rock types defined
are also present in generally NW-trending D4 by Horneman and Hyvrinen (1989) show
shears and have been dated at 2657 32 Ma major and trace element trends typical for
(Luukkonen, 1985). the late Archean tonalitetrondhjemite as-
Horneman and Hyvrinen (1989) also sociation, despite the significant differences
distinguished a diverse range of plutonic rock in age. Horneman (1990) attributed the REE
types surrounding the Tipasjrvi greenstone characteristics of the tonalitic magmatism to
belt, including a continuum from stromatic melting of mafic lower crust under amphibolite
and nebulitic migmatic gneisses, to discrete facies conditions such that garnet and horn-
plutons, varying in composition from tonalite blende were retained in the source (cf. Martin
to monzogranite. The nature of contact rela- et al., 1983b; Martin, 1986, 1987a). The as-
tionships between supracrustal rocks and the sumed mafic source is believed to have been
granitoids is generally equivocal or unknown, enriched in incompatible elements over MORB
although deformation events are shared by both tholeiites, due to hydrothermal alteration or
the greenstones and granitoids (Horneman and metasomatism and interaction with overlying
Hyvrinen, 1989). This is unfortunate, as for crust during slab dehydration and melt migra-
example, the Haasianvaara tonalite along the tion (Condie, 1986; Martin, 1987b). More
northwestern margin of the greenstone belt has nebulitic and deformed tonalitic intrusions,
a concordant and rather precise age of 2830 2 that appear to be transitional into the supra-
Ma (Horneman and Hyvrinen, 1989; Vaasjoki crustal Nurmes gneiss complex, occur to the
et al., 1999). A somewhat younger age of 2826 south of the Tipasjrvi greenstone belt. For
14 Ma has been obtained for lithologically these rocks, a metasomatized mantle compo-
similar tonalites along the southeastern margin sition enriched in LREE would be also be an
of the greenstone belt, at Huuskonvaara (Vaas- appropriate source, although modeled chem-
joki et al., 1999). If these dates relate to the istry would better match melting at somewhat
emplacement age, then it is quite significant, greater depth, with garnet dominating in the
being a potential example of older basement, residual phase. This Halmejrvi-type of tona-
in either depositional or tectonic contact with litic magmatism (Horneman and Hyvrinen,
the Tipasjrvi supracrustal sequence. Horne- 1989) has been dated to 2745 8 Ma, which
man and Hyvrinen (1989) speculated that the is very similar to that of the tonalites intruding
Fig. 2.12. (facing page) Principal features of the Ranua and Iisalmi terrains of the Karelian domain. (A)
Distribution of major crustal units described in this review. (B) Folded stromatic migmatite of the
Simo terrain. Kuivaniemi, near Simo. (C) Typical examples of complex interaction between deforma-
tion and magmatic processes within migmatites of the Simo terrain. Kuivaniemi, near Simo. Compass
diameter is nearly 7 cm. Photos: Peter Sorjonen-Ward.

the Hattu schist belt (Vaasjoki et al., 1993). weathering, and provenance composition. The
Horneman (1989) also recognized two distinct positive correlation between Mg+Fe and K is
groups of felsic granitoids, one of which can taken to indicate the separation of clay and
be seen as part of a compositional continuum sand during sedimentary processes, whereas
from tonalite to trondhjemite, derived from negative correlation between Mg+Fe and Ca
the same amphibolitic source, or by melting is seen as evidence for chemical weathering
of tonalite during a later event; similarities and as a useful criterion for confirming a
in zircon ages (Horneman and Hyvrinen, sedimentary rather than igneous origin for
1989; Vaasjoki et al., 1999) would favor the the gneisses. High Cr, Ni, and V contents at
former alternative. The second group of felsic elevated (6768 wt.%) SiO2 contents are also
granitoids ranges from granodiorite to mon- an indication of both a sedimentary origin, and
zogranite, typically with more fractionated a mixed felsic and mafic provenance, charac-
REE patterns and Eu depletion, attributed to teristic of many Archean gneiss terrains (cf.
melting of the tonalitetrondhjemite series Taylor and McLennan, 1985; Sawyer, 1986).
granitoids during a later event, with preferen- When data are normalized against the Post-
tial retention of plagioclase in the source. This Archean Australian Shale (PAAS; Taylor and
intepretation is supported by their late posi- McLennan, 1985), the Nurmes gneisses are
tion in the sequence, heterogeneity of zircon seen to be impoverished in large ion lithophile
populations and the considerable scatter in elements, suggesting a more primitive source.
Pb isotope data from feldspars (Halla, 1998, On the other hand, data are very similar to
2002), although the effect of Svecofennian those published from the Quetico belt, which
thermal and tectonic events in this area needs has been interpreted as a fore-arc sequence
to be considered as well. derived from a juvenile calc-alkaline arc
(Sawyer, 1986).
Nurmes gneiss complex The Nurmes gneisses also compare well
Kontinen (1991) proposed that metasedi- with the metasediments of the Hattu schist
mentary gneisses and stromatic to nebulitic belt (OBrien et al., 1993a). There are no con-
migmatites form a major component of the straints on polarity of deformation, nor have
western and southern Kianta terrain (Figure structural relationships with other elements of
2.5), and that they can be distinguished both the Kianta and Ilomantsi terrains been estab-
chemically and texturally from migmatites lished, so that it is not yet possibly to determine
and gneisses of plutonic origin. At outcrop whether the Nurmes gneiss complex could
scale, lithological and compositional banding represent an accretionary prism related to the
is evident, suggestive of relict depositional Ilomantsi terrain. Provisional age data, indi-
layering, despite the presence of concordant cating a minimum depositional age of 2720
leucotonalitic leucosomes, which might be an Ma and evidence that 2.68 Ga Konivaara-type
expression of in situ partial melting as well as granodiorites truncate gneissic banding (Asko
externally derived melt injection. Granoblastic Kontinen, pers. comm., 2002) are at least
biotite-plagioclase gneisses are predominant, consistent with such a hypothesis. Vaasjoki et
with additional alternations between quartz- al. (1999) dated pelitic gneiss enclaves from
plagioclase and thinner garnet-biotite-plagio- within migmatitc tonalites located close to the
clase layers, the latter commonly containing boundary zone between the Nurmes gneiss
relatively abundant graphite and sulfides. terrain and the Tipasjrvi greenstone belt.
Chemical data from paleosomes were Ages obtained, although not precise (2748
interpreted by Kontinen (1991) to reflect a 10 Ma or 2715 20 Ma, depending on which
combination of degree of hydraulic sorting, fractions are assigned greater significance),

nevertheless fall within a range appropriate et al., 2000b). However, the negative initial Nd
for Ilomantsi terrain provenance, rather than values recorded by Svecofennian granitoids
Kianta terrain volcanism. Reconnaissance intruding the Iisalmi terrain (Huhma, 1986;
data on enveloping surfaces of structures and Ruotoistenmki et al., 2001) also indicate
lithological layering (Taipale et al., 1993; Asko partial melting of deep Archean crust during
Kontinen and Erkki Luukkonen, unpublished the later stages of the Svecofennian orogeny,
data) support the concept of combined NNE- at 1.861.85 Ga. In the western part of the
thrusting and transpression, both within and Iisalmi terrain, these intrusions appear to show
along the boundary zone between the Kianta brittle intrusive features, while Svecofennian
and Ilomantsi terrains (Figure 2.5). resetting of K-Ar biotite ages (Kontinen et
al., 1992) and epidote-albite assemblages in
2.3. Iisalmi terrain retrograde shear zones suggest a greenschist
facies overprint at the present erosion level
The Iisalmi terrain (Figures 2.2, 2.5, and 2.12) (Figure 2.13E and F). Therefore, even with a
is particularly important in that the Varpaisjr- modest late orogenic geotherm, partial melting
vi granulite complex, in the western part of the of fertile Archean rocks at around 800 C could
terrain, includes the best documented Archean have occurred at depths of 1520 km below
granulite facies rocks in Finland (Paavola, the present erosion level. It is also important to
1984; Hltt, 1997; Hltt and Paavola, 2000). emphasize that Paleoproterozoic dike swarms
In addition, the terrain records both some of demonstrably truncate metamorphic boundar-
the oldest and youngest Archean events in the ies within the Iisalmi terrain, while recording
Fennoscandian Shield, namely paleosomes the Svecofennian greenschist facies overprint.
of magmatic gneisses dated to nearly 3.2 Ga This clearly demonstrates not only that the
(Paavola, 1986; Hltt et al., 2000a; Mnttri granulite facies metamorphism recorded in
and Hltt, 2002), and the 2.6 Ga Siilinjrvi parts of the Iisalmi terrain is of Archean age,
carbonatite complex (Puustinen, 1971; Patchett but also that exhumation of the granulites was
et al., 1981; Lukkarinen, 2000a). The existence not merely a consequence of Svecofennian
of two distinct Paleozoic kimberlite provinces collisional processes.
within the Iisalmi terrain also provides an
excellent opportunity for investigating the Proterozoic reworking and the
composition and thermal evolution of the boundaries of the Iisalmi terrain
deep crust over time (Kukkonen and Peltonen, The boundaries of the Iisalmi terrain at the
1999; Peltonen et al., 1999; Hltt et al., present erosion level nevertheless substantially
2000b). Crustal-scale seismic refraction stud- reflect Proterozoic events (Figure 2.12). It
ies have also shown that the Moho beneath the is indeed possible that it has been displaced
Iisalmi terrain is unusually deep, with an esti- in its entirety with respect to other terrains
mated present crustal thickness of 5560 km, of the Karelian domain, as first suggested
compared to more typical values of around 40 by Vyrynen (1939). The Iisalmi terrain is
km beneath the Kianta terrain (Korja et al., separated in the northwest from the Ranua
1993; Korsman et al., 1999). This anomalous terrain by the NNE-trending Oulujrvi shear
crustal thickness is likely a consequence of zone (Krki et al., 1993). Within this broad
several processes, including thrust stacking deformation zone, Archean rocks have been
during Svecofennian collision and post-col- tectonically reworked and emplaced over
lisional underplating, the latter being inferred Proterozoic rocks of the Kainuu schist belt
from by U-Pb zircon ages obtained from mafic and intruded by Proterozoic granites, such
lower crustal xenoliths in kimberlites (Hltt that they form several isolated units (Krki et

al., 1993; Kontinen, 1993; Lukkarinen, 2000a; Fig. 2.13. (facing page) Representative rock
Vaasjoki et al., 2001), notably the Pirttimki, types from the Iisalmi terrain.
Manamansalo, and Kajaani migmatitic gra- (A) Two-pyroxene garnet amphibolite from Ku-
nitic complexes (Figure 2.12). Likewise, the misevanmki, near Sonkajrvi, within the Varpais-
jrvi granulite complex. Scale bar is approxi-
southern and western margin of the Iisalmi
mately 1 dm in length. Photo: Jorma Paavola.
terrain at the present erosion level can only be
(B) Quartz-chlorite-cordierite assemblage in
defined in terms of the effects of Proterozoic hydrothermally altered schists derived from an
tectonic reworking. In this region, the Arche- inferred mafic protolith, at Lumimki, within the
anProterozoic interface, commonly marked Rautavaara gneiss complex. These rocks typi-
by a recognizable depositional unconformity cally also record a Proterozoic retrograde
(Korkiakoski and Laajoki, 1988; Pietikinen amphibolite facies history, superimposed upon
and Vaasjoki, 1999; Lukkarinen, 2000a), has medium-pressure late Archean metamorphism.
been deformed into complex domal interfer- Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length. Photo:
ence patterns. This pattern has been variously Jorma Paavola.
attributed to diapiric instability (Eskola, 1949; (C) Coarse potassium feldspar phenocrysts
Brun, 1980), or fold interference (Park, 1981); are typical of granodioritic to quartz dioritic
intrusions within the Rautavaara complex and
irrespective of origin the internal structures
Ilomantsi terrain. Scale bar is approximately 1 m
of these domes commonly retain coherent
in length. Photo: Jorma Paavola.
structures of doubtless Archean origin (Park, (D) Archean megacrystic granitoid deformed
1981). More specifically, Proterozoic over- to highly strained mylonite during the Paleopro-
printing can be interpreted as a consequence terozoic Svecofennian orogeny, with feldspar
of thrusting, followed by dextral transpression porphyroclasts representing relict phenocrysts.
within a network of shear zones that juxtapose This strain state is typical over much of the
Svecofennian assemblages directly against eastern part of the Iisalmi terrain. Scale bar
Archean gneisses, with locally intense trans- is approximately 1 dm in length. Photo: Peter
position of Archean structures (cf. Park and Sorjonen-Ward.
Bowes, 1983; Ward, 1984; Kohonen et al., (E) Glimmeritecarbonatite within open pit at
1991; Paavola, 1991; Krki et al., 1993; Luk- Kemira Oy Siilinjrvi apatite mine. Note Prote-
rozoic mafic dikes truncating vertical banded
karinen, 2000a,b). In proximity to some shear
fabric, indicating limited Proterozoic tectonic
zones, strong epidotization and albitization
overprint in western part of Iisalmi terrain.
has transformed the banded migmatites into Photo: Peter Sorjonen-Ward.
almost massive pale-colored mylonitic rocks, (F) Detail of brittleductile carbonatite veins
many with folding and displacements show- intruding glimmerite zone of the Siilinjrvi car-
ing a consistent dextral shear sense (Paavola, bonatite complex, derived from alteration of Ar-
1991). chean granitoid gneisses. Note sharply truncated
The effect of Proterozoic tectonic and ther- Proterozoic mafic dike, indicating that Protero-
mal overprinting increases eastwards through zoic tectonic and thermal overprint was limited.
the Iisalmi terrain such that the prominent Scale bar is approximately 1 dm in length. Photo:
south-plunging linear fabric observed within Peter Sorjonen-Ward.
much of the Rautavaara complex (Paavola,
1980, 1997, 1999) appears to be Svecofen-
nian in origin. Supracrustal gneisses of the
Rautavaara complex record a multiphase
history, resolved as earlier medium-pressure
assemblages superimposed by an amphibolite
facies retrogressive event (Hltt and Paavola,

A B
C D
E F

2000). As Proterozoic mafic dikes are typi- erosion level the granulites are bounded by
cally highly strained and have been recrystal- discrete faults for which variable strike-slip,
lized under amphibolite facies conditions, oblique-slip and dip-slip displacements have
it is therefore reasonable to conclude that been documented (Paavola, 1984; Hltt,
the enclosing Rautavaara complex gneisses 1997). There is nevertheless compelling
also record this Proterozoic amphibolite fa- evidence from which an Archean rather than
cies event. Along the eastern margin of the Proterozoic origin for the observed pattern
Rautavaara complex (Figure 2.5), Archean of metamorphic zonation may be inferred.
migmatitic gneisses have been tectonically Firstly, primary magmatic minerals such as
emplaced over inverted Proterozoic sequences orthopyroxene, and brittle intrusive features
during the Svecofennian orogeny (Frosterus and chilled margins are commonly observed
and Wilkman, 1920; Vyrynen, 1939; Park in Proterozoic dikes, dated from 2.32.1 Ga
and Bowes, 1983; Ward and Kohonen, 1989), (Toivala et al., 1991), in both granulite facies
followed by emplacement of granitic sheets and lower grade rocks in the western part of
with Sm-Nd attributes indicative of an Ar- the Iisalmi terrain. Secondly, Archean K-Ar
chean provenance (Huhma, 1986). Archean ages are recorded for hornblendes and some
porphyritic granitoids (Figure 2.11C) have biotites from the Varpaisjrvi granulites. In
been deformed into mylonitic augen gneisses the adjacent amphibolite facies magmatic
(Figure 2.11D) in which potassium feldspar gneisses Archean hornblende ages are pre-
shows Pb-Pb characteristics consistent with served, whereas biotite ages were reset by
Proterozoic lead loss from an evolved ra- a Proterozoic thermal event (Paavola, 1986;
diogenic precursor (Halla, 1998). A zone of Kontinen et al., 1992). This suggests that
intense sinistral transpressive deformation the western part of the Iisalmi terrain cooled
(Ward and Kohonen, 1989; Kohonen et al., coherently below the biotite blocking tempera-
1991) towards the eastern margin of the terrain ture during the late Archean; the preservation
makes it difficult to define the nature and loca- of Archean biotite ages in the granulites is
tion of the boundary with the Kianta terrain. attributed to their relatively anhydrous nature
Hence the Nunnanlahti greenstone belt, being (Kontinen et al., 1992). Thirdly, the Siilinjrvi
structurally allochthonous could be assigned carbonatite complex was intruded into granitic
to the Iisalmi terrain as well as the Kianta and gneisses of the Iisalmi terrain at 2.612.58 Ga
Ilomantsi terrains (Figure 2.5). (Puustinen, 1971; Patchett et al., 1981; Luk-
karinen, 2000a). Calcite-dolomite equilibria
Origin of the present metamorphic (Puustinen, 1974) and fluid inclusion data
zonation pattern from apatite and zircon (Poutiainen, 1995)
The position of the Iisalmi terrain at the boun- suggest final emplacement and equilibration
dary zone between the Svecofennnian and in a greenschist facies environment, which is
Karelian domains also means that Proterozoic consistent with the brittleductile deformation
thermal and tectonic effects superimposed on style recorded by the apatite bodies and glim-
the Archean bedrock can be studied in detail merite (Figure 2.13E and F). Neither the car-
(Paavola, 1986; Toivala et al., 1991; Kontinen bonatite itself, nor its fenitic alteration aureole
et al., 1992). However, this has made rela- are in direct contact with granulites. However,
tionships with other Archean terrains more because the north-south trend of the carbon-
difficult to establish. Similarly, the nature and atite complex is oblique to the metamorphic
timing of juxtaposition of granulite facies zone boundaries (Figure 2.12), it is likely that
units with lower grade rocks within the ter- the carbonatite magmatism was related to a
rain itself is not entirely clear. At the present separate deformation phase, post-dating the

event that produced the presently observed proximity to the enderbites of the Varpais-
distribution of metamorphic domains. This is jrvi granulite complex, which have U-Pb
also consistent with the lack of evidence for zircon ages around 2.7 Ga (Paavola, 1986).
earliest Proterozoic (2.52.0 Ga) magmatism The granulite facies rocks are conspicuous
or metamorphic cooling events in U-Pb data in regional aeromagnetic data, and tend to
from both the Varpaisjrvi granulites (Hltt define discrete fault bounded blocks. Recent
et al., 2000a), and mafic lower crustal xeno- Sm-Nd isotope studies (Hltt et al., 2000a)
liths extracted from kimberlites (Hltt et al., have confirmed that there are distinct crustal
2000b). subdivisions within the granulites themselves,
All of the above evidence suggests that the while also demonstrating that the protoliths
rocks at the present erosion level in the western to at least some of the enderbitic granulites
part of the Iisalmi terrain experienced a rather have ages up to 3.2 Ga. Nevertheless, some
modest greenschist facies overprint during enderbites have U-Pb zircon ages, inferred
the Svecofennian orogeny. If Proterozoic to represent crystallization, as young as 2.68
deformation had exhumed the Varpaisjrvi Ga (Paavola, 1986), while U-Pb ages from
granulites from deeper levels whether by zircons and monazites are both interpreted to
thrusting or extensional processes then the constrain the peak of granulite metamorphism
orogenic geotherm ought to be recorded in to around 2.63 Ga.
resetting of K-Ar system in hornblende or U- In addition to the predominant hyper-
Pb in titanite (cf. Bibikova et al., 2001). This sthene-bearing enderbites, which range in
is clearly not the case (Kontinen et al., 1992; composition from diorite to tonalite, two-py-
Hltt et al., 2000a). Therefore, exhumation of roxene amphibolites, possibly of volcanogenic
the Varpaisjrvi granulites by listric faulting origin are present (Figure 2.13A), as well
and attenuation of the Karelian domain during as garnet-cordierite-sillimanite and quartz-
Paleoproterozoic rifting (Ward and Kohonen, cordierite rocks (Paavola, 1984, 1988, 1991;
1989) is unlikely. In that case, the observation Hltt, 1997). The Varpaisjrvi granulites do
by Paavola (1991), that mafic dikes tend to be not appear to represent typical restitic and
more abundant in granulite facies rocks, must depleted lower crustal compositions follow-
be attributed to rheological contrasts, rather ing melt extraction. The mafic granulites
than implying that dike abundance relates to intercalated among the enderbites were clas-
crustal depth at the time of emplacement. sified into two distinct geochemical types by
Hltt (1997), and this distinction seems to
Varpaisjrvi granulite complex be reflected isotopically as well (Hltt et al.,
Much of the Iisalmi terrain consists of tona- 2000a). Mafic rocks in the Jonsa block, which
litic and trondhjemitic granitoids and migma- has a younger Sm-Nd model age than other
tites, with variable amounts of concordant Varpaisjrvi granulites, show a greater degree
enclaves of amphibolite. These amphibolite of compositional variation. Moreover, they are
zones may be hundreds of meters wide, associated with quartz-cordierite and cordier-
either homogeneous or banded and contain ite-orthoamphibole-orthopyroxene rocks that
ultramafic enclaves (Paavola, 1988, 1991). apparently represent the metamorphic deriva-
Quartz dioritic paleosomes in some of these tives of basalts and andesites that were hydro-
banded granitoid gneisses have yielded U-Pb thermally altered by interaction with seawater.
zircon ages of 3136 20 Ma and 3095 18 Locally, these distinctive rock compositions
Ma (Paavola, 1986), making them some of have resulted in unusual mineral assemblages,
the oldest rocks exposed in the Fennoscandian including sapphirine and kornerupine.
Shield. These ancient rocks occur in close Hltt and Paavola (2000) documented

a two-stage Archean metamorphic history, While tonalitic-trondhjemitic migmatites
suggesting isothermal decompression and (orthogneisses) are also typical of the Rauta-
speculate that this relates to terrane accretion vaara complex, the most distinctive feature
and crustal thickening. The first metamorphic is the relative abundance of metasedimentary
event was defined at 911 kbar and 800900 and metavolcanic paragneisses, many of which
C, accompanied by partial melting, such have been hydrothermally altered (Paavola,
that the present garnet-plagioclase-pyroxene 1999). This is expressed mineralogically as
assemblages are considered restitic. Melt- assemblages containing kyanite (locally also
ing progress was evidently dependent upon andalusite and sillimanite), cordierite, amphi-
compositional differences, with a greater bole, staurolite, and tourmaline. Quartz-chlo-
abundance of neosomes in Fe-rich intermedi- rite assemblages are also widespread (Figure
ate rocks than in more mafic Mg-rich rocks. 2.13B). The intense Proterozoic overprint
Melting reactions may have been promoted by has made it difficult to document the initial
decompression, with equilibration at 7 kbar Archean metamorphic regime, although it
and 700 C. Hltt and Paavola (2000) also appears likely that there has been a significant
considered the possibility that emplacement of retrograde equilibration from high-grade Ar-
the enderbites might have been responsible for chean assemblages.
the regional scale contact metamorphism in While expressing concerns about the pos-
the lower crust. However, they concluded that sibility of Proterozoic disturbance to U-Pb
the enderbites were intruded up to 50 Ma prior isotope systems, Paavola (1999) conceded that
to the granulite facies metamorphic peak and ages obtained from the Rautavaara complex
attribute the irregular distribution of granulite are significantly younger than those from the
facies assemblages to fluid availability and Iisalmi terrain to the west and the Kianta and
infiltration, rather than lateral variations in Ilomantsi terrains to the east. Tonalite yielded
heat distribution. a zircon age of 2677 10 Ma and a porphyritic
granite 2657 15 Ma; these results do not differ
Rautavaara complex greatly from the younger granite and neosomes
The Rautavaara complex forms the eastern ages reported from the Kianta terrain (Martin
part of the Iisalmi terrain and records intense et al., 1983a,b; Luukkonen, 1985; Vaasjoki et
Proterozoic tectonic and thermal reworking, al., 1999). On the other hand, xenotime from
which becomes progressively stronger east- a quartzite provided a concordant age of 2616
wards, where Archean rocks are demonstra- Ma, which might still be interpreted as a cool-
bly allochthonous and have been emplaced ing age, especially given the 2.63 Ga estimates
over Proterozoic sediments (Frosterus and for peak granulite facies metamorphism in
Wilkman, 1920; Park and Bowes, 1983). Ar- the adjacent Varpaisjrvi granulites. The most
chean structures may therefore be difficult to surprising and anomalous data came, however,
distinguish from Proterozoic overprinting, from an altered metasediment, with an age of
especially given that Proterozoic mafic dikes 2657 20 Ma. If this result represents a mixed
have commonly been sheared and transposed detrital population, and does not record meta-
into near concordance with gneissic band- morphic or magmatic zircon growth, then these
ing. Proterozoic thermal overprinting is also hydrothermally altered rocks are the youngest
recorded in Pb isotope compositions of potas- Archean supracrustal rocks yet found in Fin-
sium feldspar augen in deformed megacrystic land and have some significance in interpreting
granites (Halla, 1998), which are widespread the timing of juxtaposition of the Iisalmi and
in the Rautavaara complex (cf. Frosterus and Kianta and Ilomantsi terrains.
Wilkman, 1920).

2.4. Ranua terrain the Proterozoic, they are likely to have zircon
age spectra identical to that of their late Ar-
The Ranua terrain is an essentially triangular chean source area. This question surrounds
Archean block at the northwestern margin of an extensive and distinctive sequence of meta-
the Karelian domain (Figures 2.2 and 2.12). sedimentary gneisses, known collectively as
To the east, it is separated from the Koillis- the West Puolanka gneisses and the Central
maa and Kianta terrains and the intervening Puolanka Group (Laajoki, 1986). Isotope
Paleoproterozoic Kainuu schist belt by the studies have derived Archean Sm-Nd model
complex Paleoproterozoic Hirvaskoski and ages for pelitic sediments (Kontinen et al.,
Oulujrvi shear zones (cf. Krki et al., 1993), 1996), which accords with dating of zircons
while along its northwestern and southwest- from siliciclastic sediments and inferred felsic
ern margins, it is unconformably overlain by volcaniclastic deposits (Huhma et al., 2000). If
Paleoproterozoic sedimentary and volcanic this is correct, then the West Puolanka gneisses
sequences. The northwestern margin of the and Central Puolanka Group form a distinct
terrain, beneath the unconformity with the supracrustal unit along the eastern margin of
Perpohja supracrustal belt, was also intruded the Ranua terrain. An Archean affinity would
at 2.4 Ga by the KemiPenikatPortimo suite also be consistent with evidence accruing
of mafic layered intrusions (Figure 2.12; from a number of potentially correlative felsic
Chapter 3). This extensive region remains volcanic and sedimentary units farther to the
one of the least understood areas in Finland, north (Rsnen and Vaasjoki, 2001; Rsnen
largely due to a combination of poor exposure, and Huhma, 2001; Evins et al., 2000, 2002).
and the relatively monotonous nature of the Alternatively, Laajoki (Chapter 7) provides
predominantly tonalitic to granitic gneisses. an evaluation of the evidence in favor of a
There have been very few geological studies Proterozoic depositional and eruptive age for
since reconnaissance mapping documented by the Central Puolanka Group.
Wilkman (1931) and Enkovaara et al. (1953), High-resolution aeromagnetic data be-
and these have concentrated mostly on the came available for the Ranua terrain relatively
relationships with surrounding Proterozoic recently, leading to the delineation of a discrete
rock units (Perttunen, 1991). supracrustal belt in the western part of the ter-
Mention should also be made of the east- rain. This is now known as the Oijrvi green-
ern and southeastern margin of the Ranua ter- stone belt and is reviewed in more detail below.
rain, where Proterozoic tectonic reworking and Little progress has been made in subdividing
granitic magmatism within the Hirvaskoski and classifying the remainder of the Ranua
and Oulujrvi shear zones has been substan- terrain, although it is suggested here that the
tial. The heterogeneous nature of strain in this migmatitic tonalitic gneisses and granites to
zone has made it very difficult to unequivo- the west of the Oijrvi belt be designated as
cally separate Archean and Svecofennian the Simo complex (Figure 2.12A). Rock types
structural events and neosomes. Although an range from stromatic migmatites showing
increasing number of isotope age determina- complex deformation and multiple stages of
tions indicate that both ages are represented leucosome development (Figure 2.12B and C)
(Pietikinen and Vaasjoki, 1999; Vaasjoki et to discrete granodioritic and tonalitic plutons
al., 2001), the problem of zircon inheritance that appear to be intimately associated with
in felsic rocks remains. The same applies to deformation of the Oijrvi greenstone belt.
attempts to resolve depositional ages of some There are at present no constraints on the rela-
contentious siliciclastic sediments in this tive or absolute ages of the migmatitic and
region, as even if they were deposited during discrete plutonic units.

Oijrvi greenstone belt Tolppi (1999) classified the mafic and
As with much of the Ranua terrain, this region ultramafic volcanic rocks into chemically
is poorly exposed and was one of the last areas distinct groups, including Fe- and Mg-tholei-
in Finland to be covered by comprehensive ites, Cr-rich basalts, basaltic komatiites, and
airborne geophysical surveys. When data ultramafic komatiites. The Cr-rich basalts gen-
became available, the Oijrvi greenstone erally resemble Mg-tholeiites, except that they
belt was clearly discernible magnetically as are considerably enriched in Cr (4504200
a narrow, anastomosing feature than could ppm), Ni (around 500 ppm) and have higher
be traced for over 80 kilometers along strike, Al2O3/TiO2. The presence of these rocks in the
before it is obscured beneath unconformably Oijrvi greenstones is of interest from the per-
overlying Paleoproterozoic sediments (Figure spective of regional correlation with the Kuh-
2.12). Because of the obvious analogy with mo greenstone belt, where similar rocks have
the Archean greenstone and schist belts in the been described (Halko-aho et al., 2000).
Kianta and Ilomantsi terrains, the Geological Tolppi (1999) considered that gold min-
Survey of Finland commenced a reconnais- eralization and alteration took place below
sance mapping and drilling program, which the biotite isograd near peak metamorphism.
has provided some insights into the nature and Tolppi (1999) also observed a static porphyro-
distribution of rock units. blastic amphibolite facies overprint, with
The central part of the greenstone belt, hydrothermal sericite and chlorite partially
in an area known as Karakkalehto, has been replaced by muscovite and biotite, almandine
considered more prospective for gold and is replacing chlorite and quartz in Fe-rich rocks,
consequently better understood than elsewhere and tremolite and cummingtonite overprinting
(Tolppi, 1999). In this area, the greenstone belt ultramafic talc-bearing assemblages. Because
appears to bifurcate, anastomosing around a dolerite dikes are seen to truncate alteration
large granitic intrusion (Figure 2.12A). The fabrics, but also record the amphibolite facies
eastern contact of the greenstones is highly metamorphism, Tolppi (1999) considered this
strained, but is likely to have been defined latter metamorphic event as Svecofennian.
by an intrusive granitoid, rather than depo- This conclusion is clearly of regional signifi-
sitional basement. Small tonalitic intrusions cance, both in understanding Proterozoic geo-
and porphyritic dikes also clearly intrude the dynamic history, as well as Archean tectonic
greenstones. There is a distinct lithological and thermal evolution.
asymmetry to the belt, in that pillowed mafic
and massive ultramafic volcanic rocks, with Siurua granulite complex
minor graphitic interflow sediments are more Detailed characterization and subdivision of
abundant in the east, whereas pelitic and gra- the Ranua terrain to the east of the Oijrvi
phitic schists and turbidites characterize the greenstone has not yet been attempted. How-
western part. However, a regional stratigraphic ever, in the Siurua area (Figure 2.12), Enko-
framework has yet to be defined, even though vaara et al. (1953) described a number of
primary depositional and eruptive features narrow zones, a kilometer or less in width and
are locally preserved; paucity of outcrop is a up to 10 in length, consisting of various granu-
greater impediment to regional mapping than lite facies assemblages. These include mafic,
intensity of deformation. Localized zones of Fe-rich granulites with hypersthene and heden-
higher strain have been delineated, with par- bergite and more felsic gneisses with cordier-
ticular prominent linear fabrics and are closely ite-plagioclase-quartz assemblages, intruded
associated with hydrothermal alteration and by granitic neosomes of garnet-plagioclase-
quartz-carbonate brecciation. quartz containing abundant magnetite, zircon,

and apatite. This is suggestive of sediments and deformation. It is therefore difficult to
that may have been previously hydrothermally discuss Archean geology in isolation from the
altered or compositionally modified by melt superimposed effects of various Proterozoic
extraction, as well as local partial melting. processes and events. For the purposes of this
There are therefore similarities to with the review, all Archean rocks to the south and
granulites of the Iisalmi terrain (Hltt, 1997; west of the main frontal thrust of the Paleopro-
Hltt and Paavola, 2000). Mutanen and Huh- terozoic Lapland granulite belt are assigned
ma (2003) dated a trondhjemitic gneiss from to the Karelian domain, with the exception
Siurua and obtained an age of 3500 Ma, from of the Ropi terrain (Figures 2.1A and 2.3).
a somewhat discordant and heterogeneous The Lapland granulite belt represents the
zircon population. This is currently one of the consequences of collision between the Kola
oldest rocks identified in the Fennoscandian and Karelian domains (Hrmann et al., 1980;
Shield. The whole-rock Sm-Nd model age Barbey et al., 1984; Marker, 1985; Gal et al.,
(TDM) is 3.48 Ga, which clearly supports the 1989). Deep seismic and electrotelluric stud-
inference from the zircon data. ies (Behrens et al., 1989; Korja et al., 1989;
The Siurua granulites as mapped by Enko- Luosto et al., 1989) indicate that the Lapland
vaara et al. (1953) define a narrow northerly granulite belt was emplaced over the Karelian
trending zone nearly 50 long, subparallel to domain along a gently dipping detachment that
and some 20 east of the Oijrvi greenstone can be traced at least to middle crustal depths.
belt. As noted earlier, Tolppi (1999) found Isotope age data from metaigneous and meta-
that the late Archean metamorphic peak in sedimentary granulites (Merilinen, 1976;
the Oijrvi greenstone belt was at greenschist Huhma, 1986; Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1994) and
facies conditions (250400 C and 1.52.5 cross-cutting plutons constrain this collisional
kbar). Hence there is either a tilted crustal event to between 1.91 Ga and 1.78 Ga.
section, exposing deeper crustal levels to the Seismic and gravity studies have also been
east, or there has been a late orogenic tectonic used to infer the presence of felsic Archean
juxtaposition of different crustal units. The basement at relatively shallow depths beneath
former interpretation is difficult to reconcile the Lapland greenstone belt (Elo et al., 1989;
with the vertical foliations and southerly Gal et al., 1989). This is consistent with the
plunges documented for the Siurua granulite presence of Archean basement windows sur-
complex (Enkovaara et al., 1953), though rounded and intruded by Proterozoic rocks,
data are admittedly few, while the latter in- as in the Pomokaira terrain (Mikkola, 1941;
terpretation would be reminiscent of current Rsnen et al., 1989), and the abundant
interpretations from the Iisalmi terrain (Hltt evidence for Archean isotope inheritance in
and Paavola, 2000). Proterozoic granitic rocks in southern and
western Lapland (Huhma, 1986; hlander and
Skild, 1994; Perttunen and Vaasjoki, 2001;
3. The Karelian domain in Vnnen and Lehtonen, 2001). The present
northern Finland distribution of Archean rocks in northern
Finland thus represents complex reworking
In contrast to the situation in the central part during the Svecofennian orogeny and colli-
of the country, the Archean rocks of northern sion between the Kola and Karelian domains.
Finland do not form extensive, coherent ter- Some of the geographical terrains described
rains, but are exposed as isolated basement here have been defined principally because
windows, or have been substantially modified the original late Archean relationships are not
and disrupted by Proterozoic magmatism demonstrable, and may therefore also coincide

with Proterozoic tectonic boundaries. provided by the mafic dike swarms truncating
Archean foliations; this is also clearly apparent
3.1. Koillismaa terrain in interpretations of regional magnetic data,
which furthermore indicate that Proterozoic
This terrain is bordered to the north and west hydrothermal overprinting over much of the
by the Paleoproterozoic Kuusamo supracrustal Koillismaa terrain was relatively limited (Airo,
belt, while to the south, a discontinuous arcu- 1999).
ate zone of tectonically disrupted, differenti- The Koillismaa terrain terminates west-
ated layered mafic intrusions (Alapieti, 1982) wards against a complex deformation zone
separates it from the Kianta terrain. Although variously referred to as the Hirvaskoski shear
the extent of Proterozoic tectonic reworking zone (Krki et al., 1993) or Posio shear system
within the Koillismaa terrain is not clear, the (Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1997). This defor-
prominent change in structural trend, from N- mation zone has been repeatedly activated
NNE in the northern end of the Kianta terrain, throughout the Paleoproterozoic so that it is
to ESE in the Koillismaa terrain is considered difficult to establish whether it was initiated
sufficient justification for classification as a and active in the Archean (Sorjonen-Ward et
separate structural unit. This change in folia- al., 1992, 1997; Krki et al., 1993; Vaasjoki et
tion trend coincides with prominent gravity al., 2001). However, it effectively bisects the
and magnetic anomalies, at least part of which Karelian domain in northeastern Finland, with
can be attributed to the layered intrusions or the Pudasjrvi and Napapiiri terrains to the
their subsurface continuations (Alapieti, 1982; west and the Koillismaa and Kianta terrains
Elo, 1992; Airo, 1999). Basal sedimentary to the east. Rsnen and Vaasjoki (2001) have
units of the Kuusamo supracrustal belt were recently identified a zone of metasedimentary
deposited unconformably upon quartz dioritic gneisses and inferred rhyolitic volcanic rocks
to trondhjemitic orthogneisses and mafic to and pyroclastic deposits within this highly
pelitic paragneisses of the Koillismaa terrain deformed zone, for which a U-Pb zircon age
(Silvennoinen, 1972, 1973, 1989, 1991). In of 2796 10 Ma was obtained. As elsewhere,
addition to basement clasts, mafic and felsic the possibility of inherited Archean detrital
detritus derived from the Paleoproterozoic zircon in metasediments, or retention of resti-
layered intrusions and associated bimodal tic zircon during partial melting of an Archean
volcanic rocks have been found. The current source needs to be evaluated. Nevertheless,
structural geometry of the layered intrusions these results are consistent with emerging
requires substantial tectonic disruption along evidence for the existence of a discontinu-
the boundary zone between the Koillismaa ous zone of late Archean supracrustal rocks,
and Kianta terrains, interpreted by Ward et al. extending along the eastern margin of the
(1989) as a consequence of listric extensional Pudasjrvi Terrain and northwards into Lap-
faulting during deposition of the Kuusamo su- land, substantially disrupted by Svecofennian
pracrustal sequences and subsequent inversion deformation and magmatism (Huhma et al.,
during the Svecofennian and KolaKarelian 2000; Rsnen and Huhma, 2001; Evins et
collisional events. Silvennoinen (1991) noted al., 2000, 2002).
that the Archean gneisses are more intensely
fractured and foliated and commonly chloritic 3.2. Napapiiri terrain
in proximity to the unconformity, which is at-
tributed to Proterozoic deformation. However, The Napapiiri terrain encompasses a diverse
some constraints suggesting a rather modest and poorly understood assemblage of supra-
amount of Svecofennian deformation are crustal gneissic and granitic rock units, ex-

tending across southern and central Finnish would be consistent with a lithologically di-
Lapland, from the Swedish border to Russia verse Archean rock package, variably affected
(Figures 2.1 and 2.3). The Napapiiri terrain by Proterozoic anatexis. Such an interpretation
is partly synonymous with the terms Central finds further support from the recognition of
Lapland granitoid complex or Kemijrvi com- Archean supracrustal rocks, including felsic
plex (Ahtonen and Melqvist, 1997), but is used lava, some distance away, along the eastern
here to emphasize its Archean aspect. This is margin of the Napapiiri terrain (Rsnen
because several recent studies, particularly in and Huhma, 2001). Zircon fractions from
the eastern part of the terrain (Rsnen and dacitic to andesitic felsic volcanic rocks of
Huhma, 2001; Rsnen and Vaasjoki, 2001; the Loviselk Formation (Figure 2.3) have
Vaasjoki et al., 2001; Evins et al., 2000, 2002) been dated at 2775 25 Ma and are interca-
have revealed that Archean rocks are more lated with quartzofeldspathic gneisses that,
widespread than previously thought, while despite isoclinal folding and metamorphism
an appreciation of the substantial Proterozoic to assemblages containing staurolite-gar-
thermal and tectonic overprint requires some net-cordierite and andalusite, still preserve
reassessment of the geological evolution of evidence of a thick-bedded graded turbiditic
the northern part of the country (Vaasjoki et origin. When these results are combined with
al., 1999; Corfu and Evins, 2002). the data and interpretations of Rsnen and
Much of the western and central part of Vaasjoki (2001) from the western margin of
the Napapiiri terrain is characterized by a the Koillismaa terrain and Evins et al. (2002),
prominent NNE-trending magnetic fabric. they acquire still greater significance in regard
Vnnen (1998) described migmatitic meta- to regional correlations between Archean rock
sedimentary gneisses and granites at the west- units, as will be discussed later.
ern edge of the terrain and defined them as the A number of studies have attempted to
Venejrvi complex (Figure 2.3). Attempts to correlate magnetic characteristics with granite
date this complex have not been successful, chemistry and mineralogy, particularly in the
with evidence for both Archean inheritance southeastern part of the terrain (Airo; 1999;
and Proterozoic ages for U-Pb zircon and Sm- Airo and Ahtonen, 1999). Puranen (1989) also
Nd dating of both neosomes and paleosomes. found that the Proterozoic granites intruding
In the eastern part of the terrain, Proterozoic the terrain have relatively high abundances
granitic magmatism is manifested as sheets of ferrimagnetic magnetite, even though they
and networks of equigranular to porphyritic are rather poor in iron compared to other
monzogranite, which are slightly peralumi- Svecofennian granites. This was interpreted
nous and strongly enriched in LREE, but with as a consequence of derivation of Protero-
low Nb and Y (Ahtonen and Melqvist, 1997). zoic monzogranites from a highly oxidized
Rastas et al. (2001) have reported Archean Archean source terrain.
ages from hydrothermally altered felsic rocks
along the northern margin of the Napapiiri Suomu terrain
terrain, at Honkavaara (Figure 2.3), near the The Suomu terrain covers some 1000 km2
contact with the Lapland greenstone belt. in area and occupies a transitional position
Given the intensity of hydrothermal altera- between the Napapiiri and Ranua terrains
tion and proximity to the greenstone belt it is (Figures 2.3 and 2.14). It is has been strongly
also possible that some of these felsic rocks affected by Proterozoic thermal and tectonic
represent Paleoproterozoic sediments with events (Corfu and Evins, 2002), but the Ar-
Archean detrital zircons. On the other hand, chean age and character of much of the com-
the nature of the regional magnetic pattern plex has recently been demonstrated and docu-

mented (Evins et al., 1997, 2000, 2002; Airo, included eight nearly concordant grains with
207
1999). The Suomu terrain has been subdivided Pb/206Pb ages between 2706 Ma and 2744
into biotite-bearing tonalitic to granodioritic Ma, while zircons with ages corresponding to
gneisses, which comprise over 80% of the the Suomujrvi complex tonalites (2.852.80
complex, and the Aholanvaara supracrustal Ga) were conspicuously absent.
complex, near the southeastern margin of the The contact between the Aholanvaara
terrain. The two units are readily distinguish- quartzites and the tonalitic gneisses is actually
able in aeromagnetic data, with the tonalitic exposed: Evins et al. (2002) noted that there is
gneisses being rather subdued magnetically, no obvious difference in structural and meta-
in contrast to the more intense and variable morphic history on either side of the contact,
anomaly patterns associated with supracrustal and that the contact itself does not appear
rocks, particularly magnetite-biotite pelitic highly strained, nor is there obvious evidence
schists (Airo, 1999; Evins et al., 2002). for a weathered unconformity. The absence of
Evins et al. (2002) have dated several detrital zircons representing the age range of
samples of the tonalitic gneisses using the the Suomujrvi tonalitic gneisses is another
NORDSIM ion microprobe and quote a pool- reason why Evins et al. (2002) considered the
ed zircon age for crystallization at 2823 10 contact to be tectonic in nature. However, the
Ma and 2815 21 Ma. Several zircon cores extent to which original Archean structures
yielded ages up to 2.87 Ga, suggesting deri- are preserved remains uncertain if the mafic
vation of the tonalites from an older source; sill intruding the Aholanvaara supracrustal
this is also consistent with the presence of units is correctely correlated with the 2.21
discrete, variably sized mafic and ultramafic Ga Tokkalehto gabbro (Evins and Laajoki,
supracrustal enclaves that have an internal 2001), then much of the intense SW-plunging
structural history discordant with respect to and NE-trending folding and foliation in the
the host gneisses. Biotite-amphibole dioritic Suomu terrain must clearly be Proterozoic
gneisses are also sporadically present and in age.
concordant with respect to the banding in the
tonalitic gneisses (Evins et al., 2002). They 3.3. Tuntsa terrain
have, however, yielded younger ages, around
2555 16 Ma, suggesting a two-stage mag- Mikkola (1941) first defined a distinctive
matic evolution for the Suomu terrain. suite of medium- to high-grade supracrustal
Sillimanite-grade quartzites and arkosites gneisses, intruded by granites and trending in a
are the most characteristic rock types of the northeasterly direction from Savukoski towards
Aholanvaara supracrustal package, although the Russian border, as the TuntsaSavukoski
metapelitic and calc-silicate gneisses are also series. Similar rock types are widespread in the
present, and intruded by amphibolite sills, Belomorian terrain in the Kola Peninsula and
resulting in distinctive garnet-gedrite-sulfide Russian Karelia (Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987;
contact skarns. This lithological association Stenar, 1988) and it is clear that the Tuntsa
and metamorphic style is very reminiscent of terrain can be traced into Russia, coinciding
the Paleoproterozoic Kuusamo schist belt (cf. with a progressive change in lithological and
Evins and Laajoki, 2001), which raises further structural trends from NE to NW (Figures 2.3,
questions about its Archean affinity. Nor have 2.14 and 2.15). This arcuate change in regional
zircon provenance studies by ion microprobe trend is evident in regional aeromagnetic data
helped to dispel this uncertainty; a detrital zir- (Korhonen et al., 2001a,b) as well as from
con age spectrum from Aholanvaara quartzite, geological mapping (Koistinen et al., 2001).
taken from the contact with the tonalitic gneiss, From the Finnish perspective, the Tuntsa ter-

rain appears to lie well within the Karelian Vaasjoki, 2001).
domain, with its northern boundary defined by
the basal thrust of the Lapland granulite belt, Granitoid complexes
and the Pomokaira and south Lapland terrains The granitoid complexes consist of tonalitic,
occurring to the west. Relationships between granodioritic, and granitic gneisses, com-
the Tuntsa domain and Archean rocks to the monly containing gneiss and amphibolite
south are unfortunately obscured by the Paleo- inclusions, sometimes of considerable extent.
proterozoic Salla and Kuusamo supracrustal Deformation is particularly intense in proxim-
belts. In Russia, however, the Belomorian ter- ity to the Lapland granulite belt (Mikkola,
rain forms a broad zone separating the Kola 1941). The Naruska granitoid complex, in
and Karelian domains, and its age, origin and the southern part of the terrain, tends to show
tectonic significance have long been a source gradational transitions with the Tuntsa para-
of controversy (Stenar, 1988). Recent isotope gneisses, suggesting a deeper erosional level
studies have nevertheless provided a frame- within a single lithotectonic unit (Juopperi
work for integrating structural, metamorphic and Vaasjoki, 2001). The results of U-Pb zir-
and petrogenetic studies in the Belomorian con analyses nevertheless suggest protracted
terrain; the preferred interpretation is that the evolution for the Naruska granitic magmatism,
Belomorian terrain collided with other ele- with granitic to tonalitic gneiss samples from
ments of the Karelian domain during the late the transition zone yielding ages ranging from
Archean, and that this boundary zone was the 2744 25 Ma to 2705 5 Ma. However, one
locus for renewed deformation when the Kola sample, from a partially retrogressed granite
domain collided with the Karelian domain within the Tuntsa paragneiss complex pro-
during the early Proterozoic (Bibikova et al., vided a significantly younger age of 2636
2001; Daly et al., 2001). 11 Ma. Titanite ages are also close to zircon
The effect of Proterozoic deformation ages, providing some constraints on the degree
within the Tuntsa terrain may be more dif- of Proterozoic thermal overprinting (Juopperi
ficult to discern, especially given that many and Vaasjoki, 2001).
structures and rock units have gently dipping The granitoids of the KemihaaraVinti-
enveloping surfaces, subparallel to those lnkaira (Figure 2.15) complex are poorly
in the Lapland granulite belt (Figure 2.16). exposed and have not been mapped in detail.
Some tectonic reactivation is therefore likely, Some intrusions in the southern part of the
particularly as that deformation in the Salla complex are likely to be Paleoproterozoic
and Kuusamo supracrustal belts to the south rather than Archean in age, although no con-
have been interpreted as a consequence of tacts with the Tulppio supracrustal belt have
foreland deformation during emplacement been observed (Juopperi and Vaasjoki, 2001).
of the Lapland granulites (Ward et al., 1989). The most reliable U-Pb zircon age estimate
Moreover, Proterozoic thermal overprinting on obtained so far is from a tonalitic rock, dated
Archean rocks is widely documented from the at 2805 4 Ma (Juopperi and Vaasjoki, 2001).
Southern Lapland terrain (Evins and Corfu, However, of particular interest is the presence
2002). Despite these potential problems, of syenitic intrusions with zircon ages of 2795
and the generally poor exposure, it has been 20 Ma. This would be an unusual age for
possible to subdivide the rocks of the Tuntsa alkali magmatism, the only other Archean
terrain into five distinct units, namely the syenites and carbonatites in the Fennoscandian
Naruska, Ahmatunturi and VintilnkairaKe- Shield being in the Kola Peninsula (Zozulya
mihaara granitoid complexes, and the Tuntsa et al., 2001) and the Siilinjrvi carbonatite in
and Tulppio supracrustal belts (Juopperi and the Iisalmi terrain (Puustinen, 1971). Because

Muonio g
Pomokaira g g
g g
Muonio
M To
Kittil
Sodankyl Tuntsa
Kolari Savukoski
Napapiiri
Salla
Kemijrvi
Suomu
0 40 Rovaniemi
km
Paleozoic carbonatite gg Lapland granulite belt

Proterozoic
Svecofennian (1.91.86 Ga) orogenic Paleoproterozoic (2.52.0 Ga) Lapland

granitoids greenstone belt
Younger (1.861.82 Ga) granitoids Paleoproterozoic (2.51.9 Ga) supra-
with Archean crustal inheritance crustal rocks
Paleoproterozoic granites and thermal

Archean
Tuntsa supracrustal gneiss terrain

reworking in Napapiiri terrain
Granitoids, migmatites, and gneisses Mafic and ultramafic metavolcanic rocks
Fig. 2.14. Terrains defined within the Karelian domain in northern Finland, including basement
windows exposed within the Paleoproterozoic Lapland greenstone belt. The Napapiiri and Suomu
terrains record a complex Proterozoic thermal overprint, intruded by extensive granitic bodies. The
Tuntsa terrain, which is contiguous with the Belomorian terrain in Russia, shows less thermal over-
printing, but the extent of structural disruption, associated with emplacement of the Lapland granulite
belt from the north is unclear. MMykkelm, ToTojottamanselk.

Post-Archean rock units A
Paleozoic Sokli carbonatite
Lapland granulite belt (1.9 Ga)

Paleoproterozoic (2.52.0 Ga) Lapland
greenstone belt
Kemihaara
Archean rock units in Tuntsa terrain
Naruska granitoid complex (2.742.70 Ga)
Granitic compositions dominant
Tonalitic compositions dominant Tulppio
Tuntsa supracrustal gneiss belt

Pelitic, psammitic, and quartzitic gneisses Vintilnkaira Ahmatunturi Tuntsa
Mafic and ultramafic metavolcanic rocks
Ahmatunturi and VintilnkairaKemihaara

granitoid gneiss complexes (>2.80 Ga)
Savukoski
Granitoids, migmatites, and gneisses
Granitic compositions dominant
Tuntsa supracrustal belt Naruska
Metasedimentary gneisses
0 10 20
Mafic and ultramafic metavolcanic rocks
km
B C
Fig. 2.15. Tuntsa terrain. (A) Principal geological units, based on Juopperi and Vaasjoki (2001). (B)
Cliff section showing gently dipping structural architecture, typical of Tuntsa terrain gneisses and
granitoids. John Ridley is approximately 1.8 m in height. Near Naruskajoki, in southern part of ter-
rain. (C) Detail of highly strained stromatic migmatites with felsic leucosomes at same locality as (B).
Photos: Peter Sorjonen-Ward.

the Devonian Sokli carbonatite complex is schists, amphibole- and garnet-rich aluminous
situated very close to these syenites, the pos- schists as well as quartzites and cherty rocks
sibility of zircons being xenocrystic ought to (Juopperi, 1994).
be considered, although titanite from the same
intrusion records an age of 2683 1 Ma (Juop- 3.4. Pomokaira terrain
peri and Vaasjoki, 2001).
The Ahmatunturi granitoid complex has Archean granodioritic gneisses and lesser
also yielded zircons of age 2833 22 Ma, quartzofeldspathic metasediments are exposed
which is significant in that it provides a mini- throughout the foreland immediately adjacent
mum age constraint on deposition in the Tulp- to the main frontal thrust of the Lapland granu-
pio supracrustal belt (Juopperi and Vaasjoki, lite belt, and in several basement windows,
2001). When compared with the results for notably at Mykkelm and Tojottomanselk,
the Naruska granitoids, it appears that the where they are unconformably overlain by bas-
Tuntsa terrain records the juxtaposition of two al units of the Lapland greenstone belt (Figure
crustal units of different age, or alternatively, 2.15). Negative Nd values from plutons of the
two stages of magmatism and deformation. Nattanen granite suite (Huhma, 1986), some
The presence of a polymictic conglomerate at of which intrude the boundary between the
Nuolusvaara, near the Russian border, contain- Lapland granulite belt and the Pomokaira ter-
ing clasts of mafic schist, pelitic gneiss and rain indicate that Archean rocks are present at
tourmaline-bearing pegmatite, within a matrix depth for a considerable distance behind the
metamorphosed to lower amphibolite facies thrust front. The Pomokaira terrain appears
(Juopperi and Veki, 1988), is consistent with to be contiguous with the northern part of the
both of these scenarios. Tuntsa terrain, although the boundary zone is
largely obscured by the 2.44 Ga Koitelainen
Tuntsa and Tulppio supracrustal layered intrusive complex and supracrustal
belts rocks of the Lapland greenstone belt.
The relatively high degreee of deformation The tonalitic gneisses exposed in the
and metamorphism has precluded mapping small (4 km 2 ) Tojottamanselk basement
of primary rock facies or stratigraphical inlier provided the first evidence for rocks
relationships in the Tuntsa terrain (Juopperi older than 3.0 Ga in the Fennoscandian Shield,
and Vaasjoki, 2001). The paragneisses of the with a multigrain zircon population yielding
Tuntsa supracrustal belt form a coherent unit a U-Pb age of 3110 34 Ma (Krner et al.,
1525 km across strike and consist almost 1981). A whole-rock Rb-Sr isochron of 2729
entirely of medium-grade metamorphic 244 Ma was obtained for the same sample
sedimentary rocks. In contrast, the Tulppio and was attributed to resetting during a meta-
supracrustal belt comprises only discontinu- morphic disturbance. These results were later
ous schist and gneiss remnants, although they corroborated by SHRIMP analysis, with an
are lithologically more diverse than those of estimated intrusive age of 3115 29 Ma and
the Tuntsa belt. The most extensive of these a subsequent thermal reworking at 2836 30
remnants is characterized by medium-grade Ma (Krner and Compston, 1990). Jahn et
metamorphic ultramafic and mafic volcanic al. (1984) also interpreted Pb isotope data as
rocks, the former being interpreted as cumu- recording a metamorphic resetting during the
lates of Archean komatiitic lavas, the latter late Archean or earliest Proterozoic, based on
as strongly altered submarine Mg-rich and a whole-rock isochron of 2640 240 Ma. A
Fe-rich tholeiitic lavas. Locally the metavol- whole-rock Sm-Nd isochron of 3060 123
canic rocks are associated with quartz-feldspar Ma was considered to be consistent with the

zircon data and was interpreted as the age of Lapland terrains, or alternatively, correlate with
emplacement of the tonalitic precursor to the the Archean of the Ropi terrain and northern
gneisses. Jahn et al. (1984) also found that Sweden (Figures 2.3 and 2.14).
the Tojottamanselk gneisses had an Nd value An Archean provenance is also indicated
(with respect to CHUR) of 3.7 1.8, imply- for the so-called Hetta granites, which occur
ing derivation from a protolith that was already in the area between Muonio and the Norwe-
enriched in LREE. On this basis they proposed gian border (Figure 2.3), based on Pb isotope
a multistage evolution commencing with ex- studies of feldspars (Merilinen, 1976) and
traction of basalt from mantle, and melting of heterogeneous and xenocrystic zircon popula-
basalt to produce a tonalitic to trondhjemitic tions (Lehtonen, 1984; Mnttri, 1995). These
crust, several hundred million years prior to lithological units continue into adjacent Nor-
the 3.1 Ga event recorded by the Tojottaman- way as the Jergul gneiss complex (Siedlecka
selk zircons. For comparison, note that the et al., 1985), which has been subdivided into
oldest inherited zircon found by Krner and two major units based on lithology and chemi-
Compston (1990) was 3248 10 Ma. cal composition (Olsen and Nilsen, 1985) the
Akkanasvarri gneisses, which are typically
3.5. Muonio terrain quartz dioritic to tonalitic hornblende gneis-
ses, and the Biennaroavvi gneisses, which are
Lehtonen (1984) identified three separate ar- more evolved trondhjemitic magmas in origin.
eas of migmatitic biotite-plagioclase gneisses Olsen and Nilsen (1985) used trace element
in the Muonio district, near the Swedish bor- modeling to infer melting of an amphibolite
der. Granodioritic to tonalitic compositions source under garnet-stable conditions for
predominate, with some hornblende gneiss the former, and partial melting of the Akka-
intercalations. These gneiss occurrences are nasvarri gneisses for the latter. Combined data
up to 10 in length and several kilometers in from both units produced a Rb-Sr isochron of
width, and form fault-bounded anticlinal fea- 2993 195 Ma.
tures surrounded by sillimanite-grade arkosic
gneisses and metavolcanics rocks, which are 3.6. Ropi terrain
correlated with the Paleoproterozoic Lapland
greenstone belt. An Archean age for these Archean rocks are exposed in northwestern
gneisses is also supported by U-Pb zircon Norway as windows beneath Caledonian
studies, which yielded ages of 2444 96 Ma nappes and as the Raisdno gneiss complex
and 2591 16 Ma (Lehtonen, 1984; Vnnen (Siedlecka et al., 1985), which can be traced
and Lehtonen, 2001). Titanite ages of 1845 Ma into the extreme northwestern part of Finn-
are consistent with the intense tectonic and ish Lapland (Figures 2.1 and 2.3). This area
thermal reworking associated with the Sveco- is referred to here as the Ropi terrain and
fennian orogeny, suggesting that these inliers consists mainly of banded migmatitic granit-
of Archean basement are analogous to the clas- oids and gneisses, their composition varying
sic basement gneiss domes described along the in composition from tonalite to granodiorite
margin of the Karelian domain in southeastern (Lehtovaara, 1995). In addition, the Ruossa-
Finland (Eskola, 1949). They are considered keroSarvisoaiviRopi tun turi greenstone
separately here, because it is unclear whether belts can be traced as remnant supracrustal
they represent part of a contiguous region of units several kilometers in width and more
Archean basement, extending eastwards and than 10 km along strike (Lehtovaara, 1995).
southwards beneath the Lapland greenstone These consist principally of amphibolites
belt towards the Pomokaira and southern derived from basaltic lavas, overlain by a

paleoeregolith and schists inferred to have adjacent Norway, can be further divided into
been volcaniclastic in origin, with sporadic three tectonic units which can be traced for
sericite quartzites, mica schists, and mica several hundred kilometres, showing a NE-
gneisses (Hannu Idman, pers. comm., 1995). directed tectonic polarity the late Archean
Some ultramafic rocks, which may have been Inari terrain in the southwest and Srvaranger
originally cumulates of ultrabasic lavas or terrain in the northeast, separated by the Paleo-
intrusions, have also been recognized, contain- proterozoic PolmakPasvikPechenga belt
ing a low-grade nickel mineralization. (Gal et al., 1989) (Figure 2.16). An uncon-
The Ropi terrain is contiguous southwards formable relationship between the basal units
with the Rstojaur gneiss complex, which of the PolmakPasvikPechenga belt and the
forms part of an extensive region of Archean Srvaranger terrain has been demonstrated
crust in northern Sweden, widely overlain in several places, but much of the sequence
and intruded by Proterozoic rocks (Skild is allochthonous; likewise, the Inari terrain
and hlander, 1989; hlander et al., 1993; has been thrust over the Pechenga belt, with
Martinsson et al., 1999). The Paleoproterozoic considerable tectonic reworking in the contact
sequences in northern Sweden and adjacent zone (Marker, 1985; Gal et al., 1989).
Finnish Lapland share a number of features The Finnish segment of the PechengaPol-
in common, suggesting that they both record makPasvik belt has been mapped as the
Paleoproterozoic rifting and fragmenta- Opukasjrvi Group (Kesola, 1991, 1995).
tion along the southwestern margin of the Although basal units of this sequence have
Karelian domain. However, there is a major been shown to unconformably overlie gneisses
NE-vergent Svecofennian deformation zone, of the Srvaranger terrain, contact relation-
characterized by high strain and metamorphic ships with the Inari terrain gneisses to the
grade, and a distinctive suite of 1.89-1.86 Ga southwest are more complicated. As is typical
synorogenic calc-alkaline to post-collisional for the Srvaranger terrain, dips are gentle to
potassic granitoids, separating the Archean of moderate. Kesola (1991) interpreted the main
northern Sweden, and the Ropi terrain, from foliation parallel to the enveloping surface to
the Muonio terrain and Karelian domain of the Opukasjrvi Group schists as regional S3,
Finnish Lapland (Figures 2.1, 2.3, and 2.14). which postdates garnet-staurolite porphyro-
It is therefore possible that the Ropi terrain is blast growth. This implies intense Proterozoic
exotic with respect to the Karelian domain, or tectonic reworking of at least the northeastern
at least represents part of a continental frag- margin of the Inari terrain, although Kesola
ment ribbon rifted from and translated along (1995) also considered that the Inari terrain
the Karelian continental margin (cf. Sorjonen- and Srvaranger terrain are sufficiently similar
Ward et al., 2001). in terms of lithology that they may have origi-
nally formed part of a single crustal unit.
In Finland the Kola domain and Karelian
4. The Kola domain in Finland domain are separated by the Lapland granulite
belt. This is a zone more than 50 km wide,
The Kola domain is a complex mosaic of consisting predominantly of highly strained
Archean and Paleoproterozoic terrains that and anatectic peraluminous metasedimentary
were amalgamated and accreted to the Kare- granulites, for which SHRIMP zircon studies
lian domain between 2.0 Ga and 1.8 Ga indicate mainly Proterozoic provenance ages
(Hrmann et al., 1980; Barbey et al., 1984; (Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1994). Granulite-fa-
Berthelsen and Marker, 1986a; Gal et al., cies enderbitic pyroxene-bearing intrusions
1989). The Kola domain in Finland, as in and anorthosites dated at 1.95 Ga and 1.90

Ga, respectively (Merilinen, 1976; Bernard- 4.1. Inari terrain
Griffiths et al., 1984), provide a maximum
age constraint for emplacement over the The Inari terrain (Figures 2.3 and 2.16) con-
Pomokaira and Tuntsa terrains of the Kare- sists predominantly of migmatitic biotite- and
lian domain. Thermobarometry indicates that biotite-hornblende orthogneisses ranging in
maximum pressures in the marginal zone at- composition from tonalite to monzogranite,
tained nearly 12 kbar (Tuisku and Makkonen, with U-Pb zircon ages between 2.73 Ga
1999), although 67 kbar is more typical and 2.50 Ga (Merilinen, 1976; Gal et al.,
(Raith and Raase, 1986). Interpretations of 1989). Kesola (1995) defined two separate
deep crustal seismic reflection and refrac- gneiss complexes based on lithological differ-
tion data (Behrens et al., 1989; Luosto et ences. The SuorreTievjan complex consists
al., 1989), gravity surveys (Elo et al., 1989), of intensely migmatized gneisses and augen
and electromagnetic data (Korja et al., 1989) gneisses of granitic composition, with a U-Pb
are all consistent with surface observations zircon age of 2502 8 Ma, which is appre-
indicating that the granulites were emplaced ciably younger than other Archean ages from
southwards along a basal detachment zone that comparable rock types in Finland. However,
can be traced at least into the middle crust. because the titanite age from the same rock is
The contact between the Lapland granulite concordant at 1997 Ma (Kesola, 1995), and
belt and southern margin of the Kola domain Proterozoic ages have been obtained for ti-
appears to be steeper and possibly of opposite tanite throughout the Inari terrain (Merilinen,
dip (Gal et al., 1989), suggesting a large scale 1976), the U-Pb systems of zircons may also
pop-up structure or retrowedge (cf. Beaumont have been affected by Proterozoic events.
et al., 1994), in which the Archean gneisses The Moresveijohjkan complex in the
of the Inari terrain are imbricated with rocks northwestern part of the Inari terrain is
of the granulite belt and have themselves lo- distinctly more mafic, consisting of pyrox-
cally been metamorphosed to granulite grade ene-bearing quartz diorites with abundant
(Hrmann et al., 1980; Raith and Raase, enclaves of hornblende-biotite gneiss. Rem-
1986). Because the Inari terrain has also nant supracrustal units are also present in the
been intruded by quartz diorites and gabbros Inari terrain, the most significant being the
dated at 1.951.93 Ga (Merilinen, 1976), a Kuorboaivi schist belt (Merilinen, 1976; Gal
number of authors have integrated the above et al., 1989). The affinities of these rocks are
features into a model involving the formation controversial, and Kesola (1991) correlates
of a continental margin magmatic arc in the them with the Paleoproterozoic Opukasjrvi
Inari terrain, which was eventually terminated Group, implying complex Proterozoic tectonic
by collision and emplacement of the Lap- imbrication of Archean rock units.
land granulite belt over the Karelian domain
(Hrmann et al., 1980; Barbey et al., 1984). 4.2. Srvaranger terrain
Berthelsen and Marker (1986) proposed an
alternative polarity, attributing the 1.95 Ga The Srvaranger terrain is developed most
calc-alkaline magmatism in the Inari terrain to extensively in northern Norway, where the
south-directed subduction and underthrusting NW-trending Garsj and Bjrnevatn sup-
of the Srvaranger terrain. In both cases, the racrustal belts are tectonically juxtaposed
implications are that the Kola and Karelian against tonalitic and trondhjemitic migmatitic
domains might have developed in quite dif- gneisses (Siedlecka et al., 1985). The Garsj
ferent settings during the Archean. and Bjrnevatn belts are lithologically diverse,
including banded iron-formations, invari-

Vainosp granite (1780 Ma)
Nuorgam
Tuomasvarri ultramafic intrusion
Luossajavri gabbro (1731 2 Ma)
NORWAY Utsjoki
Ntm
Inari terrain
SuorreTievja gneiss complex
granites (2520 8 Ma), migmat- Sevettijrvi
ites, and paragneisses
Opukasjrvi Group
Silisjoki gneiss complex Karigasniemi
Metabasalt, meta-andesite
Kola domain
Metarhyolites and pelitic schists
Metaconglomerate and meta-
arkose
Opukasjrvi Group Inari
Pirivaara granite (2604 21 Ma)
Garsjen gneiss complex RUSSIA
Lapland granulite belt
Pdl
Pdl Karelian domain
Pgv
0 10 Pgv
Pgv
km
Fig. 2.16. The Kola domain in Finland. Figure at upper right shows regional relationship between
Karelian domain, Lapland granulite belt, and Kola domain. Larger scale figure at lower right shows
the Inari terrain in the southwest, separated from the Srvaranger terrain to the northeast by the
supracrustal rocks and highly strained gneisses of the Opukasjrvi Group; the latter are most likely of
Paleoproterozoic age, although relationships and age determinations are contentious. PdlLuossajavri
gabbro, PgvVainosp granite. Based on Kesola (1991, 1995).

ably associated with mafic volcanic rocks, 5. Insights into the deeper
and local ultramafic and quartzitic layers, Archean crust in Finland
within a dominantly psammitic to semipelitic
sequence (Gal et al., 1989). Proterozoic Information concerning the structure, com-
tectonic reworking of the Srvaranger terrain position, age, and thickness of the deep crust,
appears to be restricted to the contact zone and the degree to which lower crustal and
with the PolmakPechengaPasvik belt, such lithospheric mantle coupling has evolved with
that Marker (1985) and Gal et al. (1989) time can be obtained directly and indirectly
considered the generally gentle to moderate through
NEENE-dipping enveloping surface to rock
units and thrusts to be a relict of the original Studying deep crustal sections tectoni-
Archean architecture. cally exhumed during later events;
The Srvaranger terrain in Finland has Evaluating source compositions from
been designated as the Garsj complex (Ke- chemical and isotope characteristics of
sola, 1995), which includes gneisses that are granitoids;
obviously supracrustal in character and highly Constraining P-T-t histories of xenolith
strained quartzofeldspathic gneisses whose suites, to determine the age, depth distri-
origin is less clear; both types are closely bution and petrophysical characteristics
associated and appear to share a common of different rock types an approach
deformation history. Recognizable remnants known as 4D lithospheric mapping
of magnetite-grunerite banded iron-forma- (OReilly and Griffin, 1996); and
tions and tholeiitic mafic volcanic rocks are Deep seismic refraction and reflection
preserved in particular in the Ntm and surveys, ideally in combination with
Vtsri areas (Kesola, 1991; Figure 2.16) gravity and magnetotelluric investiga-
and closely resemble those described from tions.
the Garsj and Bjrnevatn belts in adjacent
Norway (Siedlecka et al., 1985). 5.1. Exhumed deep crustal sections in
No depositional basement to the supra- Finland?
crustal rocks has been found, although poly-
micitic conglomerates have been described Exposed sections of the deep crust, such as
(Gal et al., 1989). On the other hand, the the Kapuskasing zone in Canada and the
Garsj complex was intruded by the relatively Vredefort dome in the Kaapvaal craton, have
homogeneous plutons of the Pirivaara granite been important in providing insights into the
suite (Figure 2.16), equivalent to the Neiden composition, thermal properties, and density
granites in Norway, with a U-Pb zircon age structure of Archean lithosphere and the na-
of 2604 21 Ma. This is anomalously young ture of tectonic and thermal reworking, all of
when compared to latest Archean granitic which can be used to constrain interpretations
magmatism elsewhere in Finland, so that the of crustal sections based on geophysical data
possibility of Proterozoic disturbance should (Percival et al., 1992; Rudnick and Fountain,
also be considered. 1995). It is of great interest to understand
whether granulite metamorphic events are
directly coupled with the tectonic processes
that exhume a terrain, or whether uplift and
exhumation is due to some younger event
(Sandiford, 1989). In Finland, exhumation
of rocks from depths corresponding to pres-

sures of 1012 kbar occurred during the em- provided by consideration of the distribution
placement of the Paleoproterozoic Lapland of Proterozic unconformity surfaces and the
granulite belt southwards over the Pomokaira degree of recrystallization and strain recorded
terrain and Lapland greenstone belt after 1.9 by Proterozoic mafic dikes.
Ga; this also resulted in medium-pressure Observations of the strain state and meta-
metamorphism within the foreland (Raith and morphic grade of mafic dikes and of Sveco-
Raase, 1986; Gal et al., 1989). The highest fennian granitic intrusions in the Iisalmi ter-
pressure assemblages recorded from the Lap- rain and Ranua terrain (Paavola, 1984, 1986)
land granulite belt are nearly 12 kbar, from indicate that the medium-pressure granulites
ultramafic rocks and anorthosites, which are, described by Hltt et al. (2000a) were already
however, likely to represent Paleoproterozoic exposed at high crustal levels and juxtaposed
rather than Archean magmatic cumulates (Tuis- against lower grade terrain prior to the Sveco-
ku and Makkonen, 1999). Kyanite-bearing fennian orogeny. In the Rautavaara area, there
assemblages in Paleoproterozoic sediments is a stronger Svecofennian overprint, and
within the Karelian domain in Russia and the metamorphic re-equilibration under amphibo-
results of isotopically constrained thermobaro- lite facies conditions, suggesting differential
metric studies also indicate that late Archean Svecofennian uplift of a tilted crustal section.
crust of the Belomorian terrain was exhumed The lithological diversity and evidence for
from middle crustal levels at around 1.80 Ga hydrothermal alteration of supracrustal rock
(Bibikova et al., 2001). The Tuntsa terrain units prior to granulite facies metamorphism
might also record tectonic juxtaposition of in the Iisalmi terrain and Rautavaara terrain
different levels of Archean crust during the (Hltt et al., 2000) indicate that the deep crust
early Proterozoic, although at present there are in at least this part of the Karelian domain is
no P-T constraints from this region. likely to be very heterogeneous in composi-
There is in addition the remarkable possi- tion.
bility that the serpentinized harzburgites of the Greenschist to lower amphibolite facies
Jormua ophiolite complex represent Archean metamorphism and locally intense foliation
subcontinental lithospheric mantle (Peltonen development is characteristic of Proterozoic
et al. 2003; Chapter 6), in which case these sedimentary and volcanic cover sequences,
rocks would be the only known example of as well as mafic dike swarms throughout the
Archean lithosphere extensively exposed at the Karelian domain and is attributed to burial
surface of the Earth. This is evidently a conse- during overthrusting (Kontinen et al., 1992;
quence of attenuation of the rifted continental Sorjonen-Ward, 1993). This is consistent
margin at 2.0 Ga, followed by tectonic obduc- with the clockwise P-T-t history recorded for
tion back onto the Karelian domain during the the Svecofennian orogeny in eastern Finland
Svecofennian orogeny. It is therefore impor- (Ward, 1987; Pajunen and Poutiainen, 1999)
tant to appreciate that the lateral variations in and the widespread resetting of Archean
metamorphic grade observed throughout the basement isotope systems in areas currently
Archean of Finland do not necessarily repre- devoid of Proterozoic cover (Kontinen et al.,
sent late Archean postorogenic stabilization 1992; OBrien et al., 1993). Biotite gener-
and erosion, but may instead relate to Protero- ally yields Proterozoic K-Ar ages throughout
zoic tectonic and thermal reworking. Where eastern Finland, whereas hornblende has been
such uncertainty exists concerning the timing more robust, generally retaining Archean ages
of juxtaposition of terrains of varying meta- (Kontinen et al., 1992; OBrien et al., 1993b).
morphic grade, or the uplift and exhumation of Titanite U-Pb ages have also been reset in the
Archean complexes, useful constraints can be Belomorian province, with the youngest ages

of 1.781.75 Ga being from titanite within late Peltonen and Mnttri, 2001) and some of the
hydrothermal alteration parageneses (Bibikova deep crustal high-velocity layers observed in
et al., 2001). Pajunen and Poutiainen (1999) seismic profiles (Korja et al., 1993).
determined metamorphic conditions and hy- Although there are no exposed Proterozoic
drothermal fluid activity in Proterozoic shear granitoids to indicate partial melting of Arche-
zones within Archean basement in the Kuhmo an crust in the Ilomantsi and Kianta terrains,
and Nurmes terrains, recognizing a prograde monzogranitic and pegmatitic intrusions dated
event accompanied by saline water-rich fluids at 1.821.80 Ga intrude allochthonous and au-
and decompression associated with a more tochthonous Archean basement along the east-
typical late orogenic metamorphic CO2H2O ern edge of the Ranua terrain and throughout
fluids; hydrothermal xenotime relating to the the Southern Lapland terrain (Vaasjoki et al.,
latter mineral assemblage was dated to 1852 2001). This indicates that Archean lower crust
2 Ma. This suggests that between 1.91.8 was not too refractory for melting, but that the
Ga the present erosion level of the Karelian solidus for fertile rocks was attained only in
province experienced temperatures between areas that were sufficiently thickened, or where
400500 C during burial to maximum depths the Karelian province was underthrust beneath
of around 15 km, with metamorphic dehydra- the Svecofennian province.
tion reactions producing at least localized For example, systematic Sm-Nd studies
fluidrock interaction. This is par ticularly by Huhma (1986) show that some granitoids
evident in the structural control on magnetic along the boundary zone between the Sveco-
signatures in the Archean of eastern Finland fennian and Karelian domains have initial Nd
(Sorjonen-Ward, 1993; Airo, 1999), although it values of 1 to 4, indicating that Svecofen-
is uncertain whether fluids were derived from nian collision had led to partial melting and
underlying Archean rocks, or the overlying assimilation of underthrust Archean crust by
Proterozoic allochthon. 1860 Ma. Ruotoistenmki et al. (2001) also
attributed variations in initial Nd within a
5.2. Distribution and composition of suite of 1.861.85 Ga gabbroic to granitic
buried Archean crust plutons in the western part of the Iisalmi ter-
rain to variable degrees of derivation from an
Some further inferences concerning the distri- evolved Archean lower crustal source the
bution and composition of the deep Archean lowest Nd value being 6.5 and a juvenile
crust in the Karelian domain can be deduced enriched lithosphere. The shift to values closer
from the regional responses to deformation, to the depleted mantle Sm-Nd evolutionary
burial and heating during the Svecofennian trend away from the Karelian boundary zone
and KolaLapland orogenies. For example, has indeed been one of the strongest lines of
the P-T-t history defined by Pajunen and Pou- evidence for arguing that the Svecofennian
tiainen (1999) and Bibikova et al. (2001) in domain is not underlain by Archean crust
principle allows the possibility of decompres- (Huhma, 1986; Patchett and Kouvo, 1986).
sion melting within the deep Archean crust As well as implying a relatively enriched late
during late Svecofennian orogenic stabili- Archean reservoir in the lower crust, the Ar-
zation, between 1.85 and 1.80 Ga. The role chean-derived granitoids intruding the margin
of magmatic underplating in modifying the of the Karelian domain typically show weakly
thermal regime of the lower crust also needs radiogenic lead in potassium feldspar, and low
208
to be considered, in view of the 1.80 Ga ages Pb/206Pb ratios in zircon. These results are
obtained from lower crustal mafic granulite consistent with an Archean deep crustal source
and mantle xenoliths (Hltt et al., 2000b; enriched in residual phases such as garnet and

pyroxene, and with high Th/U and low U/Pb ponent in their source material would have
in other words compositions complementary been predominantly of metaigneous rather
to much of the currently exposed Archean than pelitic sedimentary character.
crust in this region. Finally, Huhma (1986) and Huhma et al.
Widespread Paleoproterozoic melting of (1990) noted that the Sm-Nd data for some
Archean crust in northern Finland is also evi- basalts formed during early rifting of the Kare-
dent from Lu-Hf studies (Patchett et al., 1981), lian domain imply relatively LREE-enriched
Pb-Pb whole rock and potassium feldspar compositions, which is difficult to reconcile
data (Merilinen, 1976), and heterogeneity in with the established depleted mantle reservoir
zircon populations (Lauerma, 1982; Huhma, beneath the Fennoscandian Shield. It is not
1986; Mnttri, 1995) as well as the Sm-Nd clear whether these features result from crustal
survey by Huhma (1986). Rm (1991), in contamination, as is evidently the case for
seeking appropriate Archean crustal Sm-Nd komatiites erupted through Archean crust in
compositions for modeling partial melting Lapland (Rsnen et al., 1989), or metasoma-
of Archean crust during the formation of the tism of the Archean subcontinental lithosphere
Salmi rapakivi granite batholith in the south- during the various Paleoproterozoic rifting
eastern part of the Karelian domain, noted events (cf. Peltonen et al., 1998).
that the Nd for the Nattanen granites, which
intrude the Pomokaira terrain, is less negative 5.3. Xenoliths and deep seismic studies
than comparative values published for exposed
Archean rocks, suggesting a more radiogenic Xenoliths entrained by kimberlite diatremes
source composition. The petrological and and basalts are widely used to obtain informa-
geochemical characteristics of the Nattanen tion about the composition, age, and thermal
granites is also consistent with derivation from evolution of the lower crust and lithospheric
an igneous source, and implies that Archean mantle (Rudnick, 1992; OReilly et al., 2001).
crust lies beneath the allochthonous Lapland It appears that there is not only a strong cou-
granulite belt (Haapala et al., 1987). hlander pling between crustal formation and stabiliza-
and Skild (1994) conducted a similar Sm-Nd tion of underlying lithosphere, but also that
survey in adjacent northern Sweden and found there are subtle secular changes in mantle
that both 1.901.87 Ga calc-alkaline granit- composition, which make Archean lithosphere
oids and 1.80 Ga felsic weakly peraluminous inherently more buoyant and resilient to sub-
minimum-melt monzogranites record variable duction and destruction (Griffin et al., 1999;
degrees of derivation from Archean crust; the OReilly et al., 2001). The recent recognition
latter, so-called Lina-type granites have Nd of two kimberlite clusters within the Iisalmi
values as low as 9.3 at 1.80 Ga, compared to terrain (Griffin et al., 1995; Tyni, 1997) has
a mean value of 12.4 (hlander and Skild, provided an ideal opportunity for investigating
1994). Despite their minimum-melt features, the nature of the deep crust and lithosphere
the weakly peraluminous to metaluminous near the margin of the Karelian domain, and
character and 18O values between +5 and the extent to which Archean lithosphere has
+8% mean that the Lina-type granites do not been modified by Svecofennian and younger
qualify as collisional S-type granites, irrespec- processes (Peltonen et al., 1999; Hltt et al.,
tive of whether they were directly derived 2000b). Interpretations of results have also
from Archean basement or indirectly through been complemented by heat flow data (Kuk-
remelting of 1.9 Ga granitoids (hlander et konen and Peltonen, 1999) and comparison
al., 1987b; hlander and Skild, 1994). This with the deep crustal density structure inferred
suggests that the lower crustal Archean com- from the SVEKA seismic refraction profile,

which also passes through the Iisalmi terrain isotope studies are unable to discriminate be-
(Korja et al., 1993; Korsman et al., 1999). tween these three alternatives, the geometry of
Studies of mantle xenolith populations the lower accreted lithospheric layer ought to
(Peltonen et al., 1999) have revealed that the differ, being more uniform over a wider area
lithospheric mantle beneath the Iisalmi terrain in the case of plume impingement compared
is stratified, comprising two compositionally to eastwards tapering for the rifting and at-
distinct layers. The upper layer is character- tenuation scenario.
ized by depleted harzburgite xenoliths in the In summary, while Kukkonen and Peltonen
garnet-spinel facies, derived from depths of (1999) concluded from the absence of sheared
100150 km. These rocks appear to have un- fabrics in xenoliths that the petrologically
dergone metasomatic enrichment, probably defined lithosphereasthenosphere boundary
in association with the kimberlitic magmatic is at least 230 km deep, the composition of
event, since Nd and Sr isotope studies of xe- xenoliths (Peltonen et al., 1999) indicates
noliths produce isochrons matching the ages that the lower part of the mantle lithosphere
obtained from the kimberlites (Tyni, 1997; beneath the Karelian domain may be of Pro-
Peltonen et al., 1999). The lower layer, at terozoic rather than late Archean age. On the
depths from 170230 km, consists of garnet other hand, the upper part of the subcontinental
facies harzburgite-lherzolite-wehrlite, and also lithospheric mantle is likely to be Archean,
includes eclogites. although it has evidently been modified during
The upper layer is regarded as Archean the latest Proterozoic or early Paleozoic.
subcontinental lithospheric mantle, whereas Studies of lower crustal xenoliths sampled
there are three potential alternatives for the by the kimberlites lend further support to the
formation of the lower lithospheric layer. The postorogenic 1.8 Ga underplating scenario. A
first involves attenuation of Archean continen- considerable scatter in isotope results obtained
tal lithosphere during rifting and formation of by Hltt et al. (2000b) from mafic granu-
a passive margin, most likely between 1.97 and lites representing crystallization at depths
1.95 Ga (Peltonen et al., 1998), with accretion corresponding to the present middle crust.
of a mafic underplate beneath what is now the Peltonen et al. (1999) also considered that
western margin of the Karelian domain. The residual cumulate composition in the lower
second alternative would be underthrusting part of the mantle lithosphere could well be
of deep Svecofennian oceanic lithosphere, complementary to mafic magmas emplaced
which may well have the appropriate residual in the lower crust. Therefore it is apparent
cumulate-like geochemical signatures (Pel- that the Archean crust, as well as the mantle
tonen et al., 1999). This is more difficult to lithosphere includes a considerable component
reconcile with the polarity of Svecofennian of Proterozoic material, and by implication,
collision, except possibly at the later stages, Proterozoic thermal reworking.
around 1.86 Ga, when bimodal plutons were If the Archean lower crust has indeed been
emplaced into the Iisalmi terrain (Paavola, modified and reworked by magmatic intrusion
1991; Ruotoistenmki et al., 2001). The third and underplating, this ought to be evident in
possibility is in relation to plume impingement deep seismic data.
and underplating at around 1.80 Ga, which is In Russia, the Moho depth may also have
consistent with xenolith data in other parts of been modified by Paleoproterozoic rifting,
the Fennoscandian Shield and isotope charac- magmatic underplating, and convergent tec-
teristics of mafic magmatism (Eklund et al., tonics. However, there is a relatively well-de-
1998), as well as the abundant postorogenic fined Moho from the Belomorian terrain west-
1.801.78 Ga granitic magmatism. Even if wards to the Finnish border, which steadily

increases to about 40 km, before jumping to in Finland, but as yet there are insufficient
37 km (Systra et al., 2001). constraints on large scale crustal architec-
The Europrobe BABEL reflection surveys ture and timing for developing a robust and
have not transected the Archean crust, except testable tectonic model. This is due as much
where it is underthrust beneath Proterozoic to the lack of information and the effects of
rocks in northern Sweden, while the results Proterozoic disruption as to concerns about
of the FIRE reflection seismic surveys were fundamental differences between Archean and
not available at the time of writing. Refraction modern earth processes (Sleep and Windley,
data are however available from the SVEKA 1982; Hamilton, 1998). The issue is not simply
profiles (Luosto et al., 1990; Korja et al., 1993; whether or not the Archean thermal regime
Korsman et al., 1999), which provide informa- inhibited or allowed Phanerozoic-style plate
tion on densities and depths of crustal layers. tectonics, for even in the absence of convinc-
Results are complementary to the xenolith ing criteria such as ophiolites, or blueschist
data in that thick crust, with relatively high facies accretionary complexes, the existence
density lower crust, is present beneath the of extensive strike-slip shear zones demon-
Iisalmi terrain and the western margin of the strates that the continental lithosphere in the
Karelian domain generally. There appears to late Archean was sufficiently rigid to record
be a marked decrease in depth to the Moho large scale horizontal compression (Sleep,
eastwards, coinciding approximately with 1992). Of equal importance is the extent to
the position of the Kuhmo greenstone belt which the Archean thermal regime influenced
(Yliniemi et al., 1996; Korsman et al., 1999) the degree of melting, lithospheric rheology,
and the zone of Proterozoic tectonic reworking and post-collisional responses to thermal and
along the boundary between the Rautavaara gravitational disequilibrium within the crust.
complex and the Ilomantsi terrain (Luosto et Studies of Archean high-grade terrains suggest
al., 1990). Although this is mostly attribut- that late orogenic geotherms in continental
able to the Svecofennian collision (Kohonen crust were not distinguishable from those
et al., 1991; Korsman et al., 1999), it is by no in later orogens (Bickle, 1978; Griffin et al.,
means clear to what extent this was controlled 1980; Pollack, 1997). In contrast, consider-
ultimately by the inherited late Archean litho- ations of the efficiency of heat loss from the
spheric architecture. Farther east, in Russian Earth have led to propositions that Archean
Karelia, similar controversies in interpretation lithospheric plates would have been smaller,
relate to discriminating between Proterozoic and spreading ridge length accordingly grea-
and Archean structures, across the bound- ter, than in the modern Earth (Bickle, 1978;
ary between the Belomorian terrain and the de Wit et al., 1992), and that the frequency
western part of the Karelian domain (Berzin and consequences of plume-plate interaction
et al., 2001; Samsonov et al., 2001; Slabunov were greater in the late Archean (Campbell
and Bibikova, 2001). and Griffiths, 1992; Wyman et al., 1999).
The absence of documented blueschist facies
terrains and estimates of the ambient mantle
6. Discussion and synthesis temperatures in the Archean being somewhere
between 50100 C (Arndt, 2001) or 100200
6.1. Archean thermal regimes and C (Campbell and Jarvis, 1984) greater than
tectonic consequences in the younger Earth would be consistent with
higher geothermal gradients in convergent
We can recognize several distinct magmatic tectonic settings (Martin, 1987a,b), such that
and tectonic events in the Karelian domain hydrated oceanic lithosphere might have com-

menced melting beneath subduction zones, sediment supply, and the abundance and tim-
at depths less than 70 km and temperatures ing of late orogenic granitic magmatism and
of 600700 C (Wyllie, 1979). In addition, accompanying metamorphism.
greater degrees of melting would result in Is the buoyancy and strength, and hence
thicker and more buoyant oceanic lithosphere, equilibrium thickness of Archean lithosphere
that would be more resistant to subduction, therefore a two-stage self-organizing phenom-
even more so if extensively hydrated, which enon (Bak, 1996; Hodges, 1998), regulated
might promote crustal growth by lateral accre- firstly by lithospheric composition and heat
tion of oceanic plateaux (de Wit et al., 1992; flow and secondly by the temperature-depen-
Abbot and Mooney, 1995). dent rheology of crustal rocks? Ultimately,
An elevated Archean thermal regime the degree of interaction between anomalous
would have significant consequences for thermal regimes related to plume activity and
magmatism during collision, and thermal the rates of convergence and extension at plate
evolution of the crust following collision. boundaries, would determine whether crustal
Based to some extent on studies from the growth would take place as rapidly formed
Kianta terrain, Martin (1987a,b) concluded oceanic plateaux or magmatic arc complexes.
that many trace element characteristics of to- Was there a critical crustal thickness under an
nalitetrondhjemite magmatism are consistent elevated Archean geotherm that modulated
with extensive melting of subducted hydrated intracrustal melting and differentiation of
oceanic lithosphere, at relatively shallow the crust into a mafic lower crust and felsic
depths, in contrast to Phanerozoic terrains, upper crust, analogous to the onset of felsic
where arc magmatism is attributed to melting volcanism in modern Iceland (cf. Marsh et
in the lithospheric wedge above the subduction al., 1987), or was subduction of hydrated oce-
zone. Ridley (1992) proposed that under an anic lithosphere or even crustal duplexing
orogenic geotherm, much of the lower crust, always required to attain appropriate P-T
of tonalitic composition, would be partially conditions for melting mafic lower crust? In
molten, which would regulate crustal strength either case, internal crustal differentiation,
and buoyancy. When the effects of radiogenic leading to upwards concentration of lithophile,
heat production are considered, as crustal ana- radiogenic elements in tonalitic to granitic
texis enriches the middle crust in K, U, and magmas could then significantly influence
Th, there is potentially an even greater effect deformation style and metamorphic evolution
on crustal strength (Sandiford and McLaren, at higher crustal levels, including perhaps the
2002). For example, Jamieson et al. (1998) depth of the brittleductile transition. When
have conducted numerical modeling of the the effects of perturbed orogenic geotherms
thermal evolution of collisional fold belts and radiogenic heat production decay to a
with temperature dependent rheologies. They critical threshold for crustal strength, a given
found that the location of crustal units with terrain may be considered stabilized, at least
high heat production has a significant effect until subjected to some later anomalous event.
on temperature distribution. Concentration According to OReilly et al. (2001), and
of radiogenic elements is expected firstly in PoudjornDomani et al. (2001), the Archean
tonalitic to granodioritic magma derived from lithosphere is distinctive in terms of composi-
partial melting of contemporaneous or older tion and buoyancy, which makes it inherently
mafic crust, and secondly from sediments stable, unless metasomatized and infiltrated by
buried within the accretionary prism. Thus younger magma to such an extent that it forms
some first order correlation might be expected isolate relict domains within an essentially
between duration of an orogenic event, rate of younger lithosphere, as in the south China

craton. Lenardic et al. (1999) also argued that ing, terminating downwards at subhorizontal
destruction of Archean lithosphere is inher- detachment zone, inferred to represent the
ently unlikely when surrounded by younger base of the greenstone sequence. Below this,
fold belts, which preferentially accommodate prominent reflectivity indicates asymmetric
strain during subsequent collisional events. imbrication within the middle crust, with a
A general conclusion from the Karelian more homogeneous lower crust, consistent
domain in Finland is that greenschist to lower with late orogenic lower crustal melting and
amphibolite facies greenstone sequences tend magma transfer into the middle and upper
to be steeply dipping and tightly folded, and crust. The detachment zone is interpreted as
intruded by discrete homogeneous plutons. a fundamental rheological boundary, along
In contrast, migmatite terrains, with relict which granitic sheets were emplaced, and
supracrustal components (not merely mafic feeding plutons emplaced as discrete intrusion
intrusives and cumulates) commonly have into the upper crust (Drummond et al., 2000;
more gently dipping enveloping surfaces. This Sorjonen-Ward et al., 2002). This seems to
dichotomy in structural style and metamorphic represent dynamic feedback between crustal
grade suggests a thermal (and lithostatic load- strength, thickening and degree of melting.
ing) control on crustal rheology and mode An inherent aspect of this process is that
of deformation. Similar relationships are anatexis can occur in a contractional deforma-
apparent in other Archean terrains, notably tion regime and does not necessarily require
the Yilgarn craton where a general trend of or cause regional-scale extensional collapse
decreasing depth of exhumation from east or crustal thinning. However, a consequence
to west can be inferred. In the western part of extraction of a volume of magma from one
of the craton, granulite facies gneiss terrains particular level in the crust and transfer to
are intruded by monzogranites of similar age higher levels would effectively be equivalent
(Nemchin et al., 1994), which often form gen- to imposing a flattening strain on the original
tly dipping sheets. Farther east, in the Southern melt layer. Is it possible therefore that there
Cross province, greenschist to amphibolite is a coupling between melt production and
facies greenstone belts are steeply dipping and crustal rheology that reinforces the transition
associated with domal plutonic complexes and between upper and lower crust, again in the
large scale transpressive shear zones (Dalstra manner of self-organizing systems (Bak, 1996;
et al., 2000; Greenfield and Chen, 1999); this Hodges, 1998)?
architecture closely resembles the structural If Archean orogenic processes were regu-
relationships and metamorphism in the Kianta lated by internal responses as much as external
and Ilomantsi terrains of the Karelian domain. factors, then the growth and reworking of Ar-
Still farther east, the extensive greenschist chean cratons could be argued as diachronous
facies supracrustal sequences of the Eastern on a global scale, instead of viewing the end
Goldfields province include extensive low- of the Archean as an abrupt global transition
strain domains, local tectonic imbrication triggered by mantle cooling below a particular
and repetition of stratigraphy, and discordant temperature threshold. For example, despite
plutons with zones of higher strain and meta- the global prevalence of Archean cratons
morphic grade exposed in antiformal culmina- stabilized around 2.72.6 Ga, others, such
tions. Interpretations of seismic reflection data as the Pilbara and Kaapvaal cratons record
(Swager et al., 1997; Drummond et al., 2000) progressive growth, differentiation, and stabi-
are consistent with this variation in structural lization in the time interval from 3.5 Ga to 3.0
style with depth, showing an upper crustal Ga (de Wit et al., 1992; Bickle et al., 1993);
layer with open to tight folding and duplex- by 2.92.7 Ga, the Pilbara craton provided a

remarkably stable platform environment for depositional environment in the Archean of
Hamersley basin sedimentation (Blake and Finland, but it is to be emphasized that they
Barley, 1992; Krapez, 1993) and the latter are intimately associated with the volcanic
formed an orogenic foreland setting in which evolution of the greenstone belts.
the Witwatersrand basin accumulated (Coward There is at present no stratigraphic or en-
et al., 1995). Stabilization of the Fennoscan- vironmental framework for interpreting other
dian Shield follows a similar pattern except diverse supracrustal sequences, such as the
that it is clearly several hundred million years mature siliciclastic metasediments in the Tunt-
younger and similar in age to the Superior cra- sa terrain and hydrothermally altered rocks in
ton in Canada and Yilgarn craton in Australia. the Rautavaara complex. If the paragneisses
Thermal equilibrium in the deep crust of the of the Western and Central Puolanka Groups
Karelian domain, if we take the zircon ages were conclusively shown to be Archean, then
from Iisalmi terrain granulites as an indication the sedimentological studies of Laajoki (1986;
of cooling to a postorogenic geotherm, had Chapter 7) would provide insights into Arche-
been attained by 2.63 Ga, alkaline and car- an processes and paleogeography, and would
bonatite magmatism was manifest soon after, delineate a major sedimentary and felsic
and deposition of the earliest unconformably volcanic province separating the Napapiiri
overlying volcanic and sedimentary units in and Pudasjrvi terrains from the Koillismaa
Lapland occurred some time later at 2.5 Ga. and Kianta terrains to the east. Whether this
Another typical element of collisional has any fundamental significance in terms of
and accretionary terrains, not yet recognized accretion of two quite separate crustal units
in the Karelian domain, is the presence of remains to be seen.
late orogenic to post-collisional sedimentary
basins. The Siilinjrvi carbonatite complex 6.2. Regional scenarios and correlations
does provides some indirect evidence for latest
Archean alkaline magmatism and extension, At this stage, our understanding of the isolated
but there is no record of related sedimentary Archean terrains of the northern part of the
basins or volcanism. This contrasts for ex- Karelian domain is too fragmentary to permit
ample with the post-collisional Timiskaming any synthesis of tectonic evolution. The same
phase of terrestrial sedimentation and alkali applies to attempts to reconstruct the early
magmatism in the Abitibi belt (Sutecliffe et history of those terrains that contain rock
al., 1993; Jackson et al., 1994), or the Mer- units older than 2.8 Ga, such as the 3.2 Ga
ougil and Kurrawang sequences in the Yilgarn migmatites of the Iisalmi terrain and the early
craton (Krapez et al., 2000). It should be generation of migmatites and their paleosomes
noted, however, that the Kurrawang sequence in the Kianta terrain. A number of tectonic
consists predominantly of submarine mass models have been presented to explain magma-
flow deposits and is devoid of volcanogenic tism in the Kuhmo greenstone belt (Piirainen,
intercalations. Neither is it strictly a postoro- 1998; Taipale, 1998; Jegouzo and Blais, 1993,
genic sequence, although it overlies volcanic 1995). Despite the advances in interpreting
rocks of the Kalgoorlie sequence with an and reconstructing eruptive and depositional
erosional discordance, as the two sequences processes and environments, and inferring
nevertheless share the same tectonic fabrics magmatic sources and settings of mafic and
and metamorphic history. The coarse clastic ultramafic rocks from petrogenetic studies
resedimented deposits in the Ilomantsi and (Halkoaho et al., 2000; Puchtel et al., 1999),
Kianta terrains (Sorjonen-Ward, 1993) are the intensity of reworking during later Archean
the only known candidates for this type of events makes it difficult to derive a coherent,

robust, and testable tectonic model. with respect to the Ilomantsi terrain, which
The oceanic plateau model for Archean would imply a different polarity and setting
continental growth is an appealing one (de Wit for the Nurmes gneiss complex. These issues,
et al., 1992), and characteristics of komatiitic as well as the time difference between arc-like
volcanism has been used to invoke collision magmatism in the Ilomantsi terrain (2.75
with an oceanic plateau in the Kostamuksha Ga) and deep crustal metamorphism in the
greenstone belt (Puchtel et al., 1998). There Iisalmi terrain (2.682.63 Ga) are difficult to
are nevertheless lithostratigraphic constraints reconcile with such a simple collisional model.
on application of such models in Finland, in- Abrupt changes in the kinematic framework
cluding the evidence for eruption of komatiites of evolving orogens are of course not unusual
and high-Mg basalts in an ensialic environ- in the modern Earth, but it is equally probable
ment, or at least the almost ubiquitous bimodal that the observed structural patterns reflect
aspect of ultramafic volcanism accompanied responses to different, superimposed tectonic
by felsic magmatism. regimes.
For the later events in the Karelian domain, Still more complex scenarios can be envis-
an obvious plate tectonic scenario could be aged if we attempt to integrate constraints and
devised as follows. The 2.752.73 Ga coeval concepts from the Russian part of the Kare-
volcanism and tonalitic plutons in the Hattu lian domain. For example, regional mapping
schist belt are reminiscent of arc magmatism, combined with thermochronological studies
while there is isotope evidence for derivation (Bibikova et al., 2001) and reflection seismic
of some granitic magmatic and sediments studies (Berzin et al., 2001; Samsonov, 2001)
from older continental crust. Older migma- strongly support the idea of tectonic accre-
tites are exposed to the north and west, in the tion of the Belomorian terrain by westward or
Iisalmi and Kianta terrains, which would be southwestward emplacement over the Karelian
appropriate source material. The intervening domain at around 2.7 Ga. The scale of this
Nurmes gneiss complex, and potentially the event is such that it ought to have had signifi-
silicilastic and volcanic precursors to supra- cant consequences for the Karelian domain in
crustal gneisses in the Rautavaara complex Finland. At this stage, we would envisage that
would then be ideally placed as an accretion- the Kianta and Ilomantsi terrains were deform-
ary wedge overridden by the Ilomantsi terrain. ing within a common kinematic framework,
A polarity of this kind would also seem to characterized by NNE dextral transpression, or
provide an explanation for medium-pressure EW compression partitioned into a combina-
metamorphism in the underthrust Iisalmi ter- tion of thrusting and NE-directed simple shear
rain. But such a scenario becomes less tenable (Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1997). This at least
under closer scrutiny, unless we argue that the would provide a mechanism for exhumation of
polarity of this event has been substantially the granulites and pyroxene-bearing granodio-
obscured by younger crustal reworking. For rites of the Lieksa complex while emplacing
example, the available kinematic constraints the Kutsu monzogranites and Naarva leuco-
from the Ilomantsi terrain suggest NNE granites over the Ilomantsi terrain. Because
dextral transpression during later stages of this represents an opposite sense with respect
deformation, which is at least locally resolved to the Belomorian thrusting, the Karelian
in moderately dipping terrain as thrusting with domain is potentially an example of a doubly
a top to the east component. Similarly, there vergent orogeny (Koons, 1990) or records the
is limited reconnaissance mapping to sug- formation of a backthrust retrowedge (Beau-
gest that the southeastern part of the Kianta mont et al., 1994), which has been described
terrain was thrust southwards and eastwards from many orogens (Cook and Varsek, 1994),

including Archean terrains (Sorjonen-Ward et in widespread potassic granitic magmatism
al., 2002). However, more detailed field work and granulite facies metamorphism, though
combined with chronological constraints are barometric data indicate that the presently
required before the relationship between the exposed Archean granulites record somewhat
formation and exhumation of Karelian high- deeper crustal levels than in the Svecofennian
grade terrains and adjacent lower grade ter- (Visnen and Hltt, 1999; Hltt and
rains is adequately understood. Paavola, 2000). Until better age constraints
become available, it also seems that the late
6.3. Comparisons and contrasts orogenic Archean felsic magmatism includes
between Archean and Svecofennian enderbites as well as monzogranites, which is
crustal processes not the case in the Proterozoic of southern Fin-
land. A magmatic underplating event has been
There are some intriguing parallels in the tec- invoked throughout various parts of the Fen-
tonic and thermal evolution of the Archean of noscandian Shield at around 1.8 Ga (Eklund et
eastern Finland and the Svecofennian domain al., 1990; Kempton et al., 2001; Markwick and
in southern Finland. These are of interest when Downes, 2000) but this postdates, and cannot
considering whether the formation of Archean be the cause of the 1.841.80 Ga Svecofen-
lithosphere in itself exerts deterministic control nian granitic magmatism and metamorphism.
on subsequent crustal processes and responses Similarly, in the Archean of eastern Finland,
(OReilly et al., 2001; Poudjom-Domani et al., there is as yet no record of late orogenic mafic
2001) or whether the Archean to Proterozoic magmatism that might have caused extensive
transition indeed records secular changes in intracrustal melting. Although modeling of
Earth processes, particularly thermal regimes, seismic refraction and gravity data indicate
through radiogenic heat production (cf. Kuk- potential mafic layers in the deep crust in east-
konen and Lahtinen, 2001). In both areas, ern Finland (Korsman et al., 1999), it will be
linear belts of greenschist to lower amphibolite recalled that xenolith studies record Protero-
grade metasediments and volcanic rocks, with zoic rather than Archean underplating (Hltt
steep enveloping surfaces and simple structur- et al., 2000b). Clearly, both regions need to be
al geometry are juxtaposed against migmatitic examined carefully for evidence of a mantle
gneiss terrains of broadly coeval age. Neither magmatic input at this time, or alternatively,
area has preserved significant amounts of late- metamorphic evidence for rapid decompres-
to postorogenic sedimentary basins, which sion associated with granite emplacement,
may be an indication of either the failure to such as might be expected if the heat source
form extensive areas of topographically elevat- was a consequence of delamination of tectoni-
ed terrain, or an erosional artefact relating to cally thickened lithosphere (cf. Houseman et
isostasy and crustal composition. A qualitative al., 1981). The 50-Ma time lag between Sve-
correlation between steep enveloping surfaces cofennian arc magmatism and the potassic
for foliations in low-grade greenstone belts granites, and the similar delay recorded in the
and more gently dipping enveloping surfaces Ilomantsi terrain is an important constraint
higher grade migmatite gneiss terrains may on interpretation. A delay of this magnitude
represent a fundamental thermal and rheologi- might be expected between impingement of
cal contrast and decoupling between the upper a plume at the base of the lithosphere and the
and lower crust. onset of partial melting in the middle crust, in
In both areas too, there is a distinct phase the case of conductive heat transfer (Hobbs et
of thermal and tectonic reworking, some fifty al., 1998). However, from the point of view of
million years after crustal formation, resulting lithospheric delamination following collision

(England and Houseman, 1989) a 50-Ma gap Komatiites and komatiitic series of the Fin-
between collision and uplift and anatexis in nish greenstone belts. In: N.T. Arndt, N.
the middle crust is a rather long time frame. Nisbet (Eds.), Komatiites. George Allen
and Unwin, London. 131146.
As an alternative, the effect of redistribution
Bak, P,. 1996. How nature works the science
of radiogenic elements within the crust on late of self-organized criticality. Copernicus
orogenic thermal evolution might be consid- (Springer-Verlag), New York.
ered as a more viable explanation (Jamieson et Barbey, P., Convert, J., Moreau, B., Capdevila,
al., 1998; Sandiford and McLaren, 2002). R., Hameurt, J., 1984. Petrogenesis and
evolution of an early Proterozoic collisional
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1989. Structural studies in the Lapland

Chapter 3
LAYERED MAFIC
INTRUSIONS OF
THE TORNIO
NRNKVAARA
BELT
M. Iljina, E. Hanski
Cover page: Magmatic layering in ultramafic zone of Megacyclic unit I, Penikat intrusion. Tag width 5
cm.
Photo: Vesa Perttunen.
Iljina M., Hanski E., 2005. Layered mafic intrusions of the
TornioNrnkvaara belt. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A.,
Rm, O.T. (Eds.), Precambrian Geology of Finland Key
to the Evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield. Elsevier B.V.,
Amsterdam, pp. 101138.
Most of the ~20 of Finlands early Paleoproterozoic layered maficultramafic

intrusions are found in a roughly EW trending, 300-km-long belt in northern
Finland. Known as the TornioNrnkvaara belt, it represents a major failed rift
system into which large volumes of mafic and minor A-type granite magma were
intruded at ~2440 Ma. The mafic intrusions have late Archean felsic gneisses
on their southern side and Paleoproterozoic volcano-sedimentary sequences on
their northern side. Deposition of these supracrustal sequences took place on the
unconformity that truncates the igneous layering of the mafic intrusions. This
indicates relatively shallow depth of intrusion and rapid uplift and erosion.
Composition of chilled margins, cumulates, and cogenetic dikes as well as
established crystal fractionation sequences allow recognition of three different
parental magmas. Two of these resemble siliceous high-Mg basalt (SHMB) and
are thus akin to the Bushveld B1 and B3 magmas, the third is a more evolved
tholeiitic basalt. The SHMB types are found in the western and central parts of
the TornioNrnkvaara belt, the third in the eastern part of the belt.
All the mineralization types characteristic of layered mafic intrusions
are present. These include chromite and PGE-enriched base metal sulfides in
the bottom parts of the intrusions, stratiform PGE, chromite, and magnetite
enrichments higher in the cumulate sequences, and offset PGE-base metal
deposits below the intrusions. A world-class chrome deposit is located at the
base of the Kemi intrusion and a magnetite gabbro of the Koillismaa complex
has been exploited for vanadium. Five potentially world-class reef-type PGE
deposits are distributed among three separate intrusions: Penikat, Suhanko, and
Narkaus. Sulfide mineralization in the marginal series shows, in places, high
PGE concentrations relative to typical basal sulfide mineralizations. The location
of the reefs and high-grade PGE marginal series seems to be controlled by the
megacyclic structure of the intrusions. This, together with the compositional
similarities of the intrusions (mineral, modal, whole-rock, PGE), suggests that
the magmas that formed these three intrusions and the chromite-bearing Kemi
intrusion had a common history in a lower-level auxiliary magma chamber
before emplacement.
CHAPTER 3 L AY E R E D MAFIC INTRUSIONS 103

1. Introduction tion. This information is supplemented by new
data from the Penikat intrusion and Portimo
The gabbroic and serpentinitic ultramafic and Koillismaa layered igneous complexes.
rocks of the TornioNrnkvaara belt were
already outlined and mapped in the first half
of the 1900s. However, it was not until the 2. Geologic setting of the
1960s and 1970s that these intrusions were TornioNrnkvaara belt
commonly accepted as differentiated bodies
of basic magma and the similarity between The TornioNrnkvaara belt is a discon-
these and other layered mafic intrusions tinuous zone of layered intrusions crossing
(e.g., the Rustenburg Layered Suite) was ac- northern Finland almost along the Arctic
knowledged. Still, at this stage, the internal Circle and extending some kilometers into
structure and crystallization ages remained Sweden (Tornio intrusion) and several tens of
rather poorly known. Extensive exploration kilometers into Russia (the Olanga complex).
in the 1980s and isotope age determinations The belt contains roughly half of the 2.42.5
accumulated evidence suggesting that the Ga layered igneous complexes within the
TornioNrnkvaara belt is part of a globally Fennoscandian Shield. This widespread pulse
recognized episode of mafic igneous activity at of mafic magmatism has been interpreted as
~2450 Ma. The results of these investigations, representing the initial stage of continental
carried out mostly by the University of Oulu, rifting (e.g., Piirainen et al., 1974; Amelin et
Outokumpu Oyj, and the Geological Survey of al., 1995). Some of the intrusions are located
Finland, have been reported in numerous pub- close to each other, thus forming igneous com-
lications and academic theses (e.g., Alapieti, plexes in which the individual intrusions were
1982; Lahtinen, 1985; Alapieti and Lahtinen, probably connected by dikes or intermediate
1986, 2002; Alapieti et al., 1989a; Lahtinen et magma chambers at the time of emplacement.
al., 1989; Halkoaho et al., 1990a,b; Huhtelin Some time after crystallization the intrusions
et al., 1990; Huhma et al., 1990; Iljina et al., were faulted by multistage deformation into
1992; Iljina, 1994; Iljina et al., 2001). several smaller blocks, some of which can
Mafic ~2450 Ma intrusions represent int- be found today as independent igneous bod-
racratonic plume-related igneous activity and ies. The deformation was also accompanied
are characterized by relatively high MgO and by greenschist to lower-amphibolite facies
Cr contents and relatively high SiO2 compared metamorphism resulting in replacement of the
with MgO. These magma types have been primary igneous minerals by low-temperature
referred to either as basaltic komatiites, boni- assemblages. Recrystallization was especially
nites, or siliceous high-magnesium basalts pervasive in the central part of the belt, leav-
and have been found to be prospective for ing essentially no primary mafic silicates in
Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide, PGE, and Cr- and Fe-Ti-V the cumulate rocks; nevertheless, the original
oxide deposits. The South African Bushveld texture is usually still recognizable. On the
Complex, Zimbabwean Great Dyke, Chinese other hand, in the eastern and western parts of
Jinchuan intrusion and Finnish Kemi intrusion the belt, magmatic minerals are well preserved
host well-known examples of economic depos- in many places.
its of these types, the last mentioned being part The TornioNrnkvaara belt consists of
of the TornioNrnkvaara belt. the Tornio, Kemi, and Penikat intrusions in the
In this paper we summarize the main geo- west, the Portimo layered igneous complex
logical features of the TornioNrnkvaara (Portimo complex) in the middle, and the Koil-
belt, with an emphasis on related mineraliza- lismaa layered igneous complex (Koillismaa
104 C H A P T E R 3 L AY E R E D M A F I C I N T R U S I O N S
Proterozoic
Perpohja schist belt granitoids
Kuusamo schist belt
Portimo layered igneous
complex
Murtolampi
Tornio Loljunmaa dike Kaukua
Penikat
Archean Tilsa
Lipevaara
Kuusijrvi
basement Pyhitys
Connecting dike
Kemi
Porttivaara
Syte Koillismaa layered igne-

20 km Narkaus intrusion ous complex Nrnkvaara
Pirivaara
Kuohunki
Nutturalampi
Kilvenjrvi
Lihalampi
Siika-Km
Konttijrvi Suhanko
intrusion intrusion
Fig. 3.1. Maficultramafic layered intrusions (black) in the TornioNrnkvaara belt (simplified after
Korsman et al., 1997). Low altitude aeromagnetic map is shown from the area of the Koillismaa
layered igneous complex. The connecting dike in the Koillismaa area refers to a strong magnetic
and gravimetric anomaly joining the Nrnkvaara intrusion to the Pyhitys and Kuusijrvi blocks of
the Western intrusion. The Western intrusion also comprises the Pirivaara, Syte, Porttivaara, Tilsa,
Lipevaara, Kaukua, and Murtolampi blocks.
complex) in the east (Figure 3.1). All but the Ga, suggesting a relatively shallow depth of
last are found at the southern or southeastern emplacement of the layered intrusions as well
margin of the Perpohja schist belt or close as rapid uplift and erosion.
to the margin within the adjacent Archean The contact between the Western intrusion
Pudasjrvi basement complex (Figure 3.1). In of the Koillismaa complex and the greenstone
fact, all intrusions or intrusion fragments, even belt on its western side is tectonic. However,
those surrounded by Archean gneisses, have a there is a small supracrustal package between
cap of supracrustal rocks (see inset of Figure the Kuusijrvi and Lipevaara blocks as well
3.1). Unequivocal evidence has been obtained as between the Syte and Porttivaara blocks
demonstrating that the lowermost supracrustal (Figure 3.1). These rocks contain (in strati-
rocks of the Perpohja schist belt, including graphic order) felsicintermediate volcanic
polymictic conglomerates, are younger than rocks, conglomerates, quartzites, and mafic
the layered intrusions and were deposited metavolcanic rocks that can be correlated
unconformably on the tilted, uplifted and with the lowermost rocks of the Kuusamo
partly eroded layered intrusions (Perttunen, schist belt. At least the conglomerates and
1991). The deposition of these supracrustal overlying supracrustal rocks are younger than
rocks is interpreted to have taken place at >2.3 the intrusion. This accords with observations

from the southeastern margin of the Perpohja present as an unmixed melt component.
schist belt. Details of the layered series differ between
Exploration has revealed a number of the different intrusions (Figure 3.2). Charac-
mineral deposits, of which the Kemi chrome teristically, the intrusions in the western and
ore is world-class in size and outstanding with central parts of the TornioNrnkvaara belt
respect to the economic cluster it has created. display a repetition of ultramafic and mafic
In addition to Cr oxide deposits, one titanian rocks that constitute megacyclic units (MCU)
magnetite deposit has been exploited for va- (Figure 3.2), five at maximum in Penikat.
nadium. PGE-enriched base metal sulfides These have been interpreted to indicate major
are found at the base of some intrusions and replenishments of the magma chamber with
numerous PGE reefs grading to exploitable new magma batches (Alapieti and Lahtinen,
concentrations of PGE have been delineated. 1986). The lower MCUs (IIII, at the Penikat
intrusion and MCU III at the Narkaus intru-
sion) are relatively thin, have a higher propor-
3. Cumulus sequences tion of ultramafic cumulates and show limited
fractionation indicating frequent but pulsic
3.1. General characteristics inflow of magma. The stratigrafically higher
cycles crystallized in a regime characterized
The general stratigraphy of the TornioNrn- by fractional crystallization and less frequent
kvaara belt intrusions can be divided into influxes of magma.
a marginal series and an overlying layered
series. The marginal series represents a basal 3.2. Kemi intrusion
reversal, in which rocks become more primitive
upwards. There are two kinds of marginal series The Kemi intrusion is economically impor-
successions in terms of thickness: one is thin tant due to the presence of huge chromitite
(<20 m), as in the Tornio, Kemi (virtually ab- reserves. This intrusion, described by Alapieti
sent), Penikat and Narkaus (Portimo complex) et al. (1989a), has a lenticular shape and is
intrusions, the other one much thicker (<150 ~15 km long and 2 km wide in the middle.
m), as in the Suhanko and Konttijrvi intrusions It lacks the basal reversal typical of the other
(Portimo complex) and in the Western intrusion TornioNrnkvaara belt intrusions. The
(Koillismaa complex). lower part of the layered body comprises up
The thin, poorly developed marginal series to 500 m of peridotites (olivinebronzite cu-
is composed of a fine-grained chilled margin, mulates), overlain first by bronzitites and then
subophitic, noncumulate-textured gabbroic websterites and diallage-augite cumulates.
rocks, and bronzititic cumulates. Felsic mate- The relative volume of ultramafic rocks is
rial (feldspar/quartz) present in these rocks has clearly greater than in the other intrusions of
partly been extracted from floor rocks during a the TornioNrnkvaara belt, except for the
contamination process. In contrast, the thicker Nrnkvaara intrusion. The ultramafic zone
type has better-developed cumulate layers with of the Kemi intrusion is characterized by the
an olivine cumulate layer (with poikilitic py- presence of at least 15 chromitite interlayers
roxenes), even tens of meters thick, at the top. that, apart from the exceptionally thick main
This olivine cumulate is separated by a pyroxene chromitite, are a few centimeters to 2.5 m thick.
cumulate (<10 m) from an underlying gabbroic The main chromitite is discussed in more detail
rock, which is either plagioclase-two pyroxene in section 5.2. The upper half of the ~2 km total
cumulate or a pyroxene cumulate in which felsic section is composed of gabbros, gabbronorites,
material (related to floor-rock contamination) is leucogabbros, and anorthosites.
Koillismaa layered
Penikat
intrusion igneous complex
Porttivaara block
Upper
Zone
Vanadium
ore
1000 MCU V
m
Middle
Zone
500 PV
Portimo layered igneous complex
Lower
Suhanko Zone
0 MCU IV intrusion Narkaus
Magma Konttijrvi intrusion
pulses AP intrusion
lower in Cr MCU III
RK MS
SJ SK
Kemi KJ AV
Cr MCU II
Magma intrusion MCU III
pulses Nrnkvaara
MCU II MCU I intrusion
higher in Cr Cr
MCU I
Cr
Cr MS
MS
Leucogabbro, anorthosite, Peridotite

diorite
Chromitite
Magnetite gabbro
Cr Chromitite
Norite, gabbronorite, gabbro layer
Olivine norite
Cr
Websterite
Bronzitite, olivine bronzitite
Cr
Cr
Fig. 3.2. Simplified stratigraphic columns of layered intrusions in the TornioNrnkvaara belt and
their correlation based on magma types (modified after Lahtinen et al., 1989). Also shown are oc-
currences of the principal PGE reefs (SJSompujrvi, APAla-Penikka, PVPaasivaara, SKSiika-Km,
RKRytikangas), marginal series PGM-sulfide mineral deposits (KJKonttijrvi, AVAhmavaara), chro-
mitite layers (Cr), and vanadium ore. MCUmegacyclic unit, MSmarginal series.

Penikat intrusion
Sompujrvi
55 block
5 km
Paleoproterozoic
40 Kilkka supracrustal rocks
N block
Megacyclic unit V
40 Yli-Penikat Megacyclic unit IV
block Megacyclic unit III
Megacyclic unit II
Megacyclic unit I
40 Archean granitoids
Keski-Penikat PV reef
block
AP reef
SJ reef
40 Fault
Ala-Penikat
block Layering
Fig. 3.3. Simplified geological map of the Penikat intrusion showing the areal distribution of the
megacyclic units and the Sompujrvi (SJ), Ala-Penikka (AP), and Paasivaara (PV) PGE reefs (after
Alapieti et al., 1990).
3.3. Penikat intrusion are less common. Minor chromitite interbeds

from a few centimeters to 0.5 meters thick
The first layered intrusion to the east of Kemi occur within the ultramafic rocks. The mafic
is the PGE-potential Penikat intrusion, which rocks are mostly plagioclase-bronzite and
has a present-day surface area of 1.53.5 km plagioclase-bronzite-augite cumulates, more
by 23 km (Figure 3.3). The ultramafic rocks rarely plagioclase-augite cumulates. A com-
are most often bronzitechromite cumulates, mon feature with the Western intrusion of the
while olivine or bronzite-augite cumulates Koillismaa complex is the several hundred
Cr wt.%
0 0.5
3000
m
2800
2600
Megacyclic unit V
Megacyclic unit V
2400
p
Pt + Pd + Au (g/t)
0 2 4 6
2200
pbCa
bCa
2000
pCa
pCba Mixed
Transition zone
pbCa rock
1800 pegm
pCa
pa(b)Ca
1600 PV
pbCa
pCa(b)
1400 pC
Megacyclic unit IV
paCa
bpCa
Megacyclic unit IV
20
1200 m
pabC 10
p
1000 0
AP
800
Quartz diorite
MCU I MCU II MCU III
SJ 1.6
600
Leucogabbro, anorthosite
5.0
400 Transition zone
0.8
0.7
7.3
Plagioclase-augite-bronzite
200 cumulate
6.1 Plagioclase-bronzite cumulate
0 1.8
0 0.5 Ultramafic cumulates
Cr wt.%
Fig. 3.4. Simplified stratigraphy and variation of whole-rock Cr across the Penikat intrusion. The posi-
tions of the three principal PGE reefs (SJSompujrvi, APAla-Penikka, PVPaasivaara) and some other
PGE showings (p) are marked in the stratigraphic column. Data for interval 02000 m taken from
Halkoaho (1993) and data for 2000 m upwards taken from this study. Also shown is the variation of
precious metal contents through the transition zone (modified after Huhtelin et al., 1990). Abbrevia-
tions for rock types in the transition zone: pplagioclase, bbronzite, aaugite, pegmmafic/ultramafic
pegmatite; letters before C denote cumulus phases, those after C intercumulus phases.

N
1 km
Fault
Siika-Km reef
Offset mineralization
Layered series Paleoproterozoic
Plagioclase-augite-bronzite cumulate spracrustal rocks
MCU III Mafic metavolcanic
Bronzite, bronzite-augite, and olivine cumulate
rocks and sills
Plagioclase-augite-bronzite cumulate Quartzite
MCU II Conglomerate, mica
Bronzite, bronzite-augite, and olivine cumulate
schist
Plagioclase-augite-bronzite cumulate
MCU I
Bronzite cumulate Archean granitoids
Fig. 3.5. Geological map of the Kilvenjrvi block of the Narkaus intrusion, showing megacyclic units
(MCU) and their mafic and ultramafic layers. The Siika-Km PGE reef and offset PGE deposit are
also shown (modified after Huhtelin et al., 1989b).
meters thick sequence of leucogabbros and Narkaus intrusion (section 3.4.), can be di-
anorthositic rocks in the upper part of the vided into five stratigraphic units which are
stratigraphy. In addition, the topmost of part of assigned to megacyclic units I to V and abbre-
the sequence (>2520 m) is rich in quartz and viated as MCU I to V (Figures 3.23.4). The
biotite (quartz diorite in Figure 3.4), resem- fourth and fifth are the thickest, occupying at
bling the granophyres overlying the Western least 3/4 of the ~3-km-thick igneous section
intrusion. remaining after Paleoproterozoic erosion.
The Penikat intrusion, together with the The three lowermost megacyclic units
(MCU IIII) differ from MCU IV and V in Each intrusion contains a marginal series
that the extent of differentiation is consider- and an overlaying layered series. The marginal
ably less well-developed. This implies that series of the Suhanko and Konttijrvi intru-
MCU IIII had less time to undergo fractional sions differ from that of the Narkaus intrusion
crystallization before recharge of the magma in thickness and prevailing rock types. The
chamber with a pulse of primitive magma and Narkaus marginal series generally varies from
initiation of a new MCU. This also implies that 10 to 20 m in thickness, while the Suhanko
MCU IV and V contained additional residual and Konttijrvi marginal series may reach
liquid derived from the lower MCU IIII, al- several tens of meters. The Narkaus marginal
lowing more advanced differentiation in the series is mainly composed of pyroxenite with
upper two cycles. As Figure 3.4 shows, the some plagioclase-bearing rocks in its lower
fifth megacyclic unit has produced the most parts, whereas olivine cumulates commonly
fractionated rocks in terms of Cr contents. An constitute the upper half of the Suhanko and
abrupt drop in Cr content occurs immediately Konttijrvi marginal series.
above the highest low-grade PGE reef, where A striking difference between the layered
it falls from a level of 100200 ppm to 3070 series of the intrusions is the presence of
ppm, and again at the stratigraphic height of marked reversals in the Narkaus intrusion, as
2520 m down to ~10 ppm, with concomitantly shown by the thick ultramafic olivine-rich cu-
rapid increase of quartz. mulate layers, whereas crystallization in the
The Penikat intrusion is mineralogically Suhanko and Konttijrvi intrusions continued
sufficiently well-preserved to allow the cryp- without notable reversals (Figure 3.2). The
tic variation of the primary ferro-magnesian Suhanko layered series commences with pla-
silicates (pyroxenes) to be studied throughout gioclase-bronzite orthocumulates (with poik-
the layered sequence. Alapieti and Halkoaho ilitic augite) that also contain some bronzite
(1995) reported microprobe data on augite cumulate interlayers. This poikilitic rock is
from the intrusion base to the lower part of separated from the overlying, rather monoto-
MCU V. Despite the great thickness of the nous plagioclase-bronzite-augite adcumulates
studied section (~2 km), the overall range by a few meters thick pyroxenite. About mid-
of augite compositions is rather limited with way in the stratigraphy, bronzite disappears as
Mg# between 0.90 and 0.76. There is a distinct a cumulus mineral, but returns higher up in the
compositional reversal between MCU I and Suhanko sequence. Four poikilitic anorthosite
MCU II, indicative of a new pulse of magma, layers also occur in the upper Suhanko layered
while Mg# remains nearly constant (~0.77) series (Figure 3.8A). Granophyric material is
from the base of MCU III upwards. limited to discontinuous patches and cross-
cutting dikes in the upper Suhanko and Kont-
3.4. Portimo layered igneous complex tijrvi layered series.
The major reversals in the Narkaus layered
The Portimo layered igneous complex (in short series resemble those of the Penikat intrusion
Portimo complex; Figure 3.1) is composed of and enable its layered series to be divided into
four principal structural units: three megacyclic units (Figures 3.2 and 3.5).
The lowermost (MCU I) commences with a
the Narkaus intrusion (Figures 3.1 and thick (~80 m) bronzite cumulate layer with a
3.5) massive chromitite layer close to its top. The
the Suhanko intrusion (Figure 3.6) rest of MCU I as well as the gabbroic parts of
the Konttijrvi intrusion (Figure 3.6) MCU II and MCU III are mainly composed
the Portimo dikes (Figure 3.6) of plagioclase-bronzite-augite adcumulates

Layered Series
Granophyre
Gabbronorite, gabbro
Pyroxenite
Poikilitic gabbro
Marginal Series
Gabbronorite, pyroxenite,
peridotite, subophitic gabbro
Portimo dike
A Sections in Fine-grained autolith
Figure 3.7 Ultramafic pipe 1 km
B Rytikangas reef
Fault
Konttijrvi Layering
Rytikangas
Ahmavaara Suhanko
Fig. 3.6. Geological map of the Suhanko and Konttijrvi intrusion, depicting the general setting of
the Portimo dikes and marginal and layered series. Also shown is the location of the Rytikangas PGE
reef (modified after Iljina, 1994). Sites of the cross and longitudinal sections depicted in Figure 3.7 are
marked on the Konttijrvi intrusion.
with the exception of a poikilitic plagioclase with it locally, so that a dike may actually form
cumulate layer above the ultramafic basal part the basement of the intrusion. In view of their
of MCU III. MCU unit II, however, is found location and original subhorizontal orienta-
only in the Kilvenjrvi block (Figure 3.5) and tion, these dikes were previously referred to
fades away eastwards. as sublayer sills (Iljina et al., 1989). The term
Mafic and ultramafic dikes, known as pre-intrusion dikes has also been used by
the Portimo dikes, are found in the basement Iljina et al. (1992) to allude to the nominal age
below the Konttijrvi intrusion and in the Ah- difference between them and the intrusions.
mavaara area of the Suhanko intrusion (Figure The cumulus sequences in the layered
3.6). They have also been found as fragments series of the small Konttijrvi intrusion and
in the marginal series of the Konttijrvi intru- the western end of the Suhanko intrusion re-
sion (Figure 3.8B). The dikes have not been semble each other. Pyroxenite, which separates
dated and their association to the main intru- the lowermost poikilitic orthocumulate from
sions is based on geochemical observations the overlying gabbroic adcumulate, attains
as discussed later. The dikes are subparallel to a thickness of some tens of meters in both
the basal contact of the intrusion and merge sections. The gabbroic rocks of the marginal
A
100 m
Site of longitudinal section shown in Figure B
100 m
Site of cross-section shown in Figure A
Layered series Marginal series

Gabbroic cumulates Olivine/pyroxene cumulates Portimo dikes
Pyroxene cumulates Gabbroic rocks Archean granitoids

Heavily contaminated Fault
marginal series
Fig. 3.7. Cross-section (A) and longitudinal section (B) of the Konttijrvi intrusion (cf. Figure 3.6).
series and the heavily contaminated lower ment granitoid is almost impossible to define.
part of the marginal series of the Konttijrvi At the center of the igneous body the contact
intrusion, indicated in Figure 3.7, are mostly seems to dive to form a pothole, some tens of
pyroxene cumulates with variable portions of meters in diameter (Figure 3.7). The above
felsic material introduced by floor-rock con- described features of the Konttijrvi intrusion
tamination. This and the thick layered series have led to the recognition of two separate
pyroxenite make the present-day Konttijrvi intrusions instead of a single SuhankoKontti-
stratigraphy largely ultramafic. The lower con- jrvi intrusion (e.g., Alapieti et al., 1989b and
tact of the Konttijrvi intrusion (Figure 3.7) is Iljina, 1994).
also unique among the TornioNrnkvaara Fine-grained, non-cumulate-textured au-
belt intrusions. It has ridges and troughs and its toliths up to a few tens of meters thick and
location with respect to the undisturbed base- several hundred meters long occur in the

A B
Fig. 3.8. (A) Contact between poikilitic anorthosite and gabbroic adcumulate in the upper Suhanko
layered series. (B) Partly corroded websterite xenoliths of the Portimo dike in olivine cumulate of
the Konttijrvi marginal series. The rusty color of the cumulate is due to secondary carbonate and
sulfides. The xenoliths are surrounded by a black magnetite rim. Photos: Markku Iljina.
Suhanko marginal series in many places. The 3.5. Koillismaa layered igneous
chemical composition of these plagioclase- complex
two pyroxene rocks (see below), is similar to
the mean composition of the Suhanko intru- The Koillismaa layered igneous complex
sion. They have thus been interpreted as early (in short, Koillismaa complex), which was
chilled margin rocks that were disrupted and described in detail by Alapieti (1982), is an
entrained by subsequent magma pulses (Iljina, assemblage of three main structural units: the
1994). The autoliths in Ahmavaara area show Western intrusion, the Nrnkvaara intrusion
distinctly high chromium contents (Iljina, and an unexposed connecting dike between
2005), in the order of ~1000 ppm, and they are the two intrusions (Figures. 3.1 and 3.9). The
chemically related to the Portimo dikes. Western intrusion originally crystallized as a
An iron-rich ultramafic pegmatoidal mass large, 3-km-thick magma chamber, but was
two hundred meters in diameter is found in later disrupted by tectonic movements and
the western limb of the Suhanko intrusion, is now represented by several separate, tilted
(the Ahmavaara block, Figure 3.6) where it is blocks. From south to north, these blocks
located above the anticline of the base of the are Pirivaara, Syte, Porttivaara, Pyhitys,
intrusion. Magnetic measurements and drill Kuusijrvi, Tilsa, Lipevaara, Kaukua, and
hole evidence suggest that the pegmatite forms Murtolampi. Their present-day surface area
a pipe-like body, which dips perpendicularly varies from a few km2 up to ~100 km2 and
to the magmatic layering of the hosting cumu- the total volume of the magma that produced
lates. Comparable pegmatites have also been the Koillismaa complex has been estimated
reported by Mutanen (1997) in the Koitelainen to be at least 2000 km3 (Alapieti, 1982). In
intrusion, where ultramafic pegmatoids (clino- addition to gabbroic bodies, temporally and
pyroxenites rich in magnetite and ilmenite) spatially related, relatively undeformed A-
occur as pipes and veins. type quartz syenite and granite plutons have
been reported (Luukkonen, 1988; Lauri and
Mnttri, 2002).
The individual fragments of the Western
intrusion possess slightly differing lithological
Murtolampi
Kaukua
Kynsijrvi
Lipevaara
Tilsa
Kuusijrvi
Pyhitys
Portti- Paleoproterozoic
vaara Granite (1.8 Ga)
Syenite (2.44 Ga)
Diabase
Gabbro, serpentinite
Mafic metavolcanic rock
Felsic metavolcanic rock
Metasediment
Albite-quartz rock
Granophyre
Koillismaa layered igneous complex
Syte
Magnetite gabbro
Leucogabbro, anorthosite
N Olivine gabbronorite
Gabbronorite
Marginal series
Pirivaara Archean
10 km
Basement complex
Fig. 3.9. Geological map of the fragmented Western intrusion, Koillismaa layered igneous complex.
The map shows the general lithology and distribution of the intrusion blocks (Pirivaara, Syte, Portti-
vaara, Pyhitys, Kuusijrvi, Tilsa, Lipevaara, Kaukua, and Murtolampi). Note the coeval Kynsijrvi syenite
on the NE side of the Kuusijrvi block.

successions. This is probably because they rep- direct genetic link with the magma of the host
resent different parts of the originally sill-like intrusion.
magma chamber and because the chamber had The genesis of the capping granophyric
a variable thickness preventing the develop- rocks has been problematic for a long time.
ment of a completely uniform stratigraphy Piirainen et al. (1978) regarded this biotite-
along the strike. Above a 50100-m-thick, albite rock as a quartz-keratophyric lava.
reversely zoned marginal series, topped by Subsequently, Alapieti (1982) considered the
harzburgites and bronzitites, is a ~3000-m- granophyre cogenetic with the intrusions, a
thick layered series that can be divided into hybrid rock formed by mixing of magma with
three mineralogically distinct units: the lower, partial melts of roof rocks. Iljina et al. (2001),
middle, and upper zones (Figure 3.2). The Karinen and Salmirinne (2001), and Lauri et
layered series contains cumulus plagioclase al. (in press) proposed that the granophyre rep-
throughout. Olivine is liquidus phase in the resents a unit that includes a large proportion
lower zone but is replaced by augite and in- of felsic metavolcanic material. These volcanic
verted pigeonite in the middle zone. The leuco- rocks are thought to have erupted before the
gabbroic and anorthositic upper zone contains emplacement of the Western intrusion and thus
a plagioclase-magnetite-augite cumulate unit subsequently subjected to thermal effects of
in its middle, hosting a vanadium deposit. A the mafic magma injected between the volca-
conformable granophyre sheet typically one nic rocks and the granitoid basement.
kilometer in thickness covers the intrusion. The Nrnkvaara intrusion, with a maxi-
At the base of the intrusion, the footwall mum width of ~5 km and a length of more than
granite gneisses have been partially melted 20 km on the Finnish side, differs from the other
and pervasively metasomatically altered to an intrusions of the TornioNrnkvaara belt in
albite-quartz rock (Figure 3.9). being largely ultramafic (~80% of the surface
Peculiar fine-grained, equigranular, non- section). Somewhat surprisingly, chromite only
cumulate-textured gabbroic rocks are found occurs as an accessory cumulus phase and no
within the layered series of the Pirivaara, Syte, notable chromite concentrations have been
Porttivaara, and Kuusijrvi blocks. Based on found. This is despite the preponderance of
their mode of occurrence and texture, these ultramafic rocks at Nrnkvaara and the pre-
bodies have been termed microgabbronorite cence of chromitites with ultramafic cumulates
xenoliths (Iljina et al., 2001). They resemble in the Kemi, Penikat, and Narkaus intrusions in
the fine-grained rocks described from the Luk- the TornioNrnkvaara belt, the Akanvaara
kulaisvaara intrusion (the Olanga complex, and Koitelainen intrusions in Lapland (Mu-
eastern Karelia; Glebovitsky et al., 2001). tanen, 1997), and several Russian intrusions
The Koillismaa microgabbronorite xenoliths (e.g., Sharkov et al., 1995; Torokhov et al.,
occur in a ~20-m-thick zone, which parallels 1997). The total stratigraphic thickness of the
the igneous layering and is also characterized sequence is uncertain: the body has a funnel-
by felsic (or anorthositic) patches and gabbro shaped cross-section and extends to a depth that
pegmatite bodies. The size of the mafic xeno- may exceed 10 km (Elo, 1992). Nevertheless,
liths ranges from a decimeter to a few meters the general structure of the exposed portion,
and they are composed of orthopyroxene, formed by the lower ultramafic and upper mafic
clinopyroxene, and plagioclase. Besides be- zone, is well established (Alapieti et al., 1979;
ing higher in Cr and lower in TiO2, the Koil- Alapieti, 1982). The former is composed of
lismaa microgabbronorite xenoliths differ olivine cumulates in its lower part followed by
from the surrounding cumulates in their REE olivine-bronzite, bronzite, bronzite-augite, and
patterns (see below), precluding any simple, bronzite cumulates and again by bronzite-au-
Western intrusion blocks
Porttivaara
Kuusijrvi
Syte
SW NE
Pyhitys
Gravity Bouguer
20
10 Measured Lipe-
0 Calculated vaara
(mgal)
-10
-20
Line: Nrnk 2
Gabbro RMS=1.96
Depth (m)
Serpentinite
1000 d=2900 kg/m3
d=2590 kg/m3
Pyroxenite
2000
Basement
d=3300 kg/m3 Feeder Dike
3000
d=2670 kg/m3 Peridotite
4000
d=2950 kg/m3
5 10 15
A Distance (km) B
Nrnkvaara
intrusion
Fig. 3.10. Gravity-based block model of the Nrnkvaara intrusion, Western intrusion blocks, and
the connecting Feeder Dike with a view towards W with an inclination of 25. Also shown is a
gravity profile across the Nrnkvaara intrusion and its interpretation. Modified after Salmirinne and
Iljina (2003).
gite cumulates. The bronzite-augiteolivine cu- or the Jimberlana intrusion. Magnetic and
mulates with poikilitic plagioclase are overlain gravity data suggest that the upper surface of
by gabbros (plagioclase-hypersthene-augite the intrusive body lies at a depth of 0.31.5
cumulates) and dioritic rocks (plagioclase- km with its maximum width and vertical
augite cumulates). thickness being approximately 12 km and 5.5
The connecting dike is thought to form km, respectively (Elo, 1992; Salmirinne and
a hidden, long and narrow differentiated intru- Iljina, 2003).
sion (Figure 3.10) mimicking the Great Dyke

4. Parental magmas and isotope resembles the Koillismaa and Lukkulaisvaara
studies microgabbronorites. The Cr content (210460
ppm) of the Koillismaa chilled margin appears
4.1. Parental magmas representative of the lower-Cr magma type.
However, the higher TiO2 content (0.50.8
The geochemical character of the parental wt.% TiO2) and the crystallization path of the
magma of the layered intrusions has been as- Western intrusion that produced a thick mag-
sessed using lower chilled margin whole-rock netite gabbro suggest a third type of magma:
analyses, weighted average compositions of a more evolved tholeiitic basalt.
cumulate sequences, and chemical compo- A compilation of chemical compositions
sitions of dike rocks that are thought to be of representative rock samples and weighted
genetically related to the intrusions (Alapieti average compositions of the megacyclic units
et al., 1990; Iljina, 1994; Saini-Eidukat et is shown in Table 3.1. Reported chilled mar-
al., 1997; Vogel et al., 1998). Based on the gin analyses have an MgO content between
mineralogy and chemical composition of the 6.5 and 11.4 wt.%, while MgO in the dike
cumulates, it has previously been concluded rocks is usually higher, exceeding 20 wt.% in
that the igneous bodies in the western and rocks enriched in cumulus phases. The most
central part of the TornioNrnkvaara belt magnesian primary silicates in the Kemi (Fo83)
were fed with two kinds of parental magmas, and Penikat (En82) intrusions indicate that the
a higher-Cr and a lower-Cr magma with es- magma that generated these layered series
timated Cr contents of >1000 ppm and <600 was not very primitive, with MgO probably
ppm, respectively. As shown in Figure 3.2, below 10 wt.%. This was, however, consid-
some of the intrusions were generated either erably more MgO-rich than the melt that
from the higher-Cr (Kemi and Tornio) or the produced sections of the lower-Cr intrusions
lower-Cr magma (Suhanko and Konttijrvi), (Porttivaara Fo77; Syte Fo73). In common with
but others (Penikat and Narkaus) experienced the Koitelainen and Akanvaara intrusions (cf.
influx of both magma types, first the higher-Cr Hanski et al., 2001), the magma that produced
and then the lower-Cr. the Kemi and Penikat intrusion was not a
It has been suggested that, compared with primary mantle melt but had experienced si-
the lower-Cr parental magma, the higher-Cr alic contamination and accompanying crystal
magma had slightly higher SiO2 and was fractionation in a lower level, staging magma
more enriched in LREE relative to HREE, chamber in the crust, a process also shared
thus having a stronger boninitic or siliceous by some other mafic layered intrusions (e.g.,
high-magnesian basaltic (SHMB) nature. The the Bushveld Complex; Arndt et al., 1997).
TiO2 values of the weighted averages of the This kind of AFC model was also proposed
higher-Cr megacyclic units differ from those by Saini-Eidukat et al. (1997). Thus all of the
of the higher-Cr dikes, the latter being some- chromitite-bearing 2440 Ma layered intrusions
what higher in TiO2. Iljina (1994) and Saini- in Finland seem to have crystallized from a
Eidukat et al. (1997) showed that this magma relatively fractionated basaltic magma in terms
was close in composition to the B1 magma of Mg# and MgO.
of the Bushveld Complex (Figure 3.12). On Figure 3.11 shows chondrite-normalized
the other hand, the lower-Cr parental magma REE patterns for various rock types from the
was reported to correspond to the Bushveld TornioNrnkvaara belt and, for compari-
B2/B3 magma composition in having a son, from the Koitelainen and Lukkulaisvaara
lower and flatter chondrite-normalized REE intrusions. The microgabbronorite xenoliths
pattern (Iljina, 1994). In this respect, it also from Koillismaa, low-Cr autoliths from Su-
Table 3.1.
Major and trace element analyses of mafic dikes and microgabbronorites and weighted averages of
certain megacyclic units from the TornioNrnkvaara belt. Also shown are the compositions of a
chilled margin from Koitelainen and microgabbronorite from Lukkulaisvaara.
wt.% 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
SiO2 51.74 52.78 52.06 52.00 51.40 51.53 50.70 52.40 51.30 52.70 50.10 51.70
TiO2 0.61 0.15 0.08 0.68 0.40 0.62 0.22 0.24 0.12 0.33 0.23 0.31
Al2O3 13.17 12.42 17.34 12.30 8.00 11.88 14.20 13.20 17.10 16.90 18.80 17.00
FeOtot 9.27 8.82 4.01 10.20 12.00 10.29 7.06 8.17 5.89 7.27 6.95 6.54
MnO 0.15 0.17 0.12 0.18 0.31 0.19 0.14 0.16 0.17 0.16 0.13 0.13
MgO 8.40 15.74 11.29 13.00 13.80 13.63 14.70 14.10 10.60 9.03 10.10 9.91
CaO 10.10 8.18 13.02 9.26 11.00 8.32 11.60 9.01 12.20 10.70 11.50 11.30
Na2O 2.80 1.03 1.54 1.74 0.62 1.40 1.22 1.81 2.26 2.38 1.97 2.55
K2O 0.72 0.36 0.06 0.71 0.45 0.92 0.22 0.53 0.18 0.57 0.31 0.56
P2O5 0.06 <0.00 0.05 0.10 0.07 0.07 0.02 0.03 0.01 0.04 0.03 0.03
ppm
V 199 102 230 200 150
Cr 466 1026 460 1100 2300 1326 3330 3290 290 280 260 217
Ni 104 343 166 360 250 408 270 230 180 280 340 24
Zn 65 76 130 160 83 63
Sc 31 27 28 37 32 33
Rb 20 10 28 17 40 <10
Sr 337 158 200 20 133 150 190 210 260 220
Y 13.6 2.7 <2 7 13 2.5
Zr 51 6 70 40 74 25 27 47 31 27
Nb 2.0 <2 2 3.0 2.7
Ba 188 97 210 47 225 75 120 110 180 93 14
La 8.63 2.5 0.5 11.1 10.9 10.2 2.5

Ce 17.2 2.26 2 24 25 19.5 7
Nd 9.63 1.12 1 12 12 9.6 4
Sm 2.21 0.28 0.22 2.6 2.5 2.2 0.75
Eu 0.73 0.15 0.16 0.78 0.61 0.80 0.32
Tb 0.38 <0.1 0.1 0.5 0.3 0.40 0.2
Yb 1.23 0.34 0.23 1.61 1.08 1.30 0.59
Lu 0.20 <0.1 0.03 0.26 0.16 0.20 0.09
Th 1.3 2.3 2 2.1 0.3

U 0.24 0.4 1.2 0.50 <0.1
1. Koitelainen chilled margin. Additional elements (ppm): Pr 2.27, Gd 2.37, Dy 2.28, Ho 0.49, Er 1.34, Tm 0.21.
2. Koillismaa microgabbronorite xenolith, an example from the Syte block.
3. Lukkulaisvaara microgabbronorite (Glebovitsky et al., 2001).
4. Loljunmaa dike (major elements from Alapieti et al., 1990 and trace elements from Iljina, 1994).
5. Portimo dike (Iljina, 1994).
6. Viianki dike (Vogel et al., 1998). Additional elements (ppm): Pr 2.6, Gd 2.9, Dy 2.4, Ho 0.50, Er 1.40, Tm 0.20.
7, 8.
Weighted averages of the lowermost megacyclic units (MCU I) of the Narkaus and Penikat intrusions, respectively
(Alapieti et al., 1990).
9. Suhanko low-Cr autolith (Iljina, 1994).
1012. Weighted averages of the Suhanko body, megacyclic unit III of Narkaus intrusion and megacyclic unit IV of Penikat
intrusion (Alapieti et al., 1990).

hanko, and microgabbronorite bodies from time over which the ~2440 Ma intrusions were
Lukkulaisvaara (all noncumulate, basaltic emplaced.
rocks) display surprisingly low concentra- Using whole-rock samples and mineral
tions of REE with only a slight enrichment separates, Huhma et al. (1990) obtained a
of LREE over HREE. The cumulate rocks Sm-Nd isochron of 2410 64 Ma and an
from Koillismaa and Koitelainen have very initial Nd of 1.6 for the Penikat intrusion;
similar REE patterns with sloping LREE and these resemble the preliminary data from the
relatively flat HREE, suggesting derivation Koillismaa complex (2452 160 Ma and Nd
from similar, LREE-enriched magma types 0.6; O. Thalhammer, pers. comm., 1994) and
that differed significantly from those parental they are similar to those from other layered
to the above mentioned noncumulate rocks. intrusions of this age group, indicating a large
The chilled margin samples from Koillismaa contribution of REE from Archean enriched
also have relatively high LREE/HREE but in lithosphere. Hf isotope analyses on zircons
detail they differ from each other in having from the Nrnkvaara intrusion yielded a
different REE patterns. negative Hf value (1.6), which is consistent
Figure 3.12 compares the REE charac- with the general Nd isotope systematics of
teristics of dike rocks from three locations the ~2440 Ma magmatism, whereas the Kemi
Loljunmaa, Portimo, and Viianki with intrusion produced an unexpectedly high Hf
those of the Bushveld B1 and B3 magmas. (at 2440 Ma) of +3.7 (Patchett et al., 1981).
Of these dikes, Loljunmaa is located on the Pb isotope data are available on silicate whole
southeastern side of the Penikat intrusion rocks from the Kemi intrusion (Manhes et al.,
(see Figure 3.1) and Viianki at the Finnish- 1980) and on galenas from a sulfide miner-
Russian border 100 km to the south of the alization in the Suhanko intrusion (Alapieti
Nrnkvaara intrusion. The REE patterns of et al., 1989b). The high 207Pb/204Pb ratio in
the dikes mimic closely that of B1, except that galenas suggests that Pb originated mainly
the level is higher in the latter this can be from the Archean upper crust.
at last partly explained by the more primitive
nature of the dikes. A similar type of relation-
ship is observed between the Bushveld B3 and 5. Mineral deposits
Portimo lower-Cr magma type compositions
(Figures 3.11C and 3.12). Both have distinctly 5.1. Ore types
lower LREE/HREE compared to the dikes and
B1, and they are lower in total REE. Several types of ore mineralization have been
discovered in the TornioNrnkvaara belt
4.2. Isotope studies and two economic oxide deposits have so far
been mined: the Cr deposit in the Kemi intru-
Perttunen and Vaasjoki (2001) reported a U- sion and the Ti-V deposit in the Porttivaara
Pb zircon age of 2430 4 Ma for the Kemi block of the Western intrusion of the Koillis-
intrusion and 2430 36 Ma for the Penikat maa complex (Figure 3.9). PGE and chalco-
intrusion. Previously, Alapieti (1982) had phile element mineralization occurs in the
published an age of 2436 5 Ma for a com- Penikat, Suhanko, Konttijrvi, and Narkaus
bination of samples from several bodies of the intrusions and the Koillismaa complex. These
Koillismaa complex. These results agree well can be classified into three main types: (1) dis-
with the age data obtained for the Akanvaara seminated and massive PGE-enriched Cu-Ni-
and Koitelainen intrusions (Mutanen and Fe sulfides of the marginal series, (2) reef-type
Huhma, 2001) and suggest a short period of PGE deposits, and (3) offset base metal and
100 100
Microgabbronorite xenoliths Microgabbronorite bodies
Koillismaa Lukkulaisvaara
Rock/Chondrite
10 10
A B
1 1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
100 100
Suhanko autoliths Chilled margin
Koillismaa
Rock/Chondrite
10 10
1 C 1 D
100 100
Koillismaa cumulates Koitelainen cumulates
Rock/Chondrite
10 10
1 E 1 F
Fig. 3.11. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns. (A) Koillismaa microgabbronorite xenoliths (Iljina et
al., 2001). (B) Lukkulaisvaara microgabbronorite bodies (Olanga complex, Glebovitsky et al., 2001). (C)
Suhanko low-Cr autoliths (Iljina, 1994). (D) Koillismaa chilled margin (Alapieti, 1982; Iljina et al., 2001).
(E) Koillismaa cumulates surrounding the microgabbronorite xenoliths (Iljina et al., 2001). (F) Gabbro
and pyroxenite cumulates from the lower part of the Koitelainen intrusion (Hanski et al., 2001).

100
5.2. Kemi chromite deposit
Bushveld B1
The Kemi main chromitite layer located in the
Bushveld B3
lower, ultramafic part of the intrusion, can be
Rock/Chondrite
10 followed along strike over the entire length of

the intrusion for more than 15 km (Alapieti
et al., 1989a). Laterally, it varies in thickness
Dikes: from a few mm up to ~90 m at the thickest part
Loljunmaa of the intrusion, where the mine is located.
Viianki The whole length of the mineable portion of
Portimo
1 the layer is 4.5 km. The estimated ore reserves
in 1998 were 70 million tons and mineral
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
resources 143 million tons, giving a total of
Fig. 3.12. Chondrite-normalized REE patterns 213 million tons (Leinonen, 1998). The main
of Loljunmaa, Portimo, and Viianki dikes (Vogel chromitite is separated stratigraphically from
et al., 1998; Iljina, 1994) and Bushveld B1 and B3 the lower contact of the intrusion by 50 m to
magmas (Hatton and Sharpe, 1989; Maier et al., 100 m of altered bronzitite, but the lowermost
2000). chromite-enriched layer can be found as low as
0.5 m above the chilled margin. Furthermore, a
10-cm-thick, fine-grained, ultramafic marginal
PGE deposits in the footwall rocks. The first rock sample was reported to contain 15 vol.%
type is almost exclusively confined to well- of chromite phenocrysts. This fact, together
developed, thicker marginal series as found in with a recently discovered chromite-bearing
the Suhanko and Konttijrvi intrusions of the feeder dike beneath the thickest part of the
Portimo complex and the Western intrusion intrusion (Alapieti, 1996), indicates that the
of the Koillismaa complex. In Suhanko, both magma carried chromite in suspension and
disseminated and massive concentrations of ore-forming processes had begun already at
sulfides have been found, while the two other depth before the emplacement of the magma
intrusions have only disseminated sulfides. into the final magma chamber.
The reef-type PGE enrichments found in the While chromites in the relatively thin
Penikat intrusion and Portimo complex can chromitites of the Akanvaara and Koitelainen
be divided into the major or principal enrich- intrusions are peculiar in that they have very
ments, which are laterally continuous and have low MgO contents (Mutanen, 1997), chro-
PGE concentrations of at least several ppm, mites in the main ore body at Kemi exhibit
and PGE showings that are less continuous high MgO contents frequently exceeding 10
and grade rarely above one ppm. The principal wt.% (Alapieti et al., 1989a; Gornostayev et
PGE reefs include the Sompujrvi (SJ), Ala- al., 2000). Compared with chromitite deposits
Penikka (AP), and Paasivaara (PV) reefs in the in other layered intrusions (e.g., Bushveld)
Penikat intrusion, and Siika-Km (SK) and or podiform deposits in ophiolites, the aver-
Rytikangas (RK) reefs in the Portimo complex age Cr content and Cr/Fe ratio of the Kemi
(Figure 3.2). SJ, PV, and SK are considered ore are rather low, 34 wt.% and 1.50 wt.%,
highly viable for economic exploitation. These respectively.
and other reef-type PGE deposits have low,
barely visible concentrations of Cu, Ni, and Fe
sulfides, wheras chromite is often present, as
in the Sompujrvi and Siika-Km reefs.
5.3. Mustavaara Fe-Ti-V oxide deposit, Paasivaara PGE reefs. The Sompujrvi reef is
Koillismaa complex found at the base of MCU IV, Ala-Penikka reef
well within this unit, and the Paasivaara reef
Fractional crystallization in the Western intru- in the uppermost part of the unity. The part is
sion of the Koillismaa complex has led to a called the transition zone (Halkoaho, 1993;
significant accumulation of titanomagnetite Huhtelin et al., 1990). In addition to these
in the upper layered series (Figure 3.2). The major reefs, there are also a number of PGE
presence of magnetite enrichment has been showings especially with the ultramafic and
verified in the southern intrusion blocks (Piri- chromitite layers of MCU IIII (Figure 3.4).
vaara, Syte, Porttivaara, and Kuusijrvi), A PGE showing above the Paasivaara reef is
while only limited outcrop and geophysical hosted by a melagabbroanorthosite sequence
observations from the Lipevaara block sug- (12 m thick) within a thick succession of
gest its existence in the northern Western monotonous leucogabbros. The Penikat PGE
intrusion as well. reefs are correlated with the PGE enrichments
The Mustavaara vanadium mine, that of the Portimo complex in Figure 3.2.
produced 13.4 Mt of ore in 19751985, was Reefs are persistent features at certain
located in the upper zone of the Porttivaara stratigraphic levels (Figure 3.3); the Sompu-
block (Juopperi, 1977). The host rock is a jrvi and Ala-Penikka reefs have been traced
magnetite gabbro (typically plagioclase-py- virtually over the entire 23 km intrusion length.
roxene-titanomagnetite cumulate) that forms These reefs vary in thickness from a couple of
a coherent stratum more than 20 km in length decimeters to several meters and may locally
and ~200 m in thickness between two anor- reach 20 m. The average thicknesses of the
thositic gabbro layers. The magnetite gabbro reefs are 1.0 m and ~0.3 m, respectively.
is divided into four layers, of which three The Sompujrvi reef is most commonly
have been mined at Mustavaara. In these three hosted by a bronzitechromite cumulate or
layers, the mean weight percentage of oxides metasomatic chlorite schist. More rarely, high
ranges between 14% and 33%. The whole-rock PGE concentrations are found in the underly-
V2O5 concentration varies between 0.40 wt.% ing gabbroic cumulates or overlying olivine
and 0.70 wt.%, while the mean V2O5 content cumulates. The Ala-Penikka reef is hosted
of oxide concentrates from each layer is rather by a leucocratic plagioclase cumulate with
constant, 1.55 wt.% to 1.68 wt.%. Compared poikilitic augite, which is overlain by a plagio-
with the average whole-rock V2O5 values of 1.5 clase-bronzite cumulate some tens of meters
wt.% to 2.0 wt.% in the exploited vanadiferous thick, with nonpoikilitic intercumulus augite.
magnetite gabbros of the Bushveld Complex This package is underlain and overlain by thick
(Cawthorn and Molyneux, 1986), the Musta- sequences of fairly monotonous gabbronorite
vaara ore was significantly lower in grade. adcumulates (see also the discussion of the
Rytikangas reef of the Portimo complex). The
5.4. PGE reefs of the Penikat intrusion stratigraphically highest Paasivaara reef is
more erratic in nature, and base metal sulfides
The lower part of the Penikat intrusion is char- and PGM are hosted by a peculiar transition
acterized by repetition of four thick ultramafic zone (Figure 3.4) that forms the topmost part
cumulate layers all defining the base of the (up to 40 m) of MCU IV. The transition zone
megacyclic units (Figures 3.23.4). Of these is composed of plagioclaseaugitebronzite
units, MCU IV hosts high-PGE-grade reefs. ad- and orthocumulates and a mixed rock,
Well-documented examples, from lowest to which itself is composed of irregular patches
highest, are the Sompujrvi, Ala-Penikka, and of poikilitic gabbro embedded in a plagioclase

R359 R358
rusion
Overburden
ed int
rocks
Diabase
Layer
Gabbroic
Floor
cumulates
ula fic
tes
cumtrama
l s es
ies
na eri
er
rgi d s
Ul
Ma yere
Albite-quartz rock
La
pm
4p
u
0 10 20 30 40 50 m d+A
Pt+P
Fig. 3.13. Drill hole profile R358R359 through the Kuusijrvi marginal series of the Koillismaa
layered igneous complex, showing down hole lithology and Pt+Pd+Au concentrations (modified after
Iljina et al., 2001).
matrix. 5.5. Marginal series Cu-Ni-PGE and

Platinum-group elements in the reefs com- reef-type mineralization of the
monly occur in Pd-Te-Bi minerals, Pd-As-Sb Koillismaa complex
minerals, and sperrylite (Trmnen, 1993). In
the Sompujrvi reef, PGE-alloys and sulfides A classic example of Cu-Ni-PGE mineral-
dominate locally. The grade of the PGE reefs ization is found in the marginal series of the
varies but is roughly the same as in the Me- Western intrusion of the Koillismaa complex
rensky reef or UG2 chromitite of the Bushveld (Figure 3.9). This mineralized zone stretches
Complex, i.e., on the order of several ppm. sporadically along the total strike length of
Locally, especially in the Sompujrvi reef, ~100 km of the marginal series. Disseminated
the concentration may rise up to several tens sulfides, mainly pyrrhotite, chalcopyrite and
or hundreds of ppm. pentlandite, are found in the lower half of the
marginal series over a thickness of 20 m to
100 m. The grade commonly ranges between
Konttijrvi area 2b
Ko-3
0 4 8 4 8 12
ppm
ppm
0 100 m Pd
Pd Dikes
Ko-10
Archean Gabbroic Ultramafic
granitoids cumulates cumulates
Fig. 3.14. Geological cross-section of the Konttijrvi intrusion showing the geological setting of the
basement granitoids, Portimo dikes and the main intrusion. Drill hole intersection Ko-10 represents
mineralized Portimo dikes and adjacent granitoids, and Ko-3 represents an intersection through the
marginal series and into the granitoids below. The horizontal and vertical scales are the same. Circled
2b refers to Figure 3.19. Modified after Iljina et al. (1992).
0.2 wt.% and 0.4 wt.% Cu and 0.2 wt.% and jonen and Iljina, 2001).
0.3 wt.% Ni, but occasionally exceeds 1.0 A highly irregular PGE enrichment exists
wt.% for both metals. The average Ni and Cu in the zone of the microgabbronorite xenoliths.
contents of the sulfide fraction are 6 wt.% This mineralization type can be regarded as
and 10 wt.%, respectively, while the whole- reef-type due to the lateral continuity of the
rock sulfur concentration is typically 0.51.0 host rock unit. These microgabbronorites
wt.%. occur within a several tens of meters thick
Precious metal contents roughly follow sequence that also contains gabbroic adcumu-
those of the base metal sulfides and in many lates, gabbro pegmatites, and felsic patches.
drillholes the grade is on the order of 0.51.0 The gabbro pegmatites and felsic patches in
ppm of combined Pt+Pd+Au. In certain particular are enriched in base metal sulfides
places, the maximum combined PGE-Au and platinum-group elements with grades
contents reach 23 ppm (Figure 3.13), while reaching 1 wt.% of Cu and Ni and 1 ppm of
in the massive Cu-sulfide veins the Pd con- Pt+Pd+Au.
tents reach several ppm. The platinum-group
mineral species resemble those found in the 5.6. Diverse Cu-Ni-PGE mineralizations
Penikat intrusion and Portimo complex, as in the Portimo complex
antimonides, tellurides, and bismuthides
dominate the Pd mineralogy and an arsenide Among the layered intrusions in Fenno-
(sperrylite) dominates the Pt mineralogy (Ko- scandia, the Portimo layered mafic complex

Ahmavaara 2a Suhanko 3
Pd (ppm) S (wt. %) Pd (ppm) S (wt. %)
Yp-143 4 12 10 30 Yp-60 4 10 30
50 m 30 m
Marginal series
0m 0m
Basement
Gabbroic Ultramafic Massive

cumulates cumulates sulfides Basement
Fig. 3.15. Two representative drill hole profiles through the Suhanko marginal series with disseminat-
ed and massive sulfide deposits. Drill hole Yp-143 is an example from the high-grade PGE Ahmavaara
marginal series and Yp-60 shows an example of the other, more poorly PGE-mineralized marginal
series type, represented here by the Suhanko massive pyrrhotite deposit. Circled 2a and 3 refer to
Figure 3.19. Modified after Iljina et al. (1992).
is exceptional in hosting a variety of PGE the Suhanko intrusions, associated mostly with
mineralizations (Figures 3.2 and 3.143.19). pegmatites, (3) a Pt-anomalous pyroxenitic
The principal mineralization types are: pegmatite pipe in the western limb of the Su-
hanko intrusion and (4) chromite and silicate-
PGE-bearing Cu-NiFe sulfide dissemi- associated PGE enrichments in the lower parts
nations in the marginal series of the of the Narkaus intrusion and MCU II.
Suhanko and Konttijrvi intrusions Disseminated PGE-bearing base metal
predominantly massive pyrrhotite depos- sulfide showings, normally 1030 m in thick-
its located close to the basal contact of ness, occur throughout the marginal series of
the Suhanko intrusion the Suhanko and Konttijrvi intrusions. Their
the Rytikangas PGE reef in the layered distribution is erratic and they generally extend
series of the Suhanko intrusion from the lower peridotitic layer downwards for
the Siika-Km PGE reef in the Narkaus some 30 m into the basement. The PGE con-
layered series tents vary from only weakly anomalous values
the offset Cu-PGE mineralization below to 2 ppm in most places in the marginal series
the Narkaus intrusion of the Suhanko intrusion, but rise to >10 ppm
in several places in the Konttijrvi and Ahma-
Four other PGE enrichments are also de- vaara areas. Highly PGE-enriched marginal
picted in Figure 3.19. These are (1) the PGE series of this kind are rare in layered intru-
enrichment in the Portimo dikes below the sions; another well-known occurrence is the
Konttijrvi and Ahmavaara marginal series, Platreef in the northern Bushveld Complex. In
(2) the PGE concentrations near the roof of the case of the Suhanko and Konttijrvi intru-
Rytikangas 5 Ala-Penikka
Pt + Pd + Au Cr Pt + Pd + Au Cr
(g/t) (wt.%) (g/t) (wt.%)
Height Height
0 4 8 12 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 0.02 0.06
(m) (m)
210 840
Metacyclic unit IV
190
170
150 780
Yp-43 Ki-17
CUMULATES
pbaC pCa* pbCa
Fig. 3.16. Comparison of the Rytikangas and Ala-Penikka PGE reefs from the Suhanko and Penikat
intrusions, respectively, in terms of cumulus stratigraphy and variation in whole-rock precious metal
and Cr concentrations as shown by drillholes Yp-43 (Rytikangas) and Ki-17 (Ala-Penikka). Circled 5
refers to Figure 3.19. Modified after Iljina and Lahtinen (1991). Abbreviations: pplagioclase, bbronz-
ite, aaugite; letters before C denote cumulus phases, those after C intercumulus phases. The asterix
(*) indicates that the mineral is poikilitic.
sions, the PGE grade and Cu and Ni contents pyrrhotite deposits show relatively low PGE
of the sulfide fraction seem to correlate with values with the maximum Pt + Pd normally
the presence of the Portimo dikes underneath reaching a few ppm (circled 3 in Figures 3.15
the intrusion (Figures 3.143.15). and 3.19). However, similarly to the marginal
Massive sulfide mineralization is charac- series, disseminated sulfide mineralizations
teristic of the marginal series of the Suhanko of the same intrusion (see above), the PGE
intrusion. They form individual plate-like bod- concentrations are generally much higher in
ies generally varying in thickness from 20 cm the Ahmavaara deposit, attaining a level of 20
to 20 m, separated from each other by more ppm (circled 2a in Figures 3.15 and 3.19).
silicate-rich cumulate layers or granitoids. The The Rytikangas PGE reef represents the
mineralized bodies also vary in location from main PGE occurrence in the layered series of
30 m below the basal contact of the intrusion the Suhanko intrusion (Figures 3.2, 3.16, and
to a position 20 m above it and range in size 3.19), located in the middle of the western
from less than 1 million tons to more than 10 limb ~170 m above the base of the intrusion
million tons. The sulfide paragenesis is com- (Figure 3.6). Its position is known over a dis-
posed almost exclusively of pyrrhotite, except tance of 1.5 km. The Rytikangas reef is hosted
in the Ahmavaara deposit, which also contains by poikilitic plagioclase, plagioclase-bronzite,
chalcopyrite and pentlandite. The massive and plagioclase-bronzite-augite orthocumu-

Siika-Km reef 1
Knn-98 0 5 10 15 0 0.4 0.8 0 0.1
Height
ppm wt.% wt.%
(m)
210
MCU III
190
170
MCU II
150
Gabbro Pt + Pd + Au S Cr
pegmatite
Gabbroic Ultramafic
Fig. 3.17. Stratigraphic sequence across the Siika-Km PGE reef showing variations in bulk
Pt+Pd+Au, S, and Cr in drill hole Knn-98. The figure represents a typical situation in which the PGE
peak is at the base of MCU III.Vertical scale denotes structural height in meters. Circled 1 refers to
Figure 3.19. Modified after Huhtelin et al. (1989b).
lates, all containing augite oikocrysts. This to that at the Sompujrvi PGE reef in the
cumulate series overlies a 70-m sequence of Penikat intrusion commonly hosts the Siika-
monotonous plagioclase-bronzite-augite adcu- Km reef. In some parts of the reef, the PGE
mulates and underlies 10 m of homogeneous mineralization is accompanied by chromite
plagioclase-bronzite mesocumulates with seams or disseminations. The thickness of
nonpoikilitic intercumulus augite. The ortho- the reef varies from less than one meter to
cumulate layer varies in thickness from 30 several meters, and many drillholes penetrate
cm to 10 m. The thickness of the reef itself is a number of mineralized layers separated by
3050 cm and it typically occurs on top of the PGE-poor layers, which can be several meters
poikilitic orthocumulate layer. The cumulus thick. The PGE concentration varies from
stratigraphy and the drop in the whole-rock Cr anomalous values of several hundred ppb
content across the Rytikangas reef are practi- to tens of ppm. Some gabbroic pegmatites,
cally identical to those of the Ala-Penikka abundant in the uppermost gabbroic adcumu-
reef of the Penikat intrusion (see Figures 3.2 lates tens of meters below MCU III, are also
and 3.16). mineralized and may contain several ppm of
The Siika-Km PGE reef of the Narkaus Pd and Pt. The Siika-Km deposit is one of
intrusion is most commonly located at the the most sulfide-deficient PGE occurrences in
base of MCU III (Figures 3.6 and 3.17), but the Portimo complex, in some places contain-
can also be found somewhat below this or in ing no visible sulfides and rarely exceeding a
the middle of the olivine cumulate layer of whole-rock sulfur content of 1 wt.%.
MCU III. Chlorite-amphibole schist similar The offset mineralization is sporadically
Cu-PGE offset below the Narkaus intrusion 4
Knn-48
Overburden Drillhole Knn-48
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20 0 8 16 24 0 8 16
0
Narkaus m
intrusion
-50
50
27.8 31.8
25.3 26.7
50 m
100
Marginal series
-100
PGE in massive
chalcopyrite
PGE in disseminated Cu(wt.%) S(wt.%) Pd(ppm) Pt(ppm)
chalcopyrite
Archean basement complex
Overburden Layered intru- Basement

sion
Fig. 3.18. Schematic cross-section depicting the location of the offset PGE deposits beneath the
Kilvenjrvi block of the Narkaus intrusion.Vertical variation of Cu, S, Pd, and Pt concentrations in drill
hole Knn-48 is shown on the right. Circled 4 refers to Figure 3.19. Data from Huhtelin et al. (1989b).
distributed in the basement gneisses and gran- proportions of base metal sulfides and PGM
ites below the Narkaus intrusion. The largest are highly variable, but the massive sulfide
deposit is situated below the Kilvenjrvi block bodies are always rich in PGE, while some
(Figure 3.5). This deposit is composed of a samples containing almost no visible sulfides
cluster of closely grouped smaller occurrences can carry several tens of ppm of Pd. In general,
and is located in and near a N-trending major the more sulfide-rich occurrences are situated
fault zone some tens of meters wide, against closer to the basal contact of the intrusion and
which the Kilvenjrvi block terminates. The those poorer in sulfides in a wider zone below
offset mineralization represents the richest the intrusion (Figure 3.18).
PGE deposit type within the Portimo area Figure 3.19 shows a structural model for
with Pt+Pd contents reaching 100 ppm (Figure the Portimo complex and the positions of the
3.18). The offset mineralization is predomi- deposits described above, as interpreted by
nantly a Pd deposit, as it has a much higher Iljina (1994). Taking the boundary of the two
Pd/Pt ratio than the other Portimo deposits (or parental magmas as a reference level, it can
any, for that matter, other Fennoscandian PGE be seen that the Siika-Km reef, the highly
deposit) and is extremely low in Os, Ir, Ru, and mineralized Ahmavaara and Konttijrvi mar-
Rh. It is quite irregular in form, containing ginal series, and the mineralized Portimo dikes
disseminated sulfide-PGM clouds, mas- are located in the same position in magmatic
sive sulfide veins or bodies, and breccias, in stratigraphy. Accordingly, as a group they were
which sulfide veins brecciate granitoids. The referred to by Iljina (1994) as the Portimo

LOCATION OF PGE MINERALIZATIONS
PGE in gabbro pegmatites
Suhanko massive
Higher-Cr magma Lower-Cr magma
sulfide deposit
MCU III Rytikangas reef
PGE-anomalous
ultramafic pipe 3
5
Portimo reef
MCU II 1 2a, b
Ahmavaara and Konttijrvi

marginal series
MCU I
PGE-bearing chromite
and ultramafic layers
4 Offset PGE
deposit = Major PGE reef
Fig. 3.19. Schematic structural model for location of various PGE enrichments found in the Por-
timo layered igneous complex. The circled numbers refer to detailed illustrations in other figures as
follows: 1 to Figure 3.17, 2 to Figures 3.143.15, 3 to Figure 3.15, 4 to Figure 3.18, and 5 to Fig. 3.16.
Modified after Iljina (1994).
reef. Pulses of the earlier, higher- Cr parental the Sompujrvi and Siika-Km PGE reefs
magma are represented in the Konttijrvi of the Penikat and Narkaus intrusions, in
and Ahmavaara areas by the Portimo dikes which the Pd/Pt ratio varies from ~0.8 to
lying immediately below the marginal series. 5.0. Regardless of the quantity of base metal
A marked decrease in PGE values and Ni sulfides present, the PGE ratios and chondrite-
and Cu contents of the sulfide fraction in the normalized PGE patterns (Figure 3.20) are
Suhanko marginal series occurs wherever the practically constant throughout the Portimo
Portimo dikes are absent immediately below reef. For example, in the Ahmavaara marginal
the marginal series. The Portimo and Rytikan- series of the Portimo reef, the variation from
gas reefs were also tentatively noted to have disseminated to massive sulfides has only a
higher whole-rock Se/S ratios than the other minimal effect on the PGE patterns. A charac-
mineralization types in the Portimo complex teristic feature of the Rytikangas and Portimo
(Iljina, 1994; Iljina and Lee, 2005). reefs is a pronounced negative Ru anomaly,
which has also been documented for the
5.7. PGE geochemistry Sompujrvi, Ala-Penikka, and Paasivaara PGE
reefs (although a less deep one in the PV).
The Paasivaara reef is Pt-dominated (Pd/Pt Additionally, the lower-grade PGE enrich-
0.4), while all the others (the ones discussed ments (mainly associated with chromitites)
above) are Pd-dominated (Pd/Pt 28), except in MCU IIII of the Penikat and MCU III of
Reefs: Ala-Penikka, Rytikangas, Siika-Km
and
100 Konttijrvi and Ahmavaara high-PGE 100
A grade disseminated and massive sulfides B
Koillismaa marginal series
10 10
C1 Chondrite normalised
1 1
0.1 0.1
Suhanko low-
PGE grade
0.01 marginal series 0.01
0.001 0.001
Os Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au Os Ir Ru Rh Pt Pd Au
Fig. 3.20. Chondrite-normalized whole-rock PGE and Au patterns. (A) Siika-Km, Rytikangas and
Ala-Penikka PGE reefs, Konttijrvi and Ahmavaara high-grade PGE disseminated and massive sulfide
deposits and lower-grade PGE massive sulfide deposits of the Suhanko marginal series (data from
Iljina, 1994). (B) Marginal series disseminated sulfides from Koillismaa.
the Narkaus intrusions possess minor to deep almost along the Arctic Circle and extends
negative Ru anomalies (Huhtelin et al., 1989a; also to the neighboring Sweden and Russia.
Iljina, 1994). Such negative Ru anomalies are It forms an essential part of the Fennoscan-
a rare phenomenon in PGE deposits world- dian 2.42.5 Ga layered intrusion complexes
wide. Among the platinum-group elements, that were formed in a mantle-plume related
Ru tends to fractionate with chromite crystal- intracratonic breakup of the Archean craton.
lization: laurite (RuS2) is commonly found as Some of the intrusions are located close to
inclusions within chromite. each other, thus forming igneous complexes in
In contrast to the PGE behavior in the which the individual intrusions were probably
above mentioned reefs, the lower-grade PGE connected by dikes or intermediate magma
Suhanko massive sulfide deposits differ in chambers at the time of emplacement. The in-
having positive Rh and negative Pt anomalies dividual intrusions and intrusion complexes of
whereas the Koillismaa marginal series PGE the TornioNrnkvaara belt are commonly
patterns show a steady positive slope (Figure located between the Archean complexes in the
3.20). south and the Paleoproterozoic Perpohja and
Kuusamo schist belts in the north, with the
exception of the Nrnkvaara intrusion and
6. Summary and discussion its connective dike, which are exclusively
surrounded by Archean rocks. The structural,
The TornioNrnkvaara belt crosses Finland lithological, and geochemical similarity of

individual layered bodies of the Western intru- higher-Cr and then lower-Cr magma type. It
sion of the Koillismaa complex suggest that has also been concluded that a third parental
they are tectonically dismembered fragments magma type, a more evolved tholeiitic basalt,
of a large intrusion. was involved in the Western intrusion of the
The stratigraphy of the layered intrusions Koillismaa complex.
in the TornioNrnkvaara belt can be di- The mafic intrusive bodies and their im-
vided into a reversely zoned marginal series mediate country rocks show a number of dif-
and an overlying layered series. The latter has ferent kinds of mineralization. These are basal
a total present-day thickness varying from a disseminated and massive Cu-Ni-Fe sulfides
few hundred meters to nearly 3 km. The mar- enriched in PGE, offset base metal sulfide-
ginal series successions can be thin (<20 m), PGM lodes in footwall rocks, reef-type PGE
as in the Kemi and Penikat intrusions and the enrichments within the layered series, and
Narkaus intrusion of the Portimo complex, or Cr- and Fe-Ti-V oxide accumulations either
much thicker, as in the Suhanko and Kontti- at the base of the intrusion or higher up in
jrvi intrusions (Portimo complex) and the the sequence. A world-class chrome deposit
Western intrusion (Koillismaa complex). is located at the base of the Kemi intrusion
Significant differences exist among the and the magnetite gabbro layer of the Western
layered series of the various intrusions. Char- intrusion of the Koillismaa complex has been
acteristically, the intrusions in the western and exploited for vanadium at Mustavaara. The
central parts of the TornioNrnkvaara belt PGE and chalcophile element enrichment can
display a repetition of ultramafic and mafic be classified into three main types: (1) dis-
rocks that constitute megacyclic units, at maxi- seminated and massive PGE bearing Cu-Ni-Fe
mum, five in Penikat. This cyclic distribution sulfides in the marginal series, (2) reef-type
of rock types coupled with the compositional PGE deposits, and (3) offset deposits in foot-
variation of primary minerals indicates open- wall rocks. The first type is almost exclusively
system fractionation involving multiple injec- confined to well-developed, thicker marginal
tions of basaltic magma into high-level magma series as found in the Suhanko and Konttijrvi
chambers. In contrast, the Western intrusion of intrusions of the Portimo complex and the
the Koillismaa complex lacks the analogous Western intrusion of the Koillismaa complex.
megacyclic structure and instead fractionated In the Portimo complex, both disseminated
to the point of producing significant Fe-Ti-V and massive concentrations of sulfides have
oxide enrichment now represented by mag- been discovered, while the Koillismaa com-
netite gabbro, essentially unknown elsewhere plex contains only disseminated sulfides.
in the TornioNrnkvaara belt. Potentially world-class PGE reefs, five in
The cumulate sequences of the TornioN- number, have been found in the Penikat intru-
rnkvaara belt intrusions were generated by sion and in the Portimo complex.
various parental magmas, which nevertheless As a natural test laboratory for the genesis
shared some common features including en- of PGE deposits, the TornioNrnkvaara
richment in LREE over HREE and depletion belt offers a unique opportunity due to the
of Ti and other HFSE. The igneous bodies variety of magma compositions emplaced
in the western and central part of the belt within a short period of time. Whatever model
were fed with two kinds of magma in terms is proposed for the genesis of the PGE deposits
of their Cr content, one higher in Cr and the found in the Portimo complex and Penikat
other lower in Cr. Some of the intrusions were intrusion, it must be able to account for their
formed from one or the other magma type, high number within a relatively restricted area,
while others expecienced injection of first the high grade, distribution in separate intrusive
bodies, and location in diverse host rocks. thanked for his contribution to the geological
Stratigraphically, the first pulse of the lower- map of the KLIC. Constructive comments on
Cr magma type marks the level of the lower- the manuscript by Hugh OBrien are gratefully
most high-grade PGE reef. In the case where acknowledged.
the intrusions have a higher-grade marginal
series, the early higher-Cr magma injection
is only represented by a set of dikes beneath References
the intrusion. The next reef in the sequence
is always found some hundred meters above
Alapieti, T., 1982. The Koillismaa layered igneous
the lowermost enrichment regardless of the
complex, Finland: its structure, mineral-
host intrusion. The highest reef is located at
ogy and geochemistry, with emphasis on
the top of the lowermost lower-Cr megacyclic
the distribution of chromium. Geol. Surv.
unit. None of the generally applied theories of Finland, Bull. 319, 1116.
PGE ore-forming processes taking place only Alapieti, T., 1996. The Kemi and Penikat layered
within a single intrusion chamber can account intrusions. IGCP Project 336, Field Con-
for all of the observed characteristics. ference on Layered Mafic Complexes and
The fact that the megacyclic units, and not Related Ore Deposits of Northern Fenno-
a particular intrusion or stratigraphic height, scandia, Guide to the Pre-Symposium Field
seem to control reef-type PGE mineralization Trip in Finland, August 9, 1996. Geol. Surv.
requires a genetic model in which the intru- Finland, Espoo.
sions with a megacyclic structure were fed Alapieti, T., Halkoaho, T., 1995. Cryptic variation
from a common auxiliary magma chamber of augite in the Penikat Layered Intru-
lower in the crust. All the above mentioned sion, Northern Finland, with references to
reef types and high-grade PGE marginal series megacyclic units and PGE-enriched zones.
have a moderate to deep negative Ru anomaly, Mineral. Petrol. 54, 1124.
which is a rare phenomenon worldwide. It is Alapieti, T.T., Lahtinen, J., 1986. Stratigraphy,
known that chromite accumulation fraction- petrology and platinum-group element min-
ates Ru. Since the chromite reefs underlying eralization of the early Proterozoic Penikat
the PGE reefs also have negative Ru anoma- layered intrusion, northern Finland. Econ.
lies, the depletion of Ru can be attributed to Geol. 81, 11261136.
fractionation processes that took place in the Alapieti, T., Lahtinen, J., 2002. Platinum-Group
proposed auxiliary magma chamber. This may Element Mineralization in Layered Intru-
link the Kemi intrusion and its huge chromite sions of Northern Finland and the Kola
Peninsula, Russia. In: L. Cabri (Ed.), The
mass to the same system, as the feeder dike
Geology, geochemistry, Mineralogy and
of the Kemi intrusion is noted for containing
Mineral Benefication of Platinum-Group
suspended chromite.
Elements. Canadian Institute of Mining,
Metallurgy and Petroleum, Special Volume
54, 507546.
Acknowledgments Alapieti, T., Hugg, R., Piirainen, T., Ruotsalainen,
A., 1979. The ultramafic and mafic intru-
We are grateful to The South Atlantic Resourc- sion at Nrnkvaara, northeastern Finland.
es Ltd. for allowing us to log their exploration Geol. Surv. Finland, Rep. Invest. 35.
drillholes from the upper Penikat intrusion, Alapieti, T.T., Kujanp, J., Lahtinen, J.J., Pa-
and to The Arctic Platinum Partnership Ay punen, H., 1989a. The Kemi chromitite
for permission to publish the Konttijrvi cross deposit, northern Finland. Econ. Geol. 84,
and longitudinal sections. Jorma Rsnen is 10571077.

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early Proterozoic Suhanko-Konttijrvi lay- intrusion, northern Finland. Acta Univ.
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ered Complex and related mineralization.

Chapter 4
CENTRAL LAPLAND
GREENSTONE BELT
E. Hanski, H. Huhma
Cover page: Kumpu Group conglomerate, Kumputunturi, Kittil. Diameter of the
largest clasts is ~10 cm.
Photo: Eero Hanski.
140
Hanski, E., Huhma, H., 2005. Central Lapland greenstone belt.
In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A., Rm, O.T. (Eds.), Precambrian
The Central Lapland greenstone belt records Paleoproterozoic depositional

evolution for almost 600 Ma, beginning at ~2450 Ma with the eruption of mantle
plume-related, komatiitic to rhyolitic lavas on the Archean cratonic basement.
This magmatic phase also included emplacement of large layered mafic intru-
sions. During the following 300400 Ma, deposition of a thick, transgressive
quartzite-dolomite-basalt-pelite succession took place and was followed by
komatiitic to picritic volcanism. Mafic magmas intermittently formed layered
sill-like intrusions within the sediments, most notably at ~2220 Ma and ~2050
Ma. This prolonged extensional regime was interrupted by a collisional event,
which led to thrusting of a ~2000 Ma slab of ancient oceanic lithosphere (the
Kittil Group) onto older cratonic rocks. This took place at ~1920 Ma, as
deduced from felsic dikes and granodioritic plutons of this age within the Kit-
til Group. Roughly simultaneously, a juvenile calc-alkaline arc complex was
formed farther north (western part of the Inari area) and was shortly followed
by the upthrust of the Lapland granulite belt. The supracrustal rock sequence
in central Lapland was completed with the deposition of molasse-like, coarse-
clastic sediments in a fore-arc basin soon after ~1880 Ma synorogenic felsic
plutonism and associated minor volcanism.
CHAPTER 4 CENTRAL LAPLAND GREENSTONE B E LT 141

1. Introduction belts, dominated by pelitic metasediments or
mafic metavolcanic rocks, are found in several
The Central Lapland greenstone belt in north- large domains such as the Archean areas of
ern Finland, together with its continuations eastern and western Lapland and the eastern
in northern Norway, Sweden, and Russian part of the Inari area (Figure 4.1). In the south,
Kare lia, forms one of the largest known the Pudasjrvi and eastern Finland basement
Paleoproterozoic greenstone belts. Its age and complexes extend northwards to southernmost
stratigraphic relations have been controver- Lapland. In addition, small Archean gneiss
sial for a long time. Recent geochemical and domes surrounded by Proterozoic rocks are
isotope studies coupled with extensive field found in central Lapland.
investigations carried out by the Lapland Vol- The focus of this article is on the Paleopro-
canite Project (Geological Survey of Finland) terozoic rocks, particularly the Central Lap-
in the late 1980s have considerably improved land greenstone belt, which runs as an almost
our understanding of the geochemical char- uninterrupted zone from northern Norway
acteristics of the belt and the stratigraphic through central Finnish Lapland where it bi-
and age relations of its individual formations furcates to reach both the western and eastern
(Rsnen et al., 1995; Lehtonen et al., 1998). borders of Finland (Figure 4.1). The Central
A large quantity of previously unpublished Lapland greenstone belt contains several
geochronologic data from the Central Lapland different areas in which either volcanic or
greenstone belt have recently been reported sedimentary rocks prevail. Volcanic terrains
(Vaasjoki, 2001). The supracrustal evolution in Kittil and Salla are assigned to the Kittil
of the Central Lapland greenstone belt lasted and Salla greenstone areas, respectively. These
for several hundreds of m.y., resulting in thick are separated by the Sodankyl schist area,
sequences of sedimentary and volcanic rocks which is composed predominantly of metasedi-
generated in various geotectonic settings. In mentary rocks. Lehtonen et al. (1998) regarded
this paper, we present an overview of this the Salla greenstone area as the easternmost
depositional evolution on the basis of earlier part of the Central Lapland greenstone belt,
studies and some new Nd isotope data. In ad- whereas Nironen et al. (2002) considered it
dition to supracrustal rocks, we consider three the northernmost part of the Kuusamo belt,
episodes of intrusive basic magmatism that a supracrustal belt in southeast Lapland run-
produced maficultramafic layered intrusions ning across the Finnish-Russian border. In
at 2440, 2220, and 2050 Ma, some of them southwestern Lapland there is the Perpohja
with notable ore reserves. belt that is separated from the Central Lapland
greenstone belt by the Central Lapland granit-
oid complex. Smaller, less intensively studied
2. Main geologic units of Paleoproterozoic schist belts are found in the
northern Finland most northwestern corner of Finland (in the
right hand of the Finnish Lady) and in north-
The bedrock of northern Finland is part of ernmost Finland north of the Lapland granulite
the Fennoscandian Shield and is composed belt (Figure 4.1). The granulite zone can also
mainly of Archean granite gneiss-greenstone be regarded as belonging to the Paleopro-
terrains and Paleoproterozoic schist belts, terozoic formations on the basis of whole-rock
which were mostly deposited on or, in some Sm-Nd analyses and U-Pb analyses of detrital
cases, tectonically juxtaposed on the Archean zircons; these indicate a Paleoproterozoic age
basement. Archean TTG and quartzofeld- for at least part of the protoliths (Huhma and
spathic gneisses, granites, and supracrustal Merilinen, 1991; Tuisku and Huhma, 1998a,
142 CHAPTER 4 CENTRAL LAPLAND GREENSTONE B E LT

Caledonides
NORWAY
Inari Carbonatite
area
Lap
lan
Granitoids
d
gra
Layered maficultramafic
intrusions, anorthosite
nul
it
Granulite
eb
Ce
elt
Juvenile arc complex
nt
ra
lLa
Ki Paleoproterozoic supracrustal
pla
belts
nd
Archean supracrustal belts

gr
ee
ns
Archean gneiss and granite

to
ne
Central Lapland So
be
Sa
lt
granitoid complex
SWEDEN RUSSIA
Pe
Ku
100 km
Fig. 4.1. Main geologic units of northern Finland (modified after Korsman et al., 1997). Abbreviations:
PePerpohja schist belt, KuKuusamo schist belt, SoSodankyl schist area, SaSalla greenstone area,
KiKittil greenstone area.
b; Daly et al., 2001). Adjacent to the Lapland the ~1880 Ma Haaparanta (Haparanda) suite
granulite belt on its northeastern side are small occurring mainly in the western part of Finn-
Paleoproterozoic schist belts and ~19501900 ish Lapland, and by postorogenic, ~1800 Ma,
Ma juvenile calc-alkaline plutonic rocks (Bar- Nattanen-type granites forming relatively
ling et al., 1997; Huhma, 2001). small, scattered stocks throughout Lapland.
Some of the largest layered maficul- Restricted felsic magmatism with an age of
tramafic intrusions in northern Finland are ~1920 Ma is also found in central Lapland.
shown in black in Figure 4.1. Felsic plutonic The youngest rocks in northern Finland are
rocks are found widely south of the Central represented by some Neoproterozoic mafic
Lapland greenstone belt, in an area designated dikes and Phanerozoic alkaline complexes in
the Central Lapland granitoid complex. It is eastern Lapland, such as the Sokli carbonatite,
a heterogeneous entity containing, in addition and a small piece of the Caledonides in the
to Paleoproterozoic granites and migmatites, northwestern corner of Finland (Figure 4.1).
remnants of Archean granitoids and schists
(Evins et al., 2002). Rocks of the Central
Lapland greenstone belt are cut by synoro-
genic monzodiorites and granodiorites of

3. Central Lapland by some notable shear zones. Among these
greenstone belt are the Sirkka-line at the southern margin
of the Kittil greenstone area and the north-
3.1. General features trending Kolari shear zone running close to
the Finnish-Swedish border.
The Paleoproterozoic Central Lapland green- Central Lapland displays a relatively com-
stone belt is exposed over an area of 100 km plex pattern of metamorphic zonation, but a
by 200 km and is part of a larger greenstone simplified picture is as follows. Within the
belt extending up to the Norwegian coast. In core zone of the belt, comprising the major
northern Finnish Lapland, it runs parallel to part of the Kittil greenstone area and the
and plunges beneath the southwestern contact northwestern part of the Sodankyl schist area,
of the Lapland granulite belt, while in the west greenschist facies metamorphism prevails. To-
and east it is bordered by Archean granite- wards the Central Lapland granitoid complex
gneiss terrains. In the south and northwest it is in the south and Svecofennian granites in the
intruded by plutons of granitic rocks (Figures west, the degree of regional metamorphism
4.1 and 4.2). The Paleoproterozoic greenstone increases rather abruptly to amphibolite fa-
belt is underlain by Archean basement gneis- cies. The eastern part of the belt has mostly
ses, and the lower parts of the supracrustal undergone middle-amphibolite facies meta-
sequence were deposited unconformably on morphism. There is a transition from lower
these 3.1 Ga to 2.6 Ga gneisses (Krner and grades to upper amphibolite and granulite
Compston, 1990; Merilinen, 1976). facies towards the northeast before reaching
The Central Lapland greenstone belt re- the granulite belt proper.
cords a complex geologic history of more than
500 Ma culminating in orogenic deformation 3.2. Lithostratigraphy
at ~1.9 Ga. Affected by the Svecofennian colli-
sional event in the southwest and thrusting of Although the supracrustal rocks of the Cen-
the Lapland granulite belt in the northeast, tral Lapland greenstone belt have most often
it acted as a foreland fold-and-thrust belt to been regarded as belonging to the Karelian
two, nearly coeval convergent systems with formations (e.g., Eskola, 1963; Simonen,
op posing polarity (Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1986), their correlation with the traditional
1997). Structures in central Lapland have been Karelian formations (Sariolian, Jatulian, and
interpreted with progressive compression and Kalevian; see Laajoki, 1986; Chapters 1 and
regionally imposed dextral torque (Ward et 7) has been controversial for decades, partly
al., 1989). Hanski (1997) suggested that the due to the lack of reliable age determinations.
Kittil greenstone area represents an oceanic Nevertheless, the discovery made by Hackman
allochthon, but the most part of the belt seems (1927) indicating the presence of two principal
to be autochthonous or parautochthonous. In stratigraphic entities separated by a major
general, apart from some recumbent fold- unconformity has generally been accepted.
ing close to the contact of the granulite belt, For the younger unit containing exclusively
major overturned nappes have not been easy epiclastic metasedimentary rocks, Hackman
to recognize (Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1997). (1927) coined the term Kumpu quartzites,
Recently, Evins and Laajoki (2002) reported while Sederholm (1932) introduced the term
evidence for south-vergent nappe structures Lapponian for the widely distributed vol-
in the Sodankyl schist area 100150 km cano-sedimentary sequence of the lower unit
south of the basal contact of the granulite (see also Mikkola, 1941). For a more detailed
belt. Later tectonic activation is manifested account of the history of the stratigraphical

27
M
Kittil
S
Sodankyl
Kolari
Pyhtunturi K
67
RUSSIA
SWEDEN
Salla
RUSSIA
0 40 km
Lithostratigraphic groups of central Lapland Other rock units

greenstone belt
Lainio and Kumpu Groups Paleozoic carbonatite
Kittil Group Paleoproterozoic intrusive rocks
Savukoski Group Lapland granulite
Sodankyl Group Archean supracrustal rocks
Onkamo Group Archean gneisses and granites
Salla Group
Fig. 4.2. The areal distribution of the main lithostratigraphic units (groups) in central Finnish Lapland
(simplified after Rsnen et al., 1995). M denotes the location of the Mykkelm dome, and S and K
mark the major komatiite occurrences, Sattasvaara and Kummitsoiva, respectively.
research carried out in northern Finland, the 1932) and implicit in subsequent stratigraphic
reader is referred to Hanski (2001). schemes (e.g., Silvennoinen, 1985) was the no-
A premise for the adoption of the term tion that the Lapponian rocks are older (>2300
Lapponian in the first place (Sederholm, Ma) than the Jatulian rocks. However, geologi-

cal, geochemical, and geochronological inves- the border, the Salla Group and the overlying
tigations carried out in the 1980s and 1990s Onkamo Group metavolcanic rocks occupy
have revealed that both the Kumpu quartzites here an approximate area of 40 km by 100 km.
and a large part of Sederholms Lapponian Due to the gentle dips of the volcanic deposits,
volcanic rocks are younger than the Jatulian the total thickness of the group is difficult to
and do not have any obvious counterparts in estimate but may reach two kilometers (Tuomo
the conventional Karelian stratigraphic units Manninen, pers. comm., 2001). Other notable
(Lehtonen et al., 1998; Rastas et al., 2001). occurrences of the Salla Group are found in
This contradiction and the obvious necessity the vicinity of the Akanvaara and Koitelainen
to update the stratigraphic terminology led to layered intrusions in the central part of the
the rejection of the traditional stratigraphic Central Lapland greenstone belt, whereas
nomenclature (Rsnen et al., 1995; Lehtonen Salla Group rocks are not found in the west-
et al., 1998). ern part of the belt. The volcanic rocks were
Recent geochronological studies have erupted onto the rifted Archean basement. In
shown that the Paleoproterozoic supracrustal the Salla area, however, the basement rocks
rocks earlier assigned to the Lapponian rocks are exposed only on the Russian side and
were deposited over ~450 Ma (see Hanski et the contact of the Salla greenstone area with
al., 2001b). Lehtonen et al. (1998) divided other rock units on its western side is tec-
them into five lithostratigraphic groups which, tonic (Manninen, 1991). In the Peurasuvanto
from oldest to youngest, are the Salla, Onkamo, area north of the Koitelainen intrusion, the
Sodankyl, Savukoski, and Kittil Groups. In Salla Group metavolcanic rocks surround the
addition, Lehtonen et al. assigned the younger, 3100 Ma Tojottamanselk basement gneiss
traditional Kumpu formations to two units, the dome. The succession begins with a basal
Lainio and Kumpu Groups. The distribution volcaniclastic conglomerate with a variety of
of these stratigraphic units in the Central Lap- rock clasts including rounded Archean gneiss
land greenstone belt is shown in Figure 4.2. cobbles (Peltonen et al., 1988).
For simplicity, the Kumpu and Lainio Groups Both the Salla Group and the overlying
are combined on that map. In the following, Onkamo Group rocks are overwhelmingly vol-
the Paleoproterozoic supracrustal evolution canic in origin. The Salla Group metavolcanic
of the Central Lapland greenstone belt is dis- rocks vary from intermediate to felsic with
cussed by describing each of the above-men- the more evolved varieties generally higher in
tioned groups in geochronologic order. While stratigraphy. Even though the primary miner-
Lehtonen et al. (1998) provided information als of the Salla Group metavolcanic rocks
on the type of formations of each group, we have generally been obliterated by greenschist
will maintain our focus at the group level. facies regional metamorphism, the original
volcanic structures of the extrusive rocks are
3.3. Salla Group well-preserved in many places, especially in
the Salla area (Figure 4.4A). Felsic metavolca-
The Salla Group represents the lowermost nic rocks are characterized by welded ash flow
Paleoproterozoic lithostratigraphic unit of tuffs and crystal tuffs. The field characteristics
the Central Lapland greenstone belt, occur- of the metalavas coupled with the scarcity of
ring most abundantly in the Salla greenstone intervening epiclastic metasedimentary rocks
area in the southeastern part of the Central indicate that eruptions occurred rapidly under
Lapland greenstone belt (previously called the subaerial conditions.
Salla Formation by Manninen, 1991). Together
with their extensions on the Russian side of

A
Ruppapalo
granodiorite
Nysskoski
Sotkaselk
2.2 2.6
4.4 1
3.3 3.9
Mantovaara
3.4 2.9 conglomerate
Levi Sirkka Kumputunturi
S
irk
Ylls
Sovasjoki
k
3.7
al
4
ine
2 Dome

7 Jeesi- Nuttio
rova
1.4 -0.8
-1.1 -1.6
5
Kittil
6 Latvajrvi
3
Kaarestunturi
Kallo
monzonite
Paleoproterozoic Other rock units 10 km

supracrustal rocks
-----------
------ Kumpu Group Onkamo Group 3.7 Initial Nd value
.. . . . . .
. . . . . .
. . . . . . .
Lainio Group Salla Group 2 Location of studied
metasediments
Paleoproterozoic conglomerate clasts:
Lainio Group 1 = Mantovaara
metavolcanic rocks intrusive rocks
2 = Linkupalo
Kittil Group Serpentinite 3 = Vesikkovaara
Savukoski Group Archean rocks 4 = Stknvaara
5 = Hangasoja
Sodankyl Group Fault 6 = Kellostapuli
7 = Aakenustunturi
B Ruppapalo
granodiorite
Fig. 4.3. (A) Geological map of the Kit-

til area. Numbers in white boxes in the
Sirkka Kittil Group area denote Nd (at 2015
Ma) values for mafic metavolcanic rocks.
Sovasjoki Circled numbers mark locations where
Dome
felsic porphyry and granitoid clasts of
Kittil the Lainio and Kumpu Group conglom-
erates have been studied. (B) Gray-tone
aeromagnetic map of low-altitude total
intensity of the Kittil area.
Kallo monzonite

A B
C D
E F
G H
Fig. 4.4. (A) Amygdaloidal mafic lava, Salla Group. Tag length 15 cm. (B) Partly assimilated granitoid
fragments from basement in mafic lava, Onkamo Group. Tag length 10 cm. (C) Fuchsite-bearing, cross-
bedded quartzite, Sodankyl Group. Alteration features in the lower part of the figure. Tag length 5
cm. (D) Ultramafic (komatiitic) volcaniclastic metavolcanic rock, Savukoski Group. Coin diameter 25
mm. (E) Photomicrograph of komatiitic hyaloclastite, Savukoski Group. Crossed nicols, bar length 1
mm. (F) Mafic pillow lava, Kittil Group. Tag length 15 cm. (G) Photomicrograph of felsic porphyry,
Kittil Group, crossed nicols. Bar length 3 mm. (H) Lainio Group conglomerate containing felsic por-
phyry and granitoid pebbles. Bar length 3 cm. Photos: (A) and (B) by Tuomas Manninen, (C) by Pentti
Rastas, (D) and (E) by Jorma Rsnen, (G) and (H) by Reijo Lampela.

300
Sample/Primitive Mantle 100

Salla Group metavolcanic
rocks
10
2
Rb Th Nb K Ce Sr Nd Zr Eu Gd Dy Er Lu
Ba U Ta La Pr P Sm Hf Ti Tb Y Yb
Fig. 4.5. Primitive mantle-normalized trace element patterns for average compositions of basaltic
andesite (yellow), andesite (green), dacite (blue), and rhyolite (red) from the Salla Group, Salla area.
Data from Manninen (1991).
Geochemistry and Nd isotopes oxide fractionation, respectively. An evident

The chemical composition of the Salla Group crustal signature is manifested by the strong
metavolcanic rocks varies from basaltic an- LREE enrichment and deep negative Ta
desite to rhyolite with the bulk of the SiO2 anomalies (Figure 4.5). Furthermore, these
contents falling in the range of 5470 wt.%. anomalies suggest that a significant amount of
Diagrams such as the AFM or Jensen cation contamination with crustal material took place
plot (not shown) place andesitic rocks in the before the extensive fractional crystallization
calc-alkaline field probably due to secondary that produced the basaltrhyolite series. Two
processes, while dacites and more evolved samples of felsic metavolcanic rocks from the
rocks display tholeiitic affinity (Manninen, Salla area yielded Nd(at 2440 Ma) values of
1991). All the members of the observed uni- 4.4 and 3.1 (Table 4.1, Figure 4.7) which are
modal rock series are low in TiO2 and were consistent with the contaminated character of
probably derived from a common parental the magma as indicated by the geochemistry.
magma through fractional crystallization, as
deduced from incompatible trace elements Geochronology
distributions. In Figure 4.5, primitive mantle- Confident dating results have recently been
normalized trace element patterns are shown obtained for felsic metavolcanic rocks from
for the average compositions of basaltic the eastern and western side of the Koitelainen
andesite, andesite, dacite, and rhyolite from intrusion, yielding U-Pb zircon ages of 2438
the Salla area. The patterns are similar for 14 and 2438 11 Ma, respectively (Rsnen
the whole series apart from the relatively low and Huhma, 2001; Manninen et al., 2001).
levels of Sr and Ti in the most evolved rocks, These zircon ages are within the error of the
most likely resulting from plagioclase and ages reported for the large mafic layered intru-

volcanic rocks studied in the Salla area at the
MYKKELM Komatiitic basalt Finnish-Russian border (previously called the
Andesite
Mntyvaara Formation by Manninen, 1991),
250 m Komatiitic basalt
at Mykkelm in the Sodankyl area (Rsnen
Basaltic andesite et al., 1989), and at Teuravuoma in the Kolari
area (Vnnen, 1989). The Onkamo Group
Basalt
rocks were deposited either on the lavas of the
N
Salla Group or directly on Archean gneisses
S
Drillhole R6
and granites. The former is true in the Salla
Quartzite (So-
dankyl Group) Archean granite area and allowed Manninen (1991) to study
gneiss basement the contact relationship between the Salla
and Onkamo Groups. He observed an Al-rich
paleoweathering crust a few meters thick on
the rhyolitic rocks of the Salla Group, grading
Fig. 4.6. Block diagram showing mafic to ultra- upwards to a ~10 m thick sericite schist unit
mafic metavolcanic rocks of the Onkamo Group with a conglomeratic lower part.
on Archean basement at the southwestern
The Onkamo Group rocks lie directly on
corner of the Mykkelm dome, ~30 km north
Archean basement at Mykkelm in the mu-
of Sodankyl (M in Figure 4.2).
nicipality of Sodankyl (Rsnen et al., 1989).
Here a 250-m-thick section of metavolcanic
sions, Koitelainen and Akanvaara (Mutanen rocks has been penetrated by a drill hole
and Huhma, 2001). However, felsic metavol- (Figure 4.6). The metavolcanic rocks flank a
canic rocks of the Salla Group are also found small Archean basement dome (Mykkelm
among the country rocks of these intrusions, dome) and they are overlain by quartzites of
demonstrating that at least part of these meta- the next Paleoproterozoic unit, the Sodankyl
volcanic rocks are older than the intrusions Group (Figure 4.6).
(Rsnen and Huhma, 2001). The Onkamo Group rocks mostly com-
On the Russian side, the equivalent rocks prise subaerial, amygdaloidal mafic to inter-
of the Salla greenstone area have been regard- mediate lavas and fragmental ultramafic rocks,
ed as belonging to the Ludikovian deposits originally agglomerates and tuffs. In the Salla
and this would have a post-Jatulian age (e.g., area, variolitic pillow lavas and pillow brec-
Kulikov et al. 1980; Radchenko et al., 1994). cias are also found. At Mykkelm, mafic
However, a recently obtained U-Pb zircon age and ultramafic units alternate (Figure 4.6).
for a dike rock (Onkamonlehto dike) demon- The sequence starts with pyroclastic komati-
strates that the Salla Group is pre-Jatulian. itic eruptions and andesitic lavas containing
Although not very robust, this age determina- partly digested gneiss xenoliths from the
tion gives a minimum age of ~2380 Ma for the basement (Figures 4.4B). These are followed
intermediate to felsic volcanic country rocks by another pulse of ultramafic metavolcanic
of the dike (Manninen and Huhma, 2001). rocks overlain first by highly amygdaloidal
basaltic andesites and then basalts. The mafic
3.4. Onkamo Group metavolcanic rocks thus become more primi-
tive upwards in the section.
Supracrustal rocks of the Onkamo Group are
widely distributed, yet discontinuous in central Geochemistry and Nd isotopes
Lapland (Figure 4.2). Our information on the The Onkamo Group rocks are komatiites,
Onkamo Group comes primarily from the meta- komatiitic basalts, high-magnesian basalts,

Table 4.1.
Sm-Nd isotope data for volcanic and plutonic rocks from Central Finnish Lapland.
147
Sample Location Rock type/ Sm Nd Sm/144Nd 143
Nd/144Nd T* Nd(T) TDM
Mineral (ppm) (ppm) (0.4%) (2) (Ma) (Ma)
Salla Group felsic metavolcanic rocks

A1404 Koutoiva Felsic tuff 7.89 37.00 0.1272 0.51130010 2440 -4.4 3101
A1454 Mntyvaara Felsic tuff 6.16 30.57 0.1221 0.51128510 2440 -3.1 2944
Onkamo Group mafic metavolcanic rocks

11735 Mntyvaara Pillow lava 3.03 15.45 0.1185 0.51128511 2440 -1.9 2831
12781 Mntyvaara Komat. basalt 1.72 7.01 0.1481 0.51180010 2440 -1.2 2925
12782 Mntyvaara Komat. basalt 1.37 4.25 0.1943 0.51214730 2440 -9.0
12920 Mntyvaara Komatiite 1.21 5.29 0.1381 0.51169012 2440 -0.2 2747
A1435 Mykkelm Andesitic lava 3.04 16.49 0.1115 0.51110610 2440 -3.2 2902
Kittil Group, Kautoselk Formation

Tarv I Tarvasenvaara Plag-porphyrite 8.29 43.89 0.1142 0.51146310 2015 -1.6 2423
Tarv I Tarvasenvaara Plagioclase 0.40 2.12 0.1126 0.51144921 2015 -1.5 2406
6579 Tarvasenvaara Amygd. lava 7.99 41.05 0.1177 0.51153510 2015 -1.1 2396
6583 Tarvasenvaara Mafic lava 8.76 44.90 0.1179 0.51153613 2015 -1.2 2399
5963 Kivipurnuvaara Mafic lava 6.33 31.80 0.1204 0.51158813 2015 -0.8 2381
A1449 Karjakko-oja Mafic dike 5.34 25.79 0.1253 0.51165510 2015 -0.8 2397
11774 Nuttio Mafic lava 6.08 24.93 0.1473 0.51205610 2015 1.4 2265
Kittil Group,Vesmajrvi Formation

5155 Jrvikinen Mafic lava 3.34 10.34 0.1954 0.51283612 2015 4.2
13-17-LVP-84 Jrvikinen Mafic lava 1.95 5.99 0.1971 0.51284011 2015 3.8
13-17-LVP-84 Jrvikinen Clinopyroxene 1.10 2.17 0.3056 0.51424513 2015 3.1
13-18-LVP-84 Jrvikinen Clinopyroxene** 2.76 9.41 0.1773 0.51260812 2015 4.4
13-18-LVP-84 Jrvikinen Clinopyroxene** 1.75 4.75 0.2234 0.51315421 2015 3.1
5489 Jrvikinen Pillow lava 2.67 7.89 0.2043 0.51294910 2015 4.1
A1200 Kiuasautonoja Mafic dike 1.81 7.06 0.1547 0.51227712 2015 3.8 1978
5333 Penikkajrvi Pillow lava 2.35 6.68 0.2130 0.51304611 2015 3.7
84/20-1 Rajala Mafic lava 3.34 10.13 0.1992 0.51285610 2015 3.6
84/21-1 Rajala Mafic lava 4.39 13.67 0.1944 0.51276110 2015 2.9
Kittil Group,Veikasenmaa Formation

7412 Kiimarova Pillow lava 3.33 10.77 0.1867 0.51268411 2015 3.4
7472 Kiimarova Pillow lava 3.15 9.92 0.1921 0.51273011 2015 2.9
9771 Veikasenmaa Pillow lava 6.12 19.47 0.1899 0.51277610 2015 4.4
9782 Veikasenmaa Mafic porphyrite 5.25 19.03 0.1667 0.51241712 2015 3.4
9701 Veikasenmaa Mafic lava 2.50 8.56 0.1767 0.51257811 2015 4.0
A1563 Selksenvuoma Mafic dike 1.14 3.99 0.1731 0.51244319 2015 2.2
Kittil Group, Kngs Formation

10220 Kngs Pillow lava 9.46 43.11 0.1327 0.51191011 2015 2.3 2133
10225 Kngs Pillow lava 12.66 54.37 0.1408 0.51203512 2015 2.7 2109

147
Sample Location Rock type/ Sm Nd Sm/144Nd 143
Nd/144Nd T* Nd(T) TDM
Mineral (ppm) (ppm) (0.4%) (2) (Ma) (Ma)
Calc-alkaline dikes in Nuttio serpentinites

R4/9.40 Nolppio Mafic dike 5.76 33.09 0.1053 0.51155311 2015 2.4 2093
R4/18.90 Nolppio Mafic dike 5.64 32.63 0.1046 0.51152510 2015 2.1 2119
Kittil Group felsic rocks
A280 Kapsajoki Felsic porphyry 28.71 121.0 0.1434 0.51212611 2015 3.8 1987
A581 Veikasenmaa Felsic porphyry 20.51 93.74 0.1323 0.51198212 2015 3.8 1985
A893 Kiimaselk Felsic porphyry 6.26 26.79 0.1412 0.51209410 2015 3.7 1994
A887 Yrjrvi Felsic porphyry 10.95 48.70 0.1359 0.51202812 2015 3.8 1983
Felsic dikes and plutons (<2000 Ma)

A246 Nysskoski Felsic porphyry 2.79 16.57 0.1016 0.51139525 1919 -0.9 2240
A1262 Kuotko Felsic porphyry 3.07 18.98 0.0978 0.51142010 1920 0.5 2125
A1206 Ruoppapalo Granodiorite 1.29 7.11 0.1097 0.51146814 1914 -1.5 2309
A746b Haisuvuoma Monzonite 5.71 30.48 0.1132 0.51144610 1880 -3.2 2419
Lainio Group felsic metavolcanic rocks

A513 Latvajrvi Felsic metavolc. 6.69 47.35 0.0854 0.51108714 1880 -3.5 2322
Clasts in Lainio and Kumpu Group conglomerates

A939 Linkujoki Felsic porphyry 12.08 57.13 0.1278 0.51190110 2015 3.4 2019
A1470 Mantovaara Felsic porphyry 0.95 5.30 0.1080 0.51158212 1928 1.3 2105
105.2-PPR-94 Hangasoja Felsic porphyry 6.71 42.65 0.0950 0.51119910 1880 -3.6 2364
A1416a Vesikkovaara Felsic porphyry 1.93 13.34 0.0875 0.51103511 1880 -5.0 2420
A1416b Vesikkovaara Felsic porphyry 1.58 9.56 0.1000 0.51119038 1880 -5.0 2482
A635b Kellostapuli Granite 0.70 2.42 0.1747 0.51220221 1880 -3.3
For methods see Hanski et al. (2001a). Measurements were made on VG Sector 54 mass spectrometer at the Geological
Survey of Finland. 143Nd/144Nd ratio is normalized to 146Nd/144Nd=0.7219 and error is 2 standard error of the mean in the
last significant digits. Measurements on the La Jolla standard yielded a 143Nd/144Nd ratio of 0.5118516 (standard devia-
tion, n=48). Typical error in Nd is 0.4 units. TDM is calculated according to DePaolo (1981) for rocks with significant LREE
enriched pattern.
* The age used for calculating wd is based on U-Pb zircon dating (underlined) and geological correlations (see text).
** Clinopyroxene fraction altered and turbid, not included in age calculation (see Figure 4.13).
basalts, basaltic andesites, and andesites and anomalies in primitive mantle-normalized

are thus, on average, more varying and more trace element plots (Rsnen et al., 1989). In
primitive than the Salla Group rocks. The komatiitic rocks, (La/Yb)N approaches 5, and
mafic to intermediate rocks are either tholeiitic they differ in this respect from typical Archean
or calc-alkaline with their calc-alkaline nature komatiites in Finland or younger komati-
most probably caused by interaction with itic rocks of the Savukoski Group in central
sialic crust and postmagmatic hydrothermal Lapland (see below). In contrast to the Salla
alteration. The MgO content of the komatiitic Group, in which the mafic to felsic volcanic
rocks rarely exceeds 20 wt.%, typically fall- rocks form a cogenetic suite (Figure 4.5), at
ing between 14 wt.% and 18 wt.%. Primitive Mykkelm the basaltic member seems to
basaltic rocks have a relatively high SiO2 and have evolved from a different parental magma
can be called siliceous high-magnesian basalts than the andesites and dacites (Rsnen et al.,
(SHMB). In common with the Salla Group 1989). A special feature of the Mykkelm
rocks, the Onkamo Group metavolcanic rocks basalts is their exceptionally high Cr content
display a strong signature of crustal contami- (7001100 ppm).
nation: high LREE/HREE and negative HFSE A major contribution from Archean LREE-

Vesmajrvi Formation mafic rocks
4 Jouttiaapa Veikasenmaa porphyries 4
Jeesirova
Depleted mantle Nu
Pechenga tholeites
ttio Link
dik u
es Jormua joki po
2 EMORB rph 2
Jeesirova yry
Pechenga Mantovaara
ferropicrites
CHUR Haaskalehto
0 0
Runkausvaara
Nd Kau
Jormua OIB
tos Nysskoski porphyry
elk
Penikat F
m. Ruoppapalo
ma
-2 Koitelainen fic -2
roc
Akanvaara ks
Onk
amo Haisuvuorna
Gro Kellostapuli
up m
afic Latvajrvi Hangasoja
-4 roc Keivitsa -4
Salla ks
Gro
up f
elsic
roc
k s Vesikkovaara
-6 -6
Granites
Field of Archean granitoids

-8 -8
2450 2350 2250 2150 2050 1950 1850 1750
Age (Ma)
Komatiite, picrite Postorogenic granite
Mafic volcanic rock Monzonite, granite (1880 Ma)
Layered intrusion (2050 Ma) Granodiorite
Gabbrowehrlite association Felsic porphyry (20151880 Ma)

intrusion (2200 Ma)
Layered intrusion (2440 Ma)
Fig. 4.7. Nd isotope evolution diagram for Paleoproterozoic plutonic and volcanic rocks of northern
Finland. Initial Nd values are shown for rocks that have been dated by the U-Pb or Sm-Nd method.
Error bars are based on several analyses on each rock association. Evolution lines are shown for
rocks lacking direct isotope datings: mafic to ultramafic metavolcanic rocks from the Onkamo Group
(green), felsic metavolcanic rocks from the Salla Group (purple), mafic metavolcanic rocks from the
Kautoselk Formation (Kittil Group, blue), dikes cutting Nuttio serpentinites (mustard green), and a
felsic porphyry clast (Linkupalo) in Lainio Group conglomerate (red). Also shown are data on meta-
volcanic rocks from Jormua, Pechenga, and Perpohja (Jouttiaapa) for comparison. Data from this
study, Huhma (1986), Huhma et al. (1990, 1995), Hanski (1992), Hanski et al. (1990, 2001a, c), and
Peltonen et al. (1996, 1998). The field formed by trajectories of Archean granitoids is based on Huhma
(1986), OBrien et al. (1993), Hltt et al. (2000), and Hanski et al. (2001c). Evolution of depleted
model upper mantle after DePaolo (1981).

enriched lithosphere is also evident in the Nd 3.5. Sodankyl Group
isotope composition of the magnesian lavas
of the Onkamo Group (Table 4.1, Figure 4.7). Active volcanism of the Onkamo Group
Eight samples analysed from the Salla area was followed by a more tranquil period
have an average Nd (at 2440 Ma) value of 2.2 resulting in a thick, epiclastic sedimentary
and a TDM of ~2900 Ma (one analysis gave an sequence. These sediments are represented
Nd of 9 and suggests strong metamorphic by the quartzites and mica schists of the So-
fractionation at ~18001900 Ma). A single dankyl Group, which are found mainly on
analysis of an andesite from the Mykkelm the eastern and southern side of the Kittil
area is consistent with the data from Salla, greenstone area (Figure 4.2). The Sodankyl
yielding an Nd (at 2440 Ma) value of 3.2. Group metasediments were deposited either
on Archean gneissose basement or volcanic
Geochronology rocks of the Salla or Onkamo Groups. Besides
The metalavas rocks of the Onkamo Group orthoquartzites, sericite quartzites, and mica
have so far not been directly dated. However, schists, the Sodankyl Group comprises minor
on the basis of their geological position and carbonate rocks with occasional stromatolitic
geochemical composition, they can be cor- structures and mafic metavolcanic rocks. Do-
related with rocks in the Vetreny belt, south- lomites from the Sodankyl Group have an
eastern Russian Karelia. The Vetreny suite anomalous 13C value of +6, which is typical
komatiites have yielded Sm-Nd isochron ages of the Jatulian carbonate rocks (Karhu, 1993).
of 2449 35 and 2410 34 Ma and a U-Pb Cr-bearing mica, fuchsite, is a characteristic
zircon age of 2437 3 Ma has been obtained mineral of the sericite quartzites, often stain-
for a dacite (Puchtel et al., 1997). The Salla ing the rocks with different tints of green
Group is cut by ~2440 Ma, chromitite-bear- (Figure 4.4C).
ing mafic layered intrusions at Akanvaara and The abundance and distribution of quartz-
Koitelainen, but such a relationship has not ites suggest that the depositional basin was
been observed for the Onkamo Group, thus markedly widened from a relatively narrow rift
permitting contemporaneity of these intru- basin after cessation of the Salla and Onkamo
sions and the Onkamo Group metavolcanic Group volcanism. Primary structures in the
rocks. In any case, it seems that the Salla and metasediments, well exposed at Virttivaara
Onkamo Groups do not deviate much in age for example, include cross-bedding, graded
from each other and, broadly speaking, belong bedding, herringbone structures, and mud
to the same, short-lived magmatic episode cracks, indicating a tidal environment (Ni-
that produced large volumes of igneous rocks, kula, 1988).
layered intrusions, dike swarms, subaerial or Volcanic rocks of the Sodankyl Group
shallow-water lavas, over large areas. They are mainly represented by amygdaloidal mafic
thus exhibit the characteristic features of lavas forming units some tens of meters thick.
magmatism related to an incipient mantle One of them is the northwestern extension
plume (cf. Ernst and Buchan, 1997). In the of the Greenstone III Formation of Silven-
Russian part of the shield, corresponding rocks noinen (1972), which can be followed from
have been assigned to the SumiSariolian the Kuusamo belt to the Pyhtunturi area
stage of magmatism (e.g., Gaskelberg et al., (Figure 4.2) in the eastern part of the Central
1986; Zagorodny et al., 1986). Lapland greenstone belt (Rsnen and Huhma,
2001).

10
8
Th/TiO2 = 3
. Kittil Group
Savukoski Group
6 Sodankyl Group
Th Onkamo Group
(ppm)
4 Salla Group
0
0 1 2 3 4
TiO2 (wt. %)
Fig. 4.8. Th vs. TiO2 diagram for mafic to intermediate metavolcanic rocks from the Central Lapland
greenstone belt.
Geochemistry and geochronology within the quartzites of the Sodankyl Group

The mafic metavolcanic rocks of the Sodan- and thus yield a minimum age for the meta-
kyl Group are tholeiitic basalts and basaltic sediments. Intrusions of this age group have
andesites with slightly LREE-enriched chon- not been seen to cut the overlying lithostrati-
drite-normalized REE patterns. They differ graphic groups (Savukoski, Kittil, Lainio,
from the older metavolcanic rocks of the Kumpu), which is consistent with isotopic
Onkamo and Salla Groups in having a less and other evidence indicating that these units
pronounced crustal signature as demonstrated did not exist at the time of the intrusion of the
by the Th vs. TiO2 plot (Figure 4.8). Also, fel- ~2200 Ma sills (see below).
sic rocks interpreted as volcanic in origin have Isotope analyses of bulk detrital zircon
been encountered within the Sodankyl Group samples from Sodankyl Group quartzites
around the Central Lapland granitoid com- indicate a predominant Archean provenance
plex, but their interpretation is problematic as for these rocks (Rastas et al., 2001). In this
they have yielded Archean zircon ages (Rastas respect, the Sodankyl Group quartzites
et al., 2001; Rsnen and Huhma, 2001). are similar to the Jatulian Kivalo Group
Mafic magmatism is also manifested by quartzites in the Perpohja belt (Perttunen and
~2200 Ma hypabyssal intrusions forming con- Vaasjoki, 2001), but differ clearly from the
cordant, differentiated maficultramafic sills sedimentary rocks of the Lainio and Kumpu

Groups; the latter have a significant Paleoprote- Jeesirova in Kittil and Kummitsoiva in Sa-
rozoic source component (Rastas et al., 2001; vukoski, while picritic rocks characterize the
Hanski et al., 2001b). Sotkaselk area (see Figures 4.2 and 4.3). Also
more fractionated basaltic metalavas, com-
3.6. Savukoski Group monly with pillow structures, are associated
with the highly magnesian varieties.
Fine-grained metasedimentary rocks of the Though mineralogically heavily altered,
Savukoski Group, including phyllites and the magnesian metavolcanic rocks exhibit
black schists, and some mafic tuffites, overlie well-preserved primary volcanological struc-
the clastic metasedimentary rocks of the So- tures, particularly in the Sattasvaara area
dankyl Group. No significant discordance (Figure 4.4D, E). Both the komatiitic and
or hiatus has been observed at the contact of picritic rocks occur as pillowed and massive
these two groups, indicating gradual deepen- lavas, pillow breccias, and various kinds of
ing of the depositional basin. The Savukoski volcaniclastic rocks including agglomerates,
Group contains the first manifestations of lapilli tuffs, and reworked tuffs. Thick, differ-
graphite- and sulfide-bearing schists in the entiated lava flows are rare (Rsnen, 1996).
Paleoproterozoic stratigraphy of the Central The subaqueous komatiitepicrite association
Lapland greenstone belt, and provide an im- of the Savukoski Group differs from the older
portant key horizon. subaerial komatiites of the Onkamo Group in
A few mafic tuff and tuffite interbeds their environment of eruption, though frag-
with locally abundant concretions are found mental komatiitic rocks are common in both
within phyllites. They are strongly magnetic rock suites.
and hence form useful marker horizons on In most strongly altered regions, espe-
geophysical maps. Also mafic lavas are locally cially close to the Sirkka tectonic line at the
present within pelitic metasediments. These southern margin of the Kittil greenstone area,
are well-exposed at Linkupalo, east of Kittil, komatiitic rocks have been affected by intense
where variolitic pillow lavas, massive lavas, carbonatization and are now deep-green chro-
volcanic breccias, agglomerates, tuffites, and mian marbles. These are good targets for gold
associated concordant diabases and gabbros prospecting (Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1992) and
have been described (Lehtonen et al., 1998). colorful enough for decorative purposes.
The pelitic metasediments are overlain
by primitive volcanic rocks with komatiitic Geochemistry
and picritic chemical affinities. These rocks The Savukoski Group ultramafic and mafic
have been assigned to the komatiitepicrite metavolcanic rocks form geochemically a
association and can be followed for more diverse group of rocks. They can be classified
than 350 km from the northern margin of the as belonging to two series both of which have
Salla greenstone area in the east towards the evolved to basaltic rocks from a magnesian
northwest across the border to northern Nor- parental magma with MgO close to or higher
way (Saverikko, 1983, 1985; Hanski et al., than 20 wt.%. On an [Al2O3] vs. [TiO2] dia-
2001a; Henriksen, 1983; Barnes and Often, gram, the primitive magmas and moderately
1990). The komatiitic and picritic metavolca- evolved members of these series fall in the
nic rocks cannot be distinguished from each fields of Ti-enriched komatiites and picrites
other in the field, but chemical analyses show (see Figure 4.9). Elevated TiO2 contents in pi-
that there are areas in which either of these two crites result in low Al2O3/TiO2 ratios of 4 to 5.
rock types predominates. Abundant komatiitic In komatiites this ratio normally ranges from
rocks are present at Sattasvaara in Sodankyl, 12 to 14 and is still relatively low compared

0.05
40
0.04 Picrite
Sample/Chondrite
Al-depleted picrite
Picrite
0.03 10
[TiO2] Ti-enriched
komatiite
)
t%
Ti-enriched,
0.02 (W
Al-depleted komatiite
5
3
2 =
Al-undepleted Komatiite
iO
Al-depleted
/T
0.01 komatiite
2O
3
10
Al
20 Ti-depleted komatiite,
boninite
0.00
0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 1
[Al2O3] La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Fig. 4.9. Analyses of komatiitic and picritic Fig. 4.10. Examples of chondrite-normalized
metavolcanic rocks of the Savukoski Group plot- REE spectra for Savukoski Group ultramafic
ted on an [Al2O3] vs. [TiO2] diagram of Hanski metavolcanic rocks that vary from LREE-deplet-
et al. (2001a). [Al2O3] and [TiO2] are Al2O3 and ed komatiites to LREE-enriched picrites.
TiO2 projected from olivine composition and
are calculated in mole proportions (normalized
to unity) using the following equations: [Al2O3] =
Al2O3/(2/3 - MgO - FeO) and [TiO2] = TiO2/(2/3
- MgO - FeO) (see Hanski, 1992, p. 106).
with Al-undepleted komatiites as defined by of the Savukoski Group pelitic metasediments

Nesbitt et al. (1979). The two magma types is provided by crosscutting intrusive bodies,
differ markedly from each other in their rare such as the Keivitsa layered intrusion. Two
earth element and high-field strength element samples from this intrusion have yielded U-
contents. The komatiites are strongly LREE- Pb zircon ages of 2058 4 Ma and 2054
depleted and moderately HREE-depleted 5 Ma (Mutanen and Huhma, 2001). Quartz
displaying hump-shaped chondrite-normal- porphyries ~10 km southwest of the Keivitsa
ized REE patterns, whereas the picrites are intrusion have a comparable age (2048 5
strongly enriched in LREE and all HFSE. Ma; Mutanen and Huhma, 2001). Also diabase
There are also intermediate types having REE dikes that cut the Savukoski Group metasedi-
patterns between those of typical komatiites ments have yielded U-Pb zircon ages of 2060
and picrites (Figure 4.10). Given the strong Ma to 2050 Ma (Rastas et al., 2001; Rsnen
depletion of the komatiites in highly incom- and Huhma, 2001).
patible elements, their moderate enrichment Preservation of primary clinopyroxene in
in Ti is a peculiar feature and sets them apart the komatiitic rocks at Jeesirova in the Kittil
from classic LREE-depleted komatiites, such area allowed Hanski et al. (2001a) to utilize
as those in Munro Township, Canada (Hanski pyroxenewhole-rock pairs to determine the
et al., 2001a). direct Sm-Nd isotope age for these rocks. The
result, 2056 25 Ma, is comparable with the
Geochronology Sm-Nd age of 2085 85 Ma published earlier
A minimum age (2060 Ma) for the deposition for komatiites from northern Norway (Krill

et al., 1985). The Nd (at 2060 Ma) values for (Figure 4.1).
komatiitic rocks range from +2 to +4 (Figure The depositional basement of the Kittil
4.7), with the most LREE-depleted, least con- Group has not been confidently established.
taminated komatiites having the highest Nd. The contacts of the Kittil Group rocks with
Picritic samples have also yielded positive Nd the other lithostratigraphic units described
(at 2060 Ma) values around +4. The available above seem to be tectonic. For instance, a
geochemical and isotope data also indicate thrust zone runs close to the eastern margin
that the komatiites and picrites were gener- of the complex separating the volcanic rocks
ated from a geochemically heterogeneous but of the Kittil Group from the Archean Sovas-
isotopically similarly depleted mantle source. joki gneiss dome and its autochthonous Paleo-
Hanski et al. (2001a) suggested that the hetero- proterozoic cover (Figure 4.3). The southern
geneities in the source region were created by contact of the Kittil greenstone area coincides
complex depletion and enrichment processes with the roughly EW-trending fault zone, the
shortly prior or related to dynamic melting Sirkka line (Gal et al., 1989).
in an adiabatically ascending mantle source. The Kittil greenstone area is dominated
The isotope and chemical data show that the by metavolcanic rocks, but there are also sev-
effect of sialic crustal contamination remained eral types of sedimentary interbeds and larger
negligible in the komatiites and picrites of the sedimentary units. These comprise metagray-
Savukoski Group. In this respect, they differ wackes, phyllites, graphite- and sulfide-bear-
profoundly from the komatiites of the Onkamo ing schists, and minor carbonate rocks. Most
Group (Rsnen et al., 1989). notable are, however, banded iron-formations
assigned to the Porkonen Formation. Oxide
3.7. Kittil Group facies rocks predominate, but there are also
sulfide- and silicate-carbonate facies precipi-
The Kittil Group represents one of the largest tates including manganosiderites (Paakkola
accumulations of mafic metavolcanic rocks in and Gehr, 1988).
the Fennoscandian Shield. It forms a single
terrane, often called the Kittil greenstone Stable isotopes
complex, and covers an area of more than 2600 Unlike the carbonate rocks in the cratonic
km2 in the central part of the Central Lapland Sodankyl Group, those in the Kittil Group
greenstone belt (see Figure 4.2). On the basis do not have anomalously high 13C values
of geophysical measurements, the present day (Karhu, 1993). Sulfur isotope data of the black
vertical thickness of the folded volcanic pile schists of the Savukoski Group in the vicinity
has been estimated to reach 6 km, giving an of the Keivitsa mafic intrusion display elevated
indication of the magnitude of the volcanism 34S values mostly in the range of +15% to
of this complex, as opposed to the relatively +20% (Hanski et al., 1996). As shown by Fig-
thin volcanic intercalations in the Sodankyl ure 4.11, isotope data of the black schists from
Group, for example. When followed from the one locality representing the Kittil Group
Kittil area to the north, the wide, relatively record very different, close to chondritic 34S
flat-flying and weakly deformed volcanic values (3 to +4; Heikki Pankka, unpublished
complex becomes a narrow, steeply E-dip- data). The available 34S data obtained for the
ping, tectonized zone. This is probably related Kittil Group metasediments are thus in line
to the overthrusting of the Lapland granulite with the oceanic geotectonic interpretation
belt from the northeast. Consequently, the suggested for this unit (see below).
rocks of the Kittil Group almost wedge out
before reaching the FinnishNorwegian border

8
Frequency
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
34S
Black schists: Kittil Group Savukoski Group
Fig. 4.11. Sulfur isotope composition of sulfides in black schists from the Savukoski and Kittil Groups
(data from Hanski et al., 1996, and Heikki Pankka, unpublished).
Field characteristics and Rare examples of high-Mg lavas have been

geochemistry of mafic metavolcanic encountered, but they are basalts enriched in
rocks mafic phenocrysts rather than rocks crystal-
The Kittil Group contains several generalized from a komatiitic magma. The Vesma-
tions of genetically unrelated metavolcanic jrvi metavolcanic rocks have a moderate TiO2
rocks. Lehtonen et al. (1998) described two content and their chondrite-normalized REE
types of formations, the Vesmajrvi and patterns are usually slightly LREE-enriched,
Kautoselk Formations, which differ in their but also flat or slightly LREE-depleted pat-
mode of occurrence and geochemistry. The terns occur (Figure 4.12A). The closest mod-
Vesmajrvi Formation comprises various ern analogues are EMORBs, while NMORB
kinds of submarine mafic metavolcanic rocks, types are subordinate (Figure 4.12B). No
including pillow lavas, pillow breccias, and indication of sialic contamination is apparent
hyaloclastites, and cogenetic dikes and gab- in the chemistry of these lavas.
broic sills. Locally, narrow mafic dikes form The mafic metavolcanic rocks of the Kauto-
subparallel sets with interdike screens of selk Formation are relatively evolved, Fe-rich
metagabbro. These are interpreted as incipient tholeiitic basalts and andesites with FeOtot and
sheeted dike complexes, feeder channels for Mg# averaging 13.5 wt.% and 0.43 wt.%,
the associated pillow lavas (Lehtonen et al., respectively (Lehtonen et al., 1998). They
1998). Also minor felsic rocks are encountered have high LREE/HREE (red dots in Figure
amidst the mafic metavolcanic rocks. Mafic 4.12A) with (La/Yb)N ~10 and are enriched
amygdaloidal lavas, tuffs, and tuffites are the in incompatible elements including TiO2.
main rock types of the Kautoselk Formation, They plot in the field of within plate basalts in
which is found in the southeastern part of the trace element discrimination diagrams such as
greenstone complex. Zr/Y vs. Zr, Zr-Ti-Y, and Zr-Nb-Y. However,
The volcanic structures of the Vesma- Nb and Ta are less enriched compared with
jrvi Formation indicate submarine eruptions, LREE, Th, and U and, consequently, the rocks
which is consistent with the rocks having a display negative Nb-Ta anomalies in primitive
chemical affinity of oceanic basalts. Geoche- mantle-normalized spidergrams and straddle
mically, they are tholeiitic basalts with Mg# the transition zone between within plate ba-
[atomic Fe/(Mg+Fe)] between 0.72 and 0.43. salts, E-MORBs, and volcanic arc basalts in

Kittil Group mafic metavolcanic rocks
A B Hf/3
300
NMORB
ic
100
Sample/Chondrite
iit
ole
s
alt
Th
bas
EMORB
arc
+ Thol. WPB
alk canic
e
l
alin
Vo
10
lc-
Alk. WPB
Ca
3
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu Th Nb/16
Fig. 4.12. (A) Chondrite-normalized REE patterns and (B) discrimination diagram of Wood et al.
(1979) for mafic metavolcanic rocks from the Kittil Group.
the Th-Hf-Ta and Th-Hf-Nb diagrams (red Geochronology of mafic rocks

dots in Figure 4.12B). A subset of samples has We have analysed the Nd isotope composi-
a high P2O5 content (0.51.1 wt.%) as opposed tion of tholeiitic lava samples and mineral
to values less than 0.4 wt.% in most samples. separates from the Vesmajrvi Formation.
The high-P samples also have high Ti/V ratios The samples were collected from outcrops
exceeding 100 in several cases. Such values on the western side of the Kumputunturi fell
have been observed in some oceanic alkali (see Figure 4.3A), containing pillow lavas and
basalts (Shervais, 1982). genetically related dikes. The analytical results
There are also pillow lavas (see Figure are listed in Table 4.1 and plotted in Figure
4.4F) in the western part of the complex (as 4.13. Seven whole-rock and three pyroxene
exemplified by the Kngs Formation) with analyses yielded an isochron with an age of
high incompatible trace element concentra- 1987 36 Ma and an initial Nd value of +3.8
tions. They display high LREE/HREE [(La/ 0.3. The latter is close to the value of the
Yb)N 36] and plot in the fields of within plate contemporaneous model depleted mantle of
basalts or OIB (dark blue diamonds in Figure DePaolo (1981). This and elemental geochem-
4.12B). In addition, basaltic lavas chemically ical observations demonstrate that the magma
akin to present-day island arc tholeiites (IAT) had insignificant or no interaction with an old
have been found close to the eastern margin sialic crust during its ascent or emplacement
of the Kittil greenstone area in association (Figure 4.7). We also analysed mafic metalavas
of serpentinite lenses (Hanski, 1997). They from the western part of the Kittil greenstone
possess a low TiO2 (<0.70 wt.%) content and area, including EMORB- and OIB-like rocks
low LREE/HREE (dark blue dots in Figure of the Veikasenmaa and Kngs Formations,
4.12A). respectively. At 2015 Ma, the former have
positive Nd values (+2.9 to +4.4) similar to
those obtained for the Vesmajrvi Formation,

0.5144 well-preserved dunites are found containing
Vesmajrvi Fm. tholei- strained olivines with high Fo contents, even
0.5140 ites up to 97%. Chemically, the ultramafic rocks
T = 1990 35 Ma are highly refractory with the Al2O3 and TiO2
0.5136 Nd = +3.7 0.2
Nd/144Nd
contents commonly falling below 0.1 wt.%

0.5132
and 0.06 wt.%, respectively. They contain
small chromitite lenses with chromite having
143
0.5128 a metallurgical composition (high Cr/Al).

Preliminary analyses show that the Os isotope
0.5124 composition of the Nuttio chromitites falls
within the narrow range measured for the
0.5120 chromitites from the Outokumpu ophiolite
.14 0.18 0.22 0.26 0.30 0.34
147
Sm/144Nd complex, yielding close to chondritic initial
Clinopyroxene Whole rock ratios at 2000 Ma (Hanski et al., 1995; Walker
et al., 1996). Another feature common with
the Outokumpu serpentinites is the presence
Fig. 4.13. 143Nd/144Nd vs. 147Sm/144Nd diagram for
of metasomatic Cr-rich quartz rocks adjacent
whole-rock and mineral separates from tholei-
itic basalts of the Vesmajrvi Formation (Kittil to some of the Nuttio belt serpentinites (cf.
Group). Kontinen, 1998). The ultramafic bodies are cut
by numerous mafic to ultramafic dikes with is-
land arc tholeiitic, calc-alkaline, and boninitic
affinities. The boninites have MgO contents up
while the Kngs alkali basalts have slightly to 25 wt.% (in volatile-free analyses) and are
lower Nd values (+2.3 to +2.7) (Table 4.1, extremely low in the incompatible elements
Figure 4.3). In contrast, the Kautoselk For- Ti, Zr, REE, and Y. They are thus among the
mation provides mostly negative Nd (at 2015 most magnesian and incompatible element-
Ma) values (Figure 4.6). The origin of these depleted boninites ever discovered. The trace
LREE-enriched rocks is clearly distinct from element characteristics of the three dike types
the origin of the basalts of the Vesmajrvi differ clearly from each other (Figure 4.14),
Formation. We have also analysed one sample but all of them display a marked decoupling of
that is chemically and isotopically intermedi- LREE and HFSE abundances, a feature shared
ate (Nd +1.4 at 2015 Ma) between the lavas with modern island arc lavas. Analogous dikes
of the Vesmjrvi and Kautoselk Formations have not been observed in the volcanic and
(Table 4.1). sedimentary rocks outside the serpentinites,
indicating that the intrusion of the dikes took
Nuttio serpentinites and place before the postulated tectonic emplace-
related dikes ment of the serpentinites. All these features
At the eastern edge of the Kittil volcanic are consistent with the interpretation that the
complex (Figure 4.3), there is a N-trending Nuttio serpentinites represent dismembered
chain of serpentinites and dunites designated ophiolitic ultramafic rocks. Moreover, the
as the Nuttio serpentinite belt (Hanski, 1997). chemical composition of chromites and dike
Drilling and field observations and geophysi- rocks suggest a suprasubduction zone envi-
cal measurements have shown that the ultra- ronment.
mafic bodies are in tectonic contact with their At present, no direct age data are available
country rocks. They have usually been altered for the rocks of the Nuttio serpentinite belt.
to serpentinites or soapstones, but locally Because the serpentinite lenses were emplaced

200
100
Dikes cutting Nuttio serpentines
Calc-alkaline
Sample/Primitive Mantle
10
Tholeiitic
1
Boninitic
0.1
Th Nb La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Fig. 4.14. Primitive mantle-normalized, extended REE diagram for dike rocks cutting Nuttio belt
serpentinites.
tectonically, they can, in principle, be older, complexes in eastern Finland (19701950

coeval or younger than their country rocks. Ma; Huhma, 1986; Peltonen et al., 1998). As
We have determined the Nd isotope composi- shown by Figure 4.7, the trajectories of the
tion of two calc-alkaline dikes hosted by the Nuttio dike samples pass close to the initial
serpentinites (see Table 4.1). Although precise Nd values of the E-MORBs from Jormua and
dating cannot be achieved by these data, some the Pechenga ferropicrites.
inferences can be made due to the low Sm/Nd
ratio of the samples and resultant steep growth Felsic rocks
curves on an Nd vs. age diagram (Figure 4.7). In the western part of the Kittil greenstone
The obtained TDM ages are ~2100 Ma for both area, volumetrically minor but geotectonically
dike samples (Table 4.1) and can be taken as a significant felsic porphyries are intimately
maximum age of crystallization. This suggests associated with mafic lavas and dikes. These
that the host ophiolitic ultramafic rocks are are plagioclase- and quartz-phyric rocks (see
lower Paleoproterozoic in age and thus con- Figure 4.4G) and occur as subvolcanic dikes,
sistent with the interpretation that the Nuttio lavas, and crystal tuff layers up to 10 m in
serpentinites are penecontemporaneous with thickness. Fragments of felsic porphyry are
the metavolcanic rocks of the ~2000 Ma Kit- found in the associated mafic metavolcanic
til Group. Hence, the age of the Nuttio belt rocks and diabase dikes and some of the por-
ultramafic rocks could be close to, but not phyries are cut by apophyses injected from the
necessarily the same as, the age of the gabbros diabases. The reverse is also seen, as fragments
from the Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolite of a fine-grained mafic rock are found within

Felsic porphyries from the Kittil area
0.38 Latvajrvi Formation
Samples A513, A745
Intercepts at
2020 1880 8 Ma & 123 240 Ma
MSWD = 2.2, n = 5
0.36 1980
Kittil Group porphyries
Samples A280, A581, A887,
1940 A893
Intercepts at
Pb/238U
1900 2015 2 Ma & 339 50 Ma

0.34 MSWD = 0.42, n = 13
1860
206
Nysskoski dike
1820 Sample A246
Intercepts at
1919 8 Ma & 148 350 Ma
0.32 MSWD = 2.7, n = 5
0.30
4.8 5.2 5.6 6.0 6.4
207
Pb/235U
Fig. 4.15. Concordia diagram showing isotope data on zircons from felsic porphyries from the Kittil
area (for analytical data, see Rastas et al., 2001).
felsic porphyries. These field relationships low (La/Yb)N indicative of low-pressure melt
have been interpreted to demonstrate that equilibration. On trace element discrimination
the felsic porphyries and associated mafic diagrams designed for felsic rocks (Pearce
volcanics are products of contemporaneous et al., 1984; Gorton and Schandl, 2000), the
basaltic and silicic magmas (Lehtonen et al., porphyries plot in the ocean ridge or within
1998). The felsic rocks can therefore be uti- plate fields.
lized to determine the age for the mafic rocks We have determined the whole-rock Nd
of the Kittil Group. The porphyries dated by isotope composition of the same porphyry
Rastas et al. (2001) at four localities (Veika- samples that were utilized for zircon dating
senmaa, Kapsajoki, Kiimarova, and Yrjrvi) by Rastas et al. (2001). Given the highly
have mutually consistent U-Pb zircon ages evolved nature of these silica-rich rocks, it is
between 2012 5 Ma to 2018 7 Ma and interesting that all samples yielded positive
yield a combined age of 2015 2 Ma (Figure initial Nd values of +3.8 (Table 4.1); these
4.15). Within error, these ages overlap with are indistinguishable from the values obtained
the Sm-Nd isochron age of the Vesmajrvi for the most depleted tholeiitic mafic metavol-
Formation mafic metavolcanic rocks reported canic rocks of the Kittil Group (Figure 4.7).
in this study. This suggests that no sialic crust was involved
Geochemically, the felsic porphyries range in the generation of these felsic porphyries
from low-K dacites to high-silica rhyolites or that the crustal residence time of the sialic
with high contents of REE, Th, Ta, and Zr. crust was very short. Therefore, the Archean
In the most evolved rocks, light REE and basement was not the source of the porphy-
heavy REE reach levels up to 400 and 100 ries and probably did not even exist beneath
times chondritic, respectively, with relatively the porphyries and associated mafic rocks at

A B
200 500
200
Sample/Primitive Mantle
100
10
10
1
0.7 1
Rb Th Nb K Ce Sr Nd Zr Eu Gd Dy Er Lu Rb Th Nb K Ce Sr Nd Zr Eu Gd Dy Er Lu
Ba U Ta La Pr P Sm Hf Ti Tb Y Yb Ba U Ta La Pr P Sm Hf Ti Tb Y Yb
Ruoppapalo granodiorite Latvajrvi Formation trachyte
Nysskoski felsic dike Clast from Lainio Group conglomerate
Pebble from Kumpu Group conglomerate
Fig. 4.16. Primitive mantle-normalized trace element diagrams for felsic rocks from the Kittil area.
(A) ~1920 Ma felsic porphyries and Ruoppapalo granodiorite. (B) ~1880 Ma Latvajrvi Formation
trachyte and a porphyry clast from Lainio Group conglomerate.
the time of their generation. The two most they are less radiogenic as their initial Nd val-
likely mechanisms to produce silicic igneous ues are around zero (Table 4.1). Rastas et al.
rocks with juvenile isotope compositions are (2001) published a U-Pb zircon age of 1919
extensive fractional crystallization of basaltic 8 Ma for a felsic dike at Nysskoski (see
magma or dehydration and partial melting of Figure 4.15). Geochemical studies have shown
mafic, amphibolitic oceanic crust. that the Ruoppapalo granodiorite close to the
We have identified another felsic mag- northeastern margin of the Kittil greenstone
matic pulse of dikes and plutons cutting area (see Figure 4.3) is very similar to these
metavolcanic rocks of the Kittil Group. These dikes (Figure 4.16A). This granodiorite has a
are ~100 Ma younger than the dikes described U-Pb zircon age of 1914 3 Ma, matching
above and have turned out to be significant well the age of the Nysskoski dike (Rastas et
in providing age constraints to the (tectonic) al., 2001). The initial Nd values for these rocks
emplacement of the Kittil Group and deposi- are also similar (1.5, 0.9; Figure 4.7).
tion of the overlying Kumpu Group rocks (see
below). The dikes are up to 10 m thick and 3.8. Lainio and Kumpu Groups
contain plagioclase, quartz, amphibole, and
biotite phenocrysts; hence they differ from Metasediments
the ~2015 Ma felsic porphyries, which con- A major stratigraphic break already recog-
tain only felsic phenocrysts. Compositionally nized by Hackman (1927) is found in the
these younger dikes are more restricted than supracrustal sequence of the Central Lapland
the ~2015 Ma porphyries, plotting mostly in greenstone belt between the coarse-clastic,
the fields of dacite and rhyodacite. Isotopically molasse-like metasediments of the Lainio

and Kumpu Groups and the underlying older conspicuous clasts are red jasper fragments
formations. The Lainio Group is located in apparently derived from the Kittil Group.
restricted areas in the western part of the Pebbles of older conglomerates have also been
greenstone belt, where it forms fells such as found. At Mantovaara, undeformed quartzite
Ylls and Aakenustunturi on the western side with a well-preserved clastic texture is found
of the Kittil granite (Figure 4.3A), raising as a common clast type, thus differing from
from the relatively flat landscape in the area of the older, schistose quartzites of the Sodankyl
the older formations. The Kumpu Group rocks Group.
also form high hills or fells, including Levi, The sedimentological features of the Lai-
Mantovaara and Kumputunturi in the Kittil nio and Kumpu Group rocks suggest that the
region, Kaarestunturi in the Sodankyl region, deposition took place in a fluvial environment.
and Pyhtunturi in Pelkosenniemi (Figures The rock successions have been related to
4.2, 4.3A) (Rsnen et al., 1995). alluvial fans and braided river deposits (Korte-
Lehtonen et al. (1998) distinguished the lainen, 1983; Rsnen and Mkel, 1988;
Lainio and Kumpu Groups on the basis of Nikula, 1988).
their deformation histories: in contrast to the
Lainio Group, the Kumpu Group does not Metavolcanic rocks
display effects of the earliest deformation Intermediate to felsic metavolcanic rocks,
phases of the Svecofennian orogeny. This ~20 km west of Kittil (Figure 4.3), have been
observation allowed Lehtonen et al. (1998) assigned to the Latvajrvi and Tuulijoki For-
to place the Kumpu Group higher in their mations in the lower part of the Lainio Group
lithostratigraphic scheme. However, it has (Lehtonen et al., 1998). They have been dated
now become evident that the deposition of at 1880 8 Ma by Rastas et al. (2001) using
both units took place at a post-1880 Ma stage the zircon U-Pb method (see Figure 4.15). The
of the development of the greenstone belt (see metavolcanic rocks of the Latvajrvi Forma-
below) and therefore they are treated together tion are mainly K-rich trachytes, wheras the
in this work. Tuulijoki Formation comprises trachyande-
The Lainio and Kumpu Groups form sites. Representative trace element patterns for
2002000 m thick sedimentary units, which felsic porphyries from the Latvajrvi Forma-
comprise meta-arkoses, quartzites, polymictic tion are shown in Figure 4.16B. As shown by
conglomerates with graywacke interbeds, and the Th vs. Yb plot of Figure 4.17, the 1880 Ma
siltstones with desiccation cracks. The Kumpu metalavas of the Lainio Group clearly differ
Group metasediments commonly display a from the two older types of felsic porphyries
characteristic red-brown or purple tint due to within the Kittil Group. The Nd (at 1880 Ma)
hematite pigment. The clasts in the Lainio and value of 3.5 obtained for a Latvajrvi sample
Kumpu Group conglomerates are dominated is also distinct from the initial Nd isotope
by rock types found in the underlying forma- composition of the older porphyries (Figure
tions. They include mafic metavolcanic rocks, 4.7). On the other hand, it is equal to the
tuffites, different kinds of schists (sericite value obtained for a coeval Haaparanta suite
schist, graywacke, phyllite), quartzite, arkose monzonite (sample A746b, Table 4.1, Figure
quartzite, vein quartz, chert, iron ore, albitite, 4.7) and suggests substantial involvement of
rare carbonate rock as well as magmatic rocks Archean crustal material.
such as metagabbro, diabase, granitoids, and
felsic porphyries (see Figure 4.4H) (Hack-
man, 1927; Mkel, 1968; Kortelainen, 1983;
Rsnen and Mkel, 1988). Among the most

20 Pebbles in
2015 Ma felsic porphyries conglomerates
Aakenustunturi
Hanhioja
Mantovaara
Yb
(ppm) 10
Linkupalo
1920 Ma felsic 1880 Ma Latvajrvi Fm.

porphyries metavolcanic rocks
0
0 10 20 30 40
Th (ppm)
Fig. 4.17. Yb vs. Th plot for three age groups of felsic metavolcanic and dike rocks from the Kittil
region. Symbols with black rims mark porphyry pebbles from the Lainio and Kumpu Group conglom-
erates (for location, see Figure 4.3).
Isotope studies of conglomerate clasts the latter show the diagnostic radiogenic Nd
and detrital minerals isotope composition among felsic rocks in
Useful time constraints on the deposition of northern Finland, we analyzed one porphyry
the Lainio and Kumpu Group metasediments clast from the Linkupalo conglomerate for Nd
are provided by rock pebbles in conglomerates isotopes. The initial Nd (at 2015 Ma) value of
and detrital zircons in quartzites. The bulk zir- +3.4 is in good agreement with the Nd isotope
con data indicate a substantial contribution of data from the Kittil Group porphyries and
post-Archean material in the source region of thus confirms the genetic link (Table 4.1).
the Lainio and Kumpu Group metasediments This result establishes the maximum time of
(Hanski et al., 2001b). Rastas et al. (2001) deposition of the Linkupalo conglomerate at
reported field observations and isotope data ~2015 Ma.
demonstrating that a Kumpu Group conglom- Quartz-feldspar porphyry fragments with
erate at Stknvaara (Figure 4.3A) contains a still younger age are found in the Mantovaara
diabase clasts derived from ~2050 Ma diabase conglomerate (Figure 4.3A), which overlies
dikes that cut the underlying metasediments Kittil Group metavolcanic rocks and belongs
of the Savukoski Group. to the Kumpu Group. Zircons separated from
A Lainio Group conglomerate at Linku- one 20-cm-diameter porphyry pebble yielded
palo (Figure 4.3A) contains felsic porphyry an age of 1928 6 Ma (Rastas et al., 2001).
clasts that are geochemically indistinguish- This age is similar to that obtained for the
able from the ~2015 Ma felsic porphyries of Nysskoski felsic dike (Figure 4.15) and the
the Kittil Group (Figures 4.16 and 4.17). As Ruoppapalo granodiorite crosscutting Kittil

Group metavolcanic rocks. Comparison of the age of the felsic to intermediate plutons of the
major and trace element data also reveals the Haaparanta suite in western Finnish Lapland.
similarity of the Nysskoski dike, Mantovaara The above-listed field, petrological, and iso-
porphyry pebble, and Ruoppapalo granodio- tope observations provide strong evidence for
rite (Figure 4.16A). The initial Nd value of a post-1880 Ma deposition of the sediments
+1.3 obtained for the pebble is somewhat of the Lainio and Kumpu Groups.
higher that that of the Nysskoski dike (0.9)
but clearly differs from the more radiogenic
Nd isotope composition of the older porphyry 4. Mafic plutonism
group (Table 4.1, Figure 4.7). The porphyry
clasts in the Mantovaara conglomerate were 4.1. ~2440 Ma intrusions in Lapland
thus most likely derived from the felsic dikes
that intruded the underlying Kittil Group Layered mafic intrusions with an age of ~2440
metalavas. This means that the sedimentation Ma are abundant in the eastern part of the Fen-
of the Kumpu Group took place later than noscandian Shield both in Finland and Russia
~1920 Ma. and are related to the early Paleoproterozoic
We have also studied felsic igneous clasts rifting of the Archean craton (Alapieti et al.,
in some other conglomerates belonging to the 1990; Chapter 3). Two of them, Akanvaara and
Lainio Group. Geochemical and petrographic Koitelainen, are located within the Central
data on several felsic porphyry pebbles (Aake- Lapland greenstone belt (Figure 4.18). U-Pb
nustunturi, Vesikkovaara, Hangasoja; Figure zircon ages of 2439 3 Ma (Koitelainen)
4.3A) show their affinity to the trachytic and 2436 6 Ma (Akanvaara) suggest that
metavolcanic rocks of the ~1880 Ma Latva- these two intrusions are coeval (Mutanen and
jrvi Formation (Figures 4.16 and 4.17). One Huhma, 2001). We focus on these two intru-
of the clasts from Hangasoja was analysed for sions, while the other economically important
Nd isotopes. As expected, the Nd (at 1880 Ma) intrusions in the TornioNrnkvaara belt
value of 3.6 is identical to those obtained farther south (Figure 4.1) are described in
for the Latvajrvi Formation trachytes (Table Chapter 3 of this volume.
4.1, Figure 4.7). The genetic link between
the porphyry clasts and Latvajrvi Formation Akanvaara intrusion
metavolcanic rocks is further corroborated by The Koitelainen and Akanvaara layered intru-
the U-Pb zircon date of 1873 11 Ma obtained sions contain significant chromitite reserves
by Rastas et al. (2001) for a porphyry clast and have been targets for exploration and pet-
from the Vesikkovaara conglomerate. These rological studies for several decades. Detailed
authors also reported a U-Pb zircon age of descriptions of these intrusions were given by
1888 22 Ma for a granite pebble from a con- Mutanen (1997). The Akanvaara intrusion is
glomerate at Kellostapuli (Figure 4.3A). This situated in the eastern part of the Central Lap-
date fits well with the ages of the Haaparanta land greenstone belt at the junction of the Salla
suite plutons (Vnnen and Lehtonen, 2001; greenstone area and the Sodankyl schist area
Hiltunen, 1982; Skild and hlander, 1989) (Figures 4.2 and 4.18). It forms a 15-km-long,
and thus suggests a source component in this curved, roughly N-trending monocline with
igneous suite. a dip of 25 to 40 and a total stratigraphic
Recent ion microprobe U-Pb zircon studies thickness of ~3.1 km. Country rocks are felsic
show that both the Lainio and Kumpu Groups to intermediate metavolcanic rocks of the Salla
include a ~1880 Ma detrital zircon population Group (Figure 4.2).
(Hanski et al., 2000). This matches well the Figure 4.19 portrays a stratigraphic col-

Paleoproterozoic
intrusive rocks
Koitelainen 2050 Ma layered
intrusions
Keivitsa-Satovaara 2220 Ma layered
intrusions
Haaskalehto 2440 Ma layered
intrusions
Sodankyl Paleoproterozoic
supracrustal rocks
Savukoski
Archean rocks
Akanvaara
40 km
Fig. 4.18. Map showing locations of ~2440 Ma (red), ~2220 Ma (yellow), and ~2050 Ma (blue) layered
maficultramafic intrusions in central Lapland.
umn of the Akanvaara intrusion and a detailed the terminology of Mutanen, 1997) which is
drill core section (R322) from the bottom part followed by a 25-m-thick peridotite unit and a
of the column. Briefly, the Akanvaara intrusion thicker sequence of noritic gabbro cumulates
comprises three units: a basal, 65-m-thick, with minor anorthositic interlayers. The Upper
fine-grained gabbro, layered sequence, and Zone also commences with a chromitite (the
>260-m-thick granophyre on top. The layered Upper Chromitite), which is the most regular
sequence was divided by Mutanen (1997) into and tectonically undisturbed of the chromitites
three major units: the Lower, Main, and Upper and can be followed more than 8 km along
Zones with respective approximate thicknesses strike. A 12-m-thick mottled anorthosite is
of 640 m, 570 m, and 1900 m. The Lower Zone found above the chromitite, and serves as a
is composed mainly of bronzite cumulates persistent marker horizon. This is overlain
and overlying noritic gabbros. The intrusion by noritic gabbros, which occupy almost one
contains at least 23 separate chromitite layers half of the Upper Zone, and is capped by an
with most of them (the Lower Chromitites) anorthositic unit. The appearance of magne-
hosted by the bronzite cumulates of the Lower tite as a cumulus phase marks the base of the
Zone as illustrated in Figure 4.19. The lowest magnetite gabbro. The uppermost part of the
of them is located close to the bottom of the intrusion beneath the granophyres comprises
layered sequence. ferrogabbro, apatite-ferrogabbro, and apatite-
The Main Zone begins with a chromitite ferrodiorite.
(the Uppermost Lower Chromite according to The chromitite layers of the Akanvaara

Akanvaara intrusion
Drill core R322
Granophyre 100
Noritic gabbro
Diorite Pyroxenite
Ferrogabbro Olivine
pyroxenite
160 Chromitite
Os +2.7
800
m Pyroxenite
Depth in meters
Magnetic gabbro
UZ Pegmatoid
400 220 Plagioclase-
bearing pyrox-
enite
0 Chromitite
Noritic gabbro
280
Os +3.2 Os +4.1
Upper Chromitite
Orthopyroxenite
MZ Anorthosite 340
Gabbro
Os +6.1 Os +3.3 Chromitite
Peridotite/Pyroxenite
Uppermost Lower Chromitite ...... .. ... Chromitite
400
LZ ...... .. ... Microgabbro
Orthopyroxenite +
Lower Chromitites Gabbro
Marginal Gabbro
460 Acid volcanic
rock
Fig. 4.19. Stratigraphy of the Akanvaara intrusion (modified after Mutanen, 1997) and a cross-section
of the bottom part of the intrusion as revealed by drill core R322. Also shown are initial Os values
for chromitites as determined by Hanski et al. (2001c). LZLower Zone, MZMain Zone, UZUpper
Zone.
intrusion are not restricted to the ultramafic Koitelainen intrusion

part of the cumulate sequence, but the two The Koitelainen mafic layered intrusion (Fig-
uppermost chromitites are located in the ure 4.18) is rounded, approximately 25 km by
broadly gabbroic middle part. The chromitites 30 km in size and has a maximum stratigraphic
range in thickness from a few cm up to 3 m thickness of ~3.2 km. As in Akanvaara, the
and their Cr2O3 contents are between 6 wt.% hanging wall comprises metavolcanic rocks of
and 32 wt.% (see Figure 6 in Mutanen, 1997). the Salla Group. The foot wall rocks, exposed
The most peculiar feature of the chromites in in the anticlinal area in the middle of the intru-
the Akanvaara intrusion (and the Koitelainen sion, contain ~31002800 Ma Archean gneis-
intrusion as well) is their low MgO content ses (Tojottamanselk and Kiviaapa domes)
(normally between 0.1 wt.% to 1.1 wt.%) and and metavolcanic rocks of the Salla Group
consequently extremely low Mg/(Mg+Fe2+). (Figures 4.2 and 4.18). It thus appears that
the Koitelainen intrusion was injected into the
contact zone of the Archean basement com-

A B
Fig. 4.20. (A) Photomicrograph showing basal contact of the upper part of the Upper Chromitite
against a gabbro interlayer, Koitelainen intrusion. Parallel nicols, the bar is 2 mm long. (B) Layering
in mottled anorthosite a few meters above the Upper Chromitite, Koitelainen intrusion. Match box
length 5 cm. Photos: Erkki Halme (A) and Tapani Mutanen (B).
plex and its Paleoproterozoic volcanic cover. intrusion comprises anorthosites, gabbros, and
The layered sequence of the Koitelainen vanadiferous magnetite gabbros. The intrusion
intrusion resembles that of the Akanvaara in- is capped with 400 m of granophyre.
trusion with the exception of the presence of
a spatially restricted basal series, grading up- Parental magma
wards from dunites through clinopyroxenites According to Mutanen (1997), the weighted
to monzodioritic rocks, in the northwestern average composition of the Akanvaara in-
corner of the intrusion (Hanski et al., 2001c). trusion is 52% SiO2, 68% MgO and 0.7%
The chromitite-bearing orthopyroxenites TiO2, thus corresponding to a low-Ti basalt.
above this series can be regarded as the coun- Fine-grained gabbros at the bottom of the
terparts of the lowest ultramafic cumulates in Akanvaara intrusion also indicate that the
the Akanvaara intrusion and were probably first melt that entered the magma chamber
generated by a new injection of magma. Chro- was not very primitive. The maximum Mg# of
mitite layers 0.2 m to 3 m thick, which are 0.838 measured for orthopyroxene in orthopy-
sandwiched within these orthopyroxenites, roxenites and 0.843 for olivine in the lowest
form the Lower Chromitites. The orthopyrox- dunitic part of the Koitelainen intrusion also
enites are overlain by a thick, monotonous, imply this. Compared with other, chromitite-
mainly noritic gabbro sequence enclosing two bearing layered intrusions, such as the Bush-
thin ultramafic interlayers in its lower part. The veld and Stillwater complexes and the Great
lower one contains a 5-cm-thick chromitite Dyke, the parental magmas of the Akanvaara
layer corresponding to the Upperwort Lower and Koitelainen intrusions were clearly more
Chromitite of the Akanvaara intrusion. Above evolved. Trace element analyses of various
the gabbroic unit is the Upper Chromitite cumulates from the Koitelainen intrusion show
(Figure 4.20A). It is 2.2 m thick, is regularly that the magma had high LREE/HREE and
associated with mottled anorthosite (Figure low contents of HFSE compared with other
4.20B) and can be followed over a strike length incompatible elements, most probably result-
of more than 60 km. The uppermost part of the ing from assimilation of continental crust. In

this respect, the magma resembled continental This hypothesis is bolstered by the Nd-Os
low-Ti flood basalts (Hanski et al., 2001c). isotope systematics of the contemporaneous,
crustally contaminated komatiitic basalts in
Isotope geology the Onkamo Group (Table 4.1) and the Vetreny
Similar to most of the early Paleoproterozoic belt, Russian Karelia (Puchtel et al., 2001).
layered intrusions of the Fennoscandian Shield
(e.g., Amelin and Semenov, 1996), the Akan- 4.2. ~2220 Ma differentiated sills
vaara and Koitelainen intrusions are charac-
terized by low initial Nd values of around 2.0 Mafic differentiated sills intruded into quartz-
and thus bear a clear crustal signature in their ites are abundant in the Sodankyl Group,
Nd isotope composition (Hanski et al., 2001c). particularly in the area between Sodankyl
Furthermore, the initial Nd isotope composi- and Kittil (Figures 4.2 and 4.18). Similar
tion is approximately constant throughout the intrusions are also found within the Jatulian
layered sequence in both intrusions. quartzites and their immediate Archean base-
Mutanen (1997) attributed the genesis of ment in eastern Finland and the Perpohja belt
the chromitite layers to extensive postempla- (Hanski, 1987; Perttunen, 1991; Salmi, 1986;
cement interaction of the magma with country Vuollo and Piirainen, 1992). In the older litera-
rocks including Cr-bearing sedimentary rocks. ture, these rocks were called albite diabases
To test this hypothesis, Hanski et al. (2001c) (e.g., Piispanen, 1972). However, as they
performed an Os isotope study on chromitite generally do not form dikes but rather gravity
samples representing different stratigraphic differentiated, concordant sills, have cumulate
positions. The initial Os values are shown textures, and contain secondary rather than
in Figure 4.19 for the Akanvaara intrusion. primary albite, Hanski (1986, 1987) referred
These are only slightly suprachondritic and to these sills as the gabbrowehrlite associa-
no systematic differences are found relative tion. Later these rocks have also been called
to the stratigraphic position of the samples. karjalites (Vuollo and Piirainen, 1992). Hanski
The same is true for the Koitelainen intru- (1986) pointed out that the presence of these
sion (Hanski et al., 2001c). On the basis of sills within quartzites over large areas is not
the combined Nd and Os isotope systematics, merely coincidental but has implications for
Hanski et al. (2001c) suggested that extensive the correlation of Jatulian-type quartzites in
crustal contamination took place deep in the eastern and northern Finland. At numerous
crust and that in situ contamination after localities the sills have yielded ages of ~2220
the final emplacement of the magma was Ma, but this magmatic event has rarely been
relatively insignificant. The fact that the Os dated elsewhere in the Fennoscandian Shield
isotope compositions remained almost im- (Hanski et al., 2001b; Chapter 5).
mune to crustal contamination, while the Nd The type occurrence of the gabbrowehr-
isotope compositions were strongly affected, lite association in central Lapland is the
led Hanski et al. (2001c) to conclude that Haaskalehto intrusion for which Tyrvinen
the primary magma of the layered intrusions (1983) reported a U-Pb zircon age of 2220
was a high-Os, low-Nd magma, potentially a 11 Ma. This intrusion is part of a string of
komatiite or komatiitic basalt. This magma intrusive bodies that can be delineated within
evolved through ACF processes in a deep- the Sodankyl Group metasediments close to
crustal magma chamber to a contaminated, the southern margin of the Central Lapland
low-Ti basaltic composition, and it was then greenstone belt (Figure 4.18).
emplaced into upper crustal Archean gneisses Individual sills of the gabbrowehrlite
and overlying, broadly coeval volcanic rocks. association may reach several hundred meters

in thickness and they can often be traced for terparts have been identified. Also, genetically
several kilometers along strike. The maximum related dikes in the basement outside the im-
length (>100 km) is attained by a sill in the mediate contact zones with the schist belts are
Perpohja belt. The layered sequence in the rare. The tectonic circumstances during their
sills usually comprises the following cumu- generation thus seem to have favored em-
lus assemblages from the bottom upwards: placement as laterally extensive, concordant
olivine-clinopyroxene, clinopyroxene, clino- sill-like bodies rather than dikes, probably at
pyroxene-magnetite, and plagioclase-clino- the time when the hosting sedimentary rocks
pyroxene-magnetite. The ultramafic cumulates were still unconsolidated.
characteristically contain brown, poikilitic am- In contrast to the ~2440 Ma plutonism, the
phibole. Its composition normally corresponds ~2200 Ma intrusions seem to have produced
to edenitic hornblende, sometimes kaersutite. no significant mineral deposits in north-
Hydrous phases are also represented by pri- ern Finland. A small Cu-Au deposit in the
mary mica varying from titanian phlogopite Perpohja belt is the only one that has so far
to Ti-bearing biotite. Orthopyroxene may be been exploited (Rouhunkoski and Isokangas,
present in the olivine-clinopyroxene cumulates 1974).
but its abundance is always low. Olivine has
a maximum forsterite content of ~82%. It 4.3. ~2050 Ma intrusions
ceased to crystallize when its Fo content was
diminished to 70%. Plagioclase in gabbroic Mafic intrusions with an age of ~2050 Ma
cumulates is commonly altered to secondary exist in many places in northern Finland,
albite, but some intrusions, like the Haas- particularly within the Savukoski Group
kalehto sill, contain more calcic plagioclase (Rastas et al., 2001). These are typically
(up to An47; Hanski, 1987). conformable or semiconformable dike-like
Chilled margin analyses and petrological intrusions a few tens of meters in thickness.
features of the cumulates show that the paren- The KeivitsaSatovaara complex is the only
tal magma of the gabbrowehrlite association representative of a sizeable, strongly differ-
was a hydrous, low-Al magnesian basalt. The entiated maficultramafic body of this age
late appearance of plagioclase as a cumulus group. An olivine pyroxenite gave a nearly
phase allowed relatively thick ultramafic concordant U-Pb zircon age of 2058 4 Ma,
zones to be developed in the bottom part of which is regarded as the crystallization age
the intrusions. The parental magma was char- of the complex (Mutanen and Huhma, 2001).
acterized by low Al2O3/TiO2 (56). It was also The KeivitsaSatovaara complex has recently
enriched in incompatible elements and had been described by Mutanen (1997). It com-
LREE-enriched chondrite-normalized REE prises two separate intrusions (Keivitsa and
patterns with (La/Yb)N of ~ 45. The initial Nd Satovaara), which probably originally formed
isotope composition of this magmatic phase a single intrusive body that was later split by
is near chondritic (Huhma et al., 1990, 1996; faulting. The complex is located just south of
Figure 4.7). the Koitelainen layered intrusion (see Figure
The ~2200 Ma magmatic stage appears to 4.18) and intruded phyllites and black schists
have been short-lived, probably involving only of the Savukoski Group. The Keivitsa intru-
a relatively small number of sills. They intrud- sion, hosting a significant Cu-Ni-PGE sulfide
ed over a large area at least 300 km in width deposit, has been studied in more detail.
and 600 km in length and were later disrupted
into discrete blocks by tectonic movements. Keivitsa intrusion
So far no genetically related volcanic coun- The Keivitsa intrusion is funnel-shaped, and

Keivitsansarvi
2 km
S
Keivitsa intrusion Country rocks
Granophyre Serpentinite
Gabbro Differentiated mafic sill
Olivine pyroxenite Black schist
False ore Mica schist
Disseminated Cu-Ni sulfide deposit Mafic to ultramafic metavolcanic rock
Arkose quartzite
Fault
Fig. 4.21. Geological map of the Keivitsa intrusion (simplified after Mutanen and Huhma, 2001).
has a surface area of ~17 km2 and estimated thick marginal chill zone at the lower contact
maximum thickness of more than 2.5 km of the intrusion consists of microgabbros,
(Figure 4.21). The intrusion is divided into quartz gabbros, and quartz-rich pyroxenites.
the marginal chill zone, ultramafic zone, The lower part of the layered succession is
gabbroic zone, and granophyre. The 08 m occupied by ultramafic rocks, mainly olivine

websterites and olivine clinopyroxenites with Ni(100S) higher than 25, and is characterized
primary intercumulus brown amphibole and by high PGE contents. Olivine in this ore
biotite-phlogopite. The overlying gabbro zone type has a higher Fo content (85.087.5%)
comprises pyroxene gabbros, ferrogabbros than normally encountered in the intrusion,
with pigeonite and fayalite, graphite-bearing but even more astonishing is its high NiO
gabbros, and V-rich magnetite gabbros. The content up to 1.7 wt.%. The false ore with a
latter grade into granophyres on top of the in- low Ni(100S) of 14% is practically devoid
trusion. A large, more than 1-km-long serpen- of all precious components and has also low
tinite-dunite body is found within the gabbroic NiO and Mg/Fe in primary mafic silicates (Fo
part of the Keivitsa intrusion (Figure 4.21) and in olivine down to 76%).
is thought to be a huge xenolith genetically Sulfur isotope analyses have yielded heavi-
unrelated to its host (Mutanen, 1997). Also er than chondritic 34S values: regular ore +2.0
centimeter-scale graphitic schist inclusions to +4.6, false ore +5.5 to +12.4, Ni-PGE
are common in the intrusion. The geochemical ore +3.7 to +8.8. The country rock sulfides
characteristics of the marginal zone, multiple possess still higher 34S values in excess of
saturation of the magma in olivine and py- +10 (Hanski et al., 1996). These results
roxene from the onset of crystallization, and suggest incorporation of substantial amounts
the relatively low forsterite content (<85%) of of crustal sulfur into the magma. Crustal
olivine attest to a basaltic rather than picritic contamination is also evident in the radio-
or komatiitic parental magma. genic isotopes. Huhma et al. (1995) reported
In its upper part, the ultramafic zone con- a Sm-Nd isochron age of 2052 25 Ma and an
tains a low-grade Cu-Ni-PGE sulfide deposit, initial Nd value of 3.5 0.3 for the gabbros
known as the Keivitsansarvi deposit, attaining and ultramafic rocks related to the regular ore
several hundred meters in extent (Figure 4.21). type (Figure 4.7). Paradoxically, the highest
As reported by Mutanen (1997) and Hanski REE concentrations and lowest initial Nd
et al. (1997), this deposit has peculiar miner- values (6.3 and 6.6) have been obtained
alogical, chemical, and isotopic features. The for samples of the Ni-PGE ore, which forms
ore is formed by disseminated sulfides with the the most primitive ore type in terms of its
whole-rock sulfur abundances rarely exceed- metal content and primary silicate mineral-
ing 3 wt.%. Despite the low-grade nature of ogy. The regular and Ni-PGE ore types have
the deposit, the chemical variation between similar radiogenic Os isotope compositions
different parts of the ore body is substantial with initial Os values around +20, while the
and the spatial relationships of the different initial Os values of the false ores are still more
ore types are rather complex. radiogenic (Os > +100) (Hanski et al., 1997).
Three end-member compositions and Although there are several lines of evidence
several subtypes and transitional varieties can pointing to a substantial crustal contamination,
be recognized. Mutanen (1997) designated the exact mechanism of ore formation that
the end-members as the regular, false, and would account for all the bizarre geochemical
Ni-PGE ore types, using the calculated Ni and petrological features of the Keivitsansarvi
content (wt.%) normalized to 100% sulfide deposit still waits to be formulated.
Ni(100S) as one criterion. The main ore body
is composed mostly of regular ore having
Ni(100S) between 4% and 7%. The evolved 5. Lapland granulite belt
nature of the parental magma is reflected in
a relatively low Ni/Cu ratio of less than 1.0. The Lapland granulite belt transects northern-
The Ni-PGE ore type is very low in Cu, has most Finland as an arcuate, roughly northwest-

trending, 40- to 90-km-wide belt (Figure 4.1). protoliths were sedimentary rocks including
On the Norwegian side of the border it plunges shales, psammitic graywackes, sandstones or
under the Caledonides and on the Russian side carbonate rocks. Other rocks possess chemical
it continues for ~100 km to the east, reaching characteristics of andesites and rhyolites and
~400 km in total length. Together with the were probably volcanic in origin. The char-
Umba and Tersk granulite terranes farther to nockite series consists of metamorphosed plu-
the southeast in the Kola Peninsula, the Lap- tonic rocks ranging from pyroxenites to norites
land granulite belt forms a core zone of the (enderbites). Migmatites are mostly confined
LaplandKola orogen, which developed as a to the middle and upper parts of the granulite
result of collision of two Archean cratons and belt and are considered as partial melting prod-
an intervening juvenile arc complex after the ucts of sillimanite-garnet gneisses and garnet
closure of the LaplandKola ocean (Daly et gneisses (Barbey and Raith, 1990).
al., 2001).
On its southern and western side, the Lap- 5.1. Metamorphic conditions
land granulite belt is bordered by the Tanaelv
(or Tana) belt, a relatively narrow, strongly Peak conditions of granulite facies metamor-
deformed, heterogeneous zone comprising phism have been estimated at ~850 C and
high-grade amphibolites and garnet-biotite 8 kbar (Barbey and Raith, 1990). Postkine-
and quartz-feldspar gneisses (Barbey et al., matic high-grade metamorphism reached
1984). In the south, both the Lapland granulite P-T conditions of ~830 C and 7.2 kbar in
belt and Tanaelv belt were thrust southwards the southwestern tectonostratigraphically
on Archean gneisses (the Belomorian terrane lower part of the belt. There is a decreasing
in Russia), whereas in the west they were temperature and pressure gradient towards the
thrust over Paleoproterozoic supracrustal intensively migmatized northeastern part of
rocks of the KittilKarasjok greenstone com- the belt, where conditions of 760 C and 6.2
plex. The thrust contact between the Lapland kbar have been recorded. Tuisku and Huhma
granulite belt and Tanaelv belt dips gently (1998a) reported ultramafic and mafic rocks at
towards northeast, and the corresponding the southwestern margin of the granulite belt
seismic reflectors extend to mantle depths. On that were metamorphosed under transitional
the other hand, the shear zones between the conditions between amphibolite and eclogite
northeastern margin of the Lapland granulite facies, suggesting pressures up to 12 kbar.
belt and the Archean Inari area gneisses are
subvertical (Korja et al., 1996). According to 5.2. Radiogenic isotopes
Korja et al. (1996), the Lapland granulite belt
can be divided into four parallel, northeast- Geological and U-Pb geochronological stud-
dipping major thrust sheets reaching 15 km ies performed in the early 1970s provided
in thickness. background for understanding the geological
The rock types of the Lapland granulite evolution of the Lapland granulite belt and
belt are grouped into three main series: the adjacent areas (Merilinen, 1976). Archean
khondalite series, charnockite series, and ages were confirmed for the gneisses northeast
migmatites (Barbey and Raith, 1990). The of the granulites (Inari Terrane), whereas U-Pb
dominant khondalite series comprises silli- zircon dating of quartz diorites of the granulite
manite-garnet gneisses, garnet gneisses, and belt and granitoids of the Kuorboaivi schist
subordinate calc-silicate rocks and graphite- zone (northwestern part of the Inari area) sug-
bearing schists. The chemical composition gested crystallization ages of ~ 19001950 Ga.
of these rocks suggests that some of their Important age constraints for metamorphic

evolution were obtained from monazites from thus indicate a relatively short history of the
the garnet-cordierite gneisses in the granulite LaplandKola orogen with the deposition,
belt (~1910 Ma) and titanites in the Inari deformation, metamorphism, and significant
terrane (~1900 Ma). Bernard-Griffiths et al. exhumation having taken place within 100
(1984) published a U-Pb zircon age of 1906 Ma. Dating of anatectic felsic dikes shows
5 Ma for the Vaskojoki anorthosite and a simi- that the major thrusting and peak of granulite
lar age for a pyroxene gneiss from the adjacent facies metamorphism was over by ~1910 Ma
Tanaelv belt, which could represent the timing (Merilinen, 1976; Daly et al., 2001; Kaulina
of the granulite-facies metamorphism. et al., 2001; Kislitsyn et al., 2001; Glebovitsky
The Sm-Nd isotope method has been et al., 2001).
em ployed to evaluate the average crustal
residence ages. Results from the Lapland
granulite belt suggest a major contribution 6. Summary and discussion
from Paleoproterozoic sources (Huhma and
Merilinen, 1991). The depleted mantle model 6.1. Mantle plume(s) and cracking of the
ages (DePaolo, 1981) for orthogneisses range craton
from 2300 Ma to 2000 Ma (Bernard-Griffiths
et al., 1984, recalculated) and for paragneisses The earliest Paleoproterozoic magmatism in
they cluster around 2300 Ma (Huhma and the Fennoscandian Shield is represented by
Merilinen, 1991; Daly et al., 2001). On the the Salla and Onkamo Group metavolcanic
northeastern side of the Lapland granulite belt rocks, the ~2440 Ma mafic layered intrusions
felsic orthogneisses have yielded model ages in northern Finland, and the metavolcanic
of 21002000 Ma (Barling et al., 1997; Hannu rocks of the SumiSariolian formations in
Huhma, unpublished data). This, together Russia. Although the SumiSariolian metavol-
with their calc-alkaline geochemical charac- canic rocks have previously been considered
teristics, suggest the existence of a juvenile, orogenic (Heiskanen et al., 1977) and their
~19501900 Ma arc complex (Barling et al., geochemical signature has been attributed by
1997). The Nd isotope data are compatible some authors to a continental arc environment
with the U-Pb ion probe ages obtained from (Pharaoh et al., 1987), no direct relationship
single zircons from the Lapland granulites to subduction processes seems to exist. In-
(Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1994; Tuisku and stead, these rocks were probably deposited in
Huhma, 1998b). Zircon ages from migmatitic intracratonic basins and their geochemical fea-
paragneisses range from ~3000 Ma to 1900 tures are due to crustal contamination or were
Ma, with about a half of the grains having inherited from the subcontinental lithospheric
protolith ages between 2100 Ma and 1950 mantle. In this respect, they are reminiscent
Ma. About one third of the analyzed zircons of more recent continental flood basalts. Ac-
have ages close to 1900 Ma and the young- cordingly, the magmatic activity of this stage
est metamorphic grains and overgrowths are is related to an incipient mantle plume in the
~1880 Ma. This is close to the Sm-Nd age of initial stages of continental rifting (Amelin et
garnetwhole-rock pairs (Tuisku and Huhma, al., 1995; Puchtel et al., 2001; Hanski et al.,
1999; Daly et al., 2001). 2001c). Indeed, the Salla and Onkamo Groups
Isotope studies on the LaplandKola and the SumiSariolian formations possess
orogen farther east have yielded results com- many characteristics of rock successions as-
parable to those quoted above (Bibikova et sociated with mantle plumes (cf. White and
al., 1993; Daly et al., 2001, and references McKenzie, 1995). Firstly, a huge volume of
therein). The obtained geochronologic data magma was emplaced within a short period

of time. Although older ages have been re- remnants of the ~2440 Ma intrusions (Pert-
ported for some Russian intrusions (Amelin tunen, 1991). The observed unconformity
et al., 1995), the ages of both intrusive and in the succession suggests a long period of
extrusive rocks tend to converge to a narrow denudation in the Perpohja area before the
spread around 24502430 Ma (e.g., Amelin deposition of the supracrustal rocks of the
et al., 1995; Puchtel et al., 1997; Mutanen Kivalo Group. A similar situation is observed
and Huhma, 2001; Manninen et al., 2001). in the Pechenga area, Kola Peninsula, where
Secondly, the associated sedimentary rocks the lowest sedimentary rocks lie unconform-
are terrigenous arkoses and polymictic con- ably on the partly eroded Mt. Generalskaya
glomerates (Gaskelberg et al., 1986), probably layered intrusion (Bayanova et al., 1999). In
reflecting a regional domal uplift of the crust the Central Lapland greenstone belt, such a
due to arrival of a mantle plume. Theoreti- major unconformity has not yet been recog-
cal calculations have shown that significant nized between the Sodankyl Group and the
plume-induced surface uplift may commence preceding plutonic rocks of the ~2440 Ma
1020 Ma prior to the onset of volcanism and magmatism.
reach 12 km (White and McKenzie, 1989;
Campbell and Griffiths, 1990). Thirdly, the 6.3. Primitive volcanism and deepening
volcanic rocks are found mainly as subaeri- basins
ally erupted lavas and display geochemical
and isotopic features similar to those found in Compared with Archean komatiites, the koma-
rocks of more recent continental flood basalt tiitic and picritic metavolcanic rocks of the Sa-
provinces. vukoski Group have a different environment as
they are associated with graphite- and sulfide-
6.2. Cratonic sedimentation and bearing pelites. A similar transgressive evolu-
volcanism tion leading to deposition of pelitic, graphite-
rich sediments accompanied by primitive,
The short-lived, violent, volcanism-dominated subaqueous volcanic rocks has been docu-
overture was followed by a long depositional mented at least in two other Paleoproterozoic
period producing mature continental sedi- successions in the Fennoscandian Shield, viz.,
ments and lesser amounts of intermittent mafic the Pilgujrvi Group of the Pechenga area in
volcanic rocks, all deposited on an ensialic the Kola Peninsula and the Suisaarian rocks of
Archean substrate. These Sodankyl Group the Onega region in Russian Karelia (Hanski,
rocks grade transgressively to deeper-water 1992; Puchtel et al., 1995). Despite analogous
pelitic and euxinic sediments of the Savukoski geological positions, available isotope data
Group. The Sodankyl Group contains dolo- suggest that the Pechenga ferropicrites and
mitic interbeds with stromatolitic structures Onega picritic basalts are more than 50 Ma
and elevated carbon isotope compositions younger than the ~2050 Ma komatiites and
and hosts concordant differentiated sills of picrites in central Lapland (Hanski et al., 1990;
the ~2200 Ma gabbrowehrlite association, Puchtel et al., 1998).
which all are features traditionally regarded To explain the genesis of komatiites, the
as typical of the Jatulian formations. In the currently most favored model invokes decom-
Perpohja belt, the temporal and lithologic pressional melting of a hot, adiabatically
counterpart of the Sodankyl Group is the ascending deep-seated mantle plume (e.g.,
Kivalo Group (Perttunen et al., 1995). The Campbell et al., 1989). This is also an appeal-
lowest sedimentary rocks of this group were ing concept for the Central Lapland komati-
deposited on tilted, uplifted, and partly eroded itepicrite association, particularly in the light

of the geochemical similarities between the pic- dike generations and volcanic or intrusive
ritic rocks in the Central Lapland greenstone rocks within the supracrustal belts have not
belt and the plume-related picrites in Hawaii yet been established.
(Hanski et al., 2001a). A plume model has also Several authors have proposed that the
been proposed for the genesis of the Pechenga Archean cratons of North America were as-
ferropicrites and Onega basalts (Hanski, 1992; sembled together with the Archean blocks of
Walker et al., 1997; Puchtel et al., 1998). A the Fennoscandian and Siberian Shields in
single incipient mantle plume is, however, the late Neoarchean (Roscoe and Card, 1993;
not easy to reconcile with the measured age Heaman 1997, 1998; Aspler and Chiarenzelli,
difference between the Lapland rocks and the 1998; Condie, 1998). However, paleomagnetic
other occurrences. This is because volcanic evidence for this is still somewhat ambiguous
rocks of many flood basalt provinces, thought (Buchan et al., 2000). If the hypothesis is true,
to be linked to a plume head, were extruded in the supercontinent (Kenorland of Williams
a very short time interval of only a few mil- et al., 1991) experienced more than the five
lion years (e.g., White and McKenzie, 1995). episodes of Paleoproterozoic dike injections
As discussed in more detail by Hanski et al. listed by Vuollo et al. (1995, 2000). Dike
(2001a), another difficulty in central Lapland, generations with ages of 2230 Ma, 2220 Ma,
and also in the Pechenga and Onega areas, is 2210 Ma, 2040 Ma, and 2020 Ma have been
that the associated sedimentary rocks provide documented from the Canadian Shield (Corfu
no evidence for a preceding stage of strong and Andrews, 1986; Pehrsson et al., 1993;
regional surface uplift, which is generally LeCheminant and van Breemen, 1994) with
assumed to be associated with the impinge- the first three ages approaching the age of the
ment of an upwelling mantle plume upon the intrusions of the gabbrowehrlite association
base of the rigid lithosphere (e.g., White and in the Fennoscandian Shield.
McKenzie, 1989). One further complication It is generally thought that the super-
is that the Pechenga area is located on the op- continent started fracturing and rifting at
posite side of the LaplandKola suture zone ~2450 Ma (e.g., Heaman, 1997). This was
relative to the Central Lapland and Onega related to the upwelling of a mantle plume,
regions (e.g., Daly et al., 2001), thus causing which resulted in vast outpourings of crust-
uncertainty on the relative positions of these ally contaminated lavas as represented, for
areas at the time of the postulated plume event example, by the Salla and Onkamo Groups,
(Puchtel et al., 1998). and emplacement of mafic layered intrusions
in northern Finland. Subsequently, several
6.4. Breakup of a supercontinent? magmatic episodes ensued over hundreds of
Ma, producing mafic dikes in the Archean
In the Archean basement complex of eastern basement and various kinds of lavas in the
Finland, outside the Central Lapland green- supracrustal belts. Giant mafic dike swarms in
stone belt, at least five mafic dike swarm the basement complexes have been regarded
generations have been identified, having dif- as potential feeders of old continental flood
ferent orientations and approximate ages of basalts and their genesis can hence be related
2500 Ma, 2450 Ma, 2330 Ma, 2100 Ma, and to magmatic activity of mantle plumes (Ernst
1970 Ma (Vuollo et al., 1995, 2000; Chapter and Buchan, 1997). The radiating patterns of
5). Isotope and geochemical data show that the dike swarms can even be used to locate
some of the dikes are genetically related to plume centers (op. cit.). Besides establishing
the ~24502440 Ma layered intrusions (Vogel the potential genetic relationship between the
et al., 1998), but the links between the other different dike generations and extrusive and

subvolcanic formations, the challenges of best evidence for the final continental breakup
future research include the question of the geo- (and subsequent collision) is presented by
dynamic control of these separate magmatic ophiolite complexes (see Chapter 6). Our data
events, particularly the role of mantle plumes. from central Lapland show that the continen-
Are all these magmatic phases plume-related? tal fragmentation had advanced to sea-floor
How many mantle plumes were there? These spreading by ~2000 Ma.
are difficult questions because of inadequate If the suggested timing of supercontinental
age information and because the consequences dispersion is valid, the pre-2200 Ma Sodan-
of mantle plumes may differ depending on kyl Group and other correlative (Jatulian)
the size of the plume, thermal and chemical formations were probably deposited in an
properties of the lithospheric mantle, and intracratonic basin. This is also consistent
thickness of the lithosphere. Hawkesworth et with the hypothesis of Melezhik et al. (1999a)
al. (1999) calculated that 18 mantle plumes that relates the deposition of stromatolitic,
may have emplaced under the Gondwana isotopically anomalous Jatulian carbon-
supercontinent within a time interval of 300 ates of Russian Karelia to shallow-water,
Ma prior to its breakup. It is thus conceivable evaporative, partly restricted peritidal basins.
that several mantle plumes extended to the Deposition of the epicontinental sediments of
area of the present-day Fennoscandian Shield the Sodankyl Group and related formations
during the ~400 Ma period when the Salla, may reflect an aftermath of the purported
Onkamo, Sodankyl, and Savukoski Groups plume event at ~2450 Ma and preceding large
were deposited. and rapid regional crustal uplift. Cessation of
The presence of multiple dike swarms in- the plume-induced volcanism and plutonism
dicates that the Fennoscandian Shield (and the was followed by gradual thermal subsidence
Kenorland as a whole) was under a prolonged and formation of depositional basins over an
(>400 Ma) extensional tectonic regime in the extensive area (cf. Campbell and Griffiths,
early Proterozoic, during which several abor- 1990; White, 1997). Thus the origin of the
tive events tried to rupture the continent. We Salla, Onkamo, and Sodankyl Groups may
do not know which, if any, of the potentially be related to a declining plume activity. The
plume-related magmatic events resulted in or later marine transgression related to the So-
were associated with the final fragmentation of dankyl to Savukoski Group transition can be
the supercontinent. Several lines of evidence correlated with a clear global maximum in
suggest that the rifting events at 25002200 black shale abundance at ~2000 Ma (Condie
Ma did not proceed to sea-floor spreading and et al., 2001) or the Shunga event of Melezhik
that the supercontinent remained essentially a et al. (1999b).
coherent block at least until 2200 Ma. These
include the worldwide, ~2350 Ma glaciations 6.5. Ocean floor volcanism
(Young, 1991), global positive carbon isotope
anomalies in ~2200 Ma carbonate rocks The supracrustal rocks discussed above are
(Karhu and Holland, 1996; Melezhik et al., primarily autochthonous formations deposited
1999a), general absence of juvenile, subduc- on the Archean sialic basement, as is the case
tion-related magmatism at 24002200 Ma for the traditional Karelian formations (see
(Condie, 1998), and lack of 25002200 Ma Chapter 7). This is not necessarily true for
ophiolites. Korsman et al. (1999) suggested the Kittil Group, however. This unit contains
that the breakup of the Archean continent volumetrically minor ~2015 Ma acid porphy-
and development of a marginal sea in Fen- ries. If these porphyries and associated mafic
noscandia took place at 21002060 Ma. The metalavas represent coeval magmatism as

suggested by geological and petrographical and Ernst, 1999; Floyd et al., 1998).
studies and U-Pb isotopic evidence and, if the We conclude that the ~2015 Ma felsic
mafic metavolcanic rocks represent part of an porphyries and associated mafic metavolcanic
ancient oceanic crust, then the porphyries can- and sedimentary rocks of the Kittil Group
not be products of anatexis of underlying old represent oceanic bimodal magmatism. Hence
sialic basement. This model predicts that the we suggest that the Kittil Group is alloch-
porphyries should have a noncrustal isotope thonous and represents a block of ancient oce-
signature. Indeed, the initial Nd isotope ratios anic lithosphere. The scarcity of basalts with
of the porphyries are remarkably primitive. typical NMORB chemistry indicates that the
They match very closely the initial isotope bulk of the Kittil Group metavolcanic rocks
composition of the associated mantle-derived do not belong to a normal mid-ocean ridge
mafic metavolcanic rocks and deviate drasti- system, but more likely represent an ancient
cally from the low initial Nd values of 8 or oceanic plateau or a ridge segment influenced
less expected for 2000 Ma partial melts of by a mantle plume. Hot and thick, such blocks
Archean sialic crust (Figure 4.6; cf. Huhma, of oceanic crust are reluctant to subduct and
1986). This result is not only consistent with consequently have a moderate chance to be
the prediction of the geotectonic model, but preserved. An analogy with Iceland is further
offers a strong proof of a noncontinental supported by the bimodal magmatism. How-
environment, provided that such isotopically ever, the lithologic and geochemical hetero-
juvenile felsic rocks can be regarded as diag- geneity of the Kittil Group (OIBs, island arc
nostic of oceanic crust. tholeiites, boninitic dikes, and suprasubduc-
Silica-saturated felsic volcanic rocks tion zone-type ultramafic rocks) indicates
found in a continental setting have typically a that a single geotectonic environment cannot
crustal-like isotopic signature reflecting direct have produced all the different kinds of rock
crustal anatexis or open-system fractionation types. Rather, the Kittil Group is considered
of basaltic parental melts. This applies, for a composite formed by separate volcanic ter-
example, to the rhyolitic volcanic rocks associ- ranes that were amalgamated during oceanic
ated with continental flood basalts (e.g., Peate, convergence and a subsequent collision related
1997; Nicholsson and Shirey, 1990), including to the tectonic emplacement of the greenstone
the felsic metavolcanic rocks of the Latvajrvi complex. It is not uncommon that ophiolitic
Formation and the Salla Group (Table 4.1). In complexes contain accreted blocks of volcanic
contrast to continental rhyolites, felsic igneous rocks generated in different oceanic domains
rocks in oceanic settings characteristically (e.g., Wirth et al., 1994; Ahmed and Ernst,
display a strongly radiogenic Nd isotope com- 1999).
position. These settings include intra-oceanic One problem in the hypothesis that the Kit-
island arcs (e.g., Brouxel et al., 1987), back- til Group represents a slice of oceanic crust
arc basins (e.g., Hochstaedter et al., 1990; is the nature of one of its volcanic formations,
Gribble et al., 1998), oceanic islands (e.g., Kautoselk. The overall chemical composition
Geist et al., 1995), oceanic plateaus (White et of the metavolcanic rocks of this unit renders
al., 1999), and mid-oceanic spreading ridges these rocks as hybrids between within plate
(Engel and Fisher, 1975). Isotopically primi- basalts (WPB) and volcanic arc basalts (VAB)
tive felsic rocks have also been discovered in (Figure 4.12B). Chemically comparable high-
many ophiolite complexes as plagiogranites Ti basalts have been documented from the
(e.g., Amri et al., 1996; Peltonen et al., 1998) Columbia River flood basalt province, for ex-
and more rare potassic granites (Ngler and ample by Martin (1989). Therefore, a natural
Frei, 1997) and rhyolitic extrusives (Ahmed explanation would be that the parental magma

of the Kautoselk Formation underwent 6.7. Foreland basin
interaction with continental crustal material
thus creating low Nb/Th, Nb/La, and initial Terrestrial sedimentation and
Nd in the magma (Figure 4.6). However, in volcanism
contrast to typical continental flood basalts, The angular unconformity beneath the meta-
the Kautoselk Formation lavas were erupted sediments of the Lainio and Kumpu Groups
in a submarine environment, as the associated is striking. These redbed-type metasediments
sedimentary rocks are metagraywackes, phyl- can be regarded as intracontinental foreland
lites, black schists, siltstones, and fine-grained basin deposits accumulated in an arid climate.
carbonate rocks, though the amygdaloidal Clastic material was transported into the basin
nature of the metavolcanic rocks suggests a from various sources including the recently
relatively shallow water depth. If these vol- obducted slice of oceanic crust, the adjacent
canic rocks were generated in a continental Svecofennian orogen in the southwest, and Ar-
setting, they may originally have formed a chean basement and its Paleoproterozoic cover
passive margin sequence of a new ocean basin (the Sodankyl and Savukoski Groups).
which, due to subsequent collisional tectonics, Conventional U-Pb isotope data on bulk
was amalgamated to the other rocks of the detrital zircons have demonstrated that the
Kittil Group. Lainio and Kumpu Group rocks contain a
significant component of post-Archean de-
6.6. Acid magmatism related tritus (Hanski et al., 2001b). Petrographical,
to obduction? geochemical, and isotope (U-Pb, Sm-Nd)
studies on the clasts in the Lainio and Kumpu
The ~1920 Ma felsic dikes and minor plutons Group conglomerates have revealed fragments
in the area of the Kittil Group provide a from several well-characterized and dated
minimum age for the suggested tectonic em- rock units outcropping in western Lapland,
placement of the Kittil Group (Hanski et al., thus effectively constraining the maximum
2001b). Assuming a cause-and-effect relation- age of deposition. These fragments include
ship, we propose that these rocks actually time ~2050 Ma gabbroic rocks, ~2015 Ma and
this tectonic event. Independent evidence for ~1920 Ma felsic porphyries, and the ~1880
a compressional tectonic regime at that time Ma Latvajrvi Formation metavolcanic rocks
comes from two opposing directions. Namely, and Haaparanta suite plutonic rocks. These,
the closure of the LaplandKola ocean and together with NORDSIM data on detrital
subsequent overthrusting of the Lapland gra- zircons, demonstrate that both the Lainio and
nulite belt is thought to have been completed Kumpu Group sediments were deposited later
by ~1910 Ma (Daly et al., 2001). On the other than ~1880 Ma. Moreover, geochronologic
hand, the collision of the Svecofennian arc data on clasts and detrital minerals cannot
complex from the southwest against the Ar- be used to distinguish the Lainio and Kumpu
chean continent probably took place between Groups from each other. On the basis of
1910 to 1885 Ma (Korsman et al., 1999). At structural observations, Lehtonen et al. (1998)
the moment, the significance of these two col- interpreted that the Lainio Group rocks pre-
lisional orogenic events for the emplacement date and the Kumpu Group rocks postdate the
of the Kittil Group is unclear. main deformation stage of the Svecofennian
orogeny. However, the available geochrono-
logic data do not support this interpretation.
We suggest that the observed variation in the
degree of deformation of the two groups may

be a function of location in variably strained have been informally assigned to the Upper
regions, rather than their relative age. The Svecofennian assemblage (Lundqvist et al.,
age constraints coupled with the lithologic 1996; Kousa et al., 2000). Corresponding
and structural observations from the Kumpu coarse-clastic metasediments are also found
Group strongly argue that the Kumpu Group in northern Norway, including the aravarri
represents molasse-like sediments deposited Formation in the Kautokeino greenstone belt
after the obduction, folding, metamorphism, (Siedlecka et al., 1985).
and uplift of the underlying ~2000 Ma Kit- Isotope data from the above-mentioned
til Group. Some earlier investigators have Svecofennian formations and associated gra-
compared the rocks of the Kumpu Group with nitoids suggest that the uplift, exhumation,
molasse deposits (Simonen, 1960, 1980), but and erosion of the synorogenic granitoids
isotopic evidence for this has become available and the sedimentation of the Upper Svecofen-
only recently. nian assemblage took place rapidly after the
crystallization of the synorogenic granitoids,
Correlation with Svecofennian potentially within a time span of less than 10
sedimentation and volcanism Ma (Kouvo and Tilton, 1966; Korsman et al.,
In northern Sweden, a large ~1900 Ma Sveco- 1988; Nironen, 1989; Persson and Lundqvist,
fennian volcanic terrain contains mostly sub- 1997; Billstrm and Weihed, 1996). Evidently,
aerially erupted, felsic to mafic lavas. Perdahl a similar rapid tectonic evolution led to the
and Frietsch (1993) called this felsic rock- deposition of the Lainio and Kumpu Groups
dominated lava suite the KirunaArvidsjaur in the Finnish Lapland.
Porphyry Group. The ~1880 Ma Latvajrvi
Formation and its time-correlative Tuulijoki Relationship to the exhumation of
Formation in the Kittil area can be regarded granulites
as the sole representatives of the extension Because the Kittil Group rocks were affected
of the KirunaArvidsjaur Porphyry Group to by the emplacement of the Lapland granulite
northern Finland. According to Lehtonen et al. belt, the overthrusting of the granulites must
(1998), the geochemistry of the Latvajrvi and have existed later than at ~1920 Ma but not
Tuulijoki Formations has a clear calc-alkaline much later than that, if the age of 1912 2
island arc signature and is consistent with an Ma obtained by Kislitsyn et al. (2001) for an
Andino-type continental margin environment undeformed leucosome from the Kolvitsa belt
suggested for the Kiruna porphyries by Pha- in the southeastern extension of the Tanaelv
raoh and Brewer (1990). belt can be applied to the granulite belt proper.
On the basis of their geologic position and On the other hand, Tuisku et al. (2001) used ion
available isotope data, the metasediments of probe data to conclude that the Lapland granu-
the Lainio and Kumpu Groups can be cor- lite belt was thrust and exhumed at ~1.901.87
related with the coarse-clastic, post-1880 Ma Ga. The same time interval was also favored
metasediments deposited on the KirunaAr- by Daly et al. (2001) for the exhumation and
vidsjaur Porphyry Group metavolcanic rocks cooling of the Lapland and Umba granulite
in northern Sweden (Hanski et al., 2001b), as terranes. In any event, the Kumpu and Lainio
exemplified by the metasediments in the Kiru- Group sediments could have received detri-
na, Arvidsjaur, and Vargfors areas (Martins- tus from the uplifting Lapland granulite belt
son, 1997; dman, 1957; Perdahl and Frietsch, in the northeast. It is interesting to note that
1994; Offerberg, 1959). Similar deposits can Torske (1997) interpreted the molasse-type
be followed further southeast across the Both- aravarri Formation in the Kautokeino area,
nian Bay to western Finland. These deposits northern Norway, as representing postcolli-

sional foreland basin deposits in front of the plume activity, but the interpretation has some
LaplandKola thrust belt. Also, Evins and problems, for example, the lack of evidence
Laajoki (2002) suggested that the Kumpu for a preceding strong crustal uplift. The ab-
Group conglomerates at Pyhtunturi were sence of cratonic metasediments, presence of
deposited in a thrust-sheet-top basin during EMORB- and OIB-type mafic metavolcanic
southward thrusting and nappe formation re- rocks accompanied with isotopically juvenile
lated to the LaplandKola orogeny. Granulite felsic rocks and existence of ultramafic rocks
clasts or detrital high-pressure metamorphic with ophiolitic characteristics suggest that at
minerals have not been documented in the least part of the ~2000 Ma Kittil greenstone
Lainio and Kumpu Group metasediments. area represents Paleoproterozoic oceanic
If they are absent, this means that either the crust. This was tectonically emplaced onto
sediment transport was predominately from the Archean basement at ~1920 Ma and was
other directions and/or the granulite facies followed by high-pressure metamorphism and
rocks were not yet exposed when the Kumpu overthrusting of the Lapland granulite belt,
and Lainio Groups were formed. Available intrusion of orogenic felsic plutonic rocks of
paleocurrent indicators from the Pyhtunturi the ~1880 Ma Haaparanta suite, and extrusion
region are compatible with the former alterna- of minor intermediate to felsic volcanic rocks.
tive (Rsnen and Mkel, 1988), while mea- Deposition of the Lainio and Kumpu Group
surements from the Sirkka area have yielded arenitic and rudaceous sediments in a foreland
variable paleocurrent directions (Kortelainen, basin soon after the synorogenic magmatism
1983). A titanite U-Pb age of 1915 15 Ma finished the Paleoproterozoic supracrustal
and a rutile U-Pb age of 1876 22 Ma from evolution of central Lapland. This took place
the Tanaelv belt (Kaulina et al., 2001) indicate somewhat after 1880 Ma and completed a
the times of cooling below 700 C and 450 C, prolonged Wilson cycle. Later, postorogenic
respectively, and suggest that granulite-facies granites were emplaced at ~1800 Ma. There
rocks were not yet eroding when the Kumpu was an increasing contribution of old sialic
and Lainio Group rocks were deposited. crust in the source of felsic plutonic and vol-
canic rocks with decreasing age between 2000
Ma and 1800 Ma, as indicated by a systematic
7. Conclusions change of Nd towards more negative values
(Figure 4.7).
The ~600 Ma evolution of the Central Lapland
greenstone belt commenced with plume-re-
lated, intracratonic rift magmatism producing Acknowledgments
large layered intrusions and primarily sub-
aerial volcanic rocks ranging from crustally We thank the staff of the geochronology labo-
contaminated komatiites to rhyolites. These ratory at the Geological Survey of Finland,
were covered by epicontinental clastic sedi- especially Tuula Hokkanen, Arto Pulkkinen
ments and later by deeper-water pelitic and and Irmeli Mnttri, for assistance in the iso-
carbonaceous sediments. This stage has tra- tope analyses. Tuomo Manninen is thanked
ditionally been connected with sedimentation for providing samples from the Salla area for
taking place during a platform-to-continental Sm-Nd analysis. We are grateful for many
margin development. Subsequent submarine discussions with our colleagues in Rova-
eruptions of komatiitic to picritic metavolca- niemi, including Tuomo Manninen, Tapani
nic rocks have been dated at ~2060 Ma. This Mutanen, Jorma Rsnen, Pentti Rastas, and
magmatic event has also been related to mantle Jukka Vnnen. Comments by Tapani Rm,

Matti Lehtonen, and an anonymous reviewer kaline suites in the Lapland-Kola Orogen
are highly appreciated. (LKO), Northern Baltic Shield: geochemi-
cal and isotopic constraints on accretion
models. Terra Nova, Vol. 9, Abstract Suppl.
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Planet. Sci. Lett. 141, 161174.

Chapter 5
PALEOPROTEROZOIC
MAFIC DIKES IN
NE FINLAND
J. Vuollo, H. Huhma
C H A P T E R 5 PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C M A F I C D I K E S I N N E F I N L A N D 195
Cover page: Gabbronorite dike and older Archean dike from PjrviKarankaniemi, Russian
Karelia. Length of compass is ~13 cm.
Photo: Jouni Vuollo
196
Vuollo, J., Huhma, H., 2005. Paleoproterozoic mafic dikes
in NE Finland. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A., Rm, O.T.
(Eds.), Precambrian Geology of Finland Key to the Evolu-
tion of the Fennoscandian Shield. Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam,
pp. 195236.
Several mafic dike swarms are found in the eastern and northern parts of the
Fennoscandian Shield and can be divided into at least six main groups dated
at 2.5 Ga, 2.45 Ga, 2.32 Ga, 2.2 Ga, ~2.1 Ga, and 1.98 Ga. The 2.5 Ga group
is found only in the Kola Peninsula, the others occur throughout the Karelian
domain. The 2.45 Ga episode includes dikes, layered intrusions, and dike
swarms that can be divided to five subgroups: (1) NE-trending boninitenoritic
dikes, (2) NW-trending gabbronorite dikes, (3) NW-trending tholeiitic dikes,
(4) NW-trending Fe-tholeiitic dikes, and (5) E-trending orthopyroxene- and
plagioclase-phyric dikes. Groups 1, 2, and 5 are calc-alkaline, groups 3 and 4 are
tholeiitic. The 2.2 Ga low-Al tholeiitic (karjalitic) sills are mostly associated with
the ArcheanProterozoic unconformity. These sills are composed of marginal
zones, layered series, and granophyre; the layered series contains rocks ranging
from wehrlite and clinopyroxenite to magnetite gabbro. The 2.2 Ga magmatic
series is referred to as karjalite or low-Al tholeiite because it is poorer in Al
and richer in Fe and LREE than ordinary tholeiites and komatiites.
The younger dike swarms (2.321.98 Ga) are typical continental tholeiitic
basalts, and their further subdivision based on chemical composition is virtually
impossible. The 2.32 Ga tholeiitic dikes and intrusions are relatively rare, yet
wide-spread, and probably represent a significant magmatic episode. The ~2.1
Ga Fe-tholeiitic dike swarm is a dominant feature within the Archean craton
and Paleoproterozoic cover in NE Finland, foreboding a breakup event at ~2.0
Ga. The main trend of the dikes is approximately EW across the Kuhmo
block, but a NE trend is dominant in the North Karelia schist belt. This group
is geochemically homogeneous, showing pronounced Fe enrichment and high
LILE, HFSE, and LREE contents. Thus it is similar to the continental tholeiitic
dikes of many Paleoproterozoic swarms. The main trend of the 1.98 Ga dikes
is approximately NE in the Kuhmo block and their composition is mainly Fe-
tholeiitic. Comparable dikes have also been found in the North Karelia schist
belt and in central Lapland. In North Karelia, they have high LILE, are depleted
HFSE, and show flat to slightly LREE-enriched REE patterns, thus correspond-
ing to island arc tholeiites.
1. Introduction posttectonic and thus undeformed. They can
be arranged along fracture zones, which are
Dike swarms hold one of the keys to the in- closely connected with the disaggregation of
terpretation of plate tectonics, as they provide continents and crustal blocks.
information on the extensional processes oc- Dike formation has taken place episodi-
curring both in the continental crust and in cally over the last 3000 million years in all
the oceanic lithosphere. Dikes are the primary continents, and a considerable proportion of
channels for transporting basaltic magma into the continental mafic dike swarms are either
the crust from a source area in the mantle and Proterozoic or Late Phanerozoic in age. Paleo-
thus they can also be used to assess the nature proterozoic dike swarms and sills are wide-
of parental magma for related lavas and intru- spread in all Precambrian shields (Ernst et al.,
sions. Mafic dike swarms are also useful time 1996). Several mafic dike swarms comprising
markers that often precisely register major a large number of dikes are also found in the
episodes of crustal rifting. Knowledge of eastern and northern parts of the Fennoscan-
the timing of dike emplacement is essential dian Shield (Gorbatschev et al., 1987; Vuollo
for understanding the tectonic evolution of et al., 1995b, 2001). Thus Finland, Russian
rift-related environments and for regional Karelia, and the Kola Peninsula offer a healthy
correlation of igneous activity. Dike swarms ground for the study of Paleoproterozoic
are extremely important in continental en- dikes. The entire Archean craton and Kare-
vironments, because they are often the only lian Supergroup up to the Kalevian Group
surviving evidence of significant geological are intersected by voluminous NW-, E-, and
events (e.g., rifting, mantle plumes, plate NE-trending dike swarms (13 dikes/km2), the
subductions, or crustal breakup) and can first general account of which was provided by
be used to monitor geological history of the Aro and Laitakari (1987). A new version of the
continents over long periods of time (Fahrig, Fennoscandian dike swarm map now builds on
1987; Halls and Fahrig, 1987; Ernst and Bu- GIS databases (Vuollo et al., 2001). Figure 5.1
chan, 2001a,b). shows all the mafic dikes swarms and Figure
Dike swarms are ideal indicators for re- 5.2 provides an example (aeromagnetic maps
construction of Precambrian crustal blocks, and field ground surveys) of how the GIS da-
because they provide information on varying tabase was compiled. The first studies of the
paleostress directions (e.g., Halls and Palmer, Paleoproterozoic dikes date back to the late
1990; Neuvonen et al., 1997). A subparal- 1960s (Piirainen, 1969), and later work at the
lel swarm indicates that the stress field was University of Oulu (e.g., Hanski, 1986; Vuollo,
constant over a long distance. Dikes may 1994) has continued this research.
originate in the mantle or in a crustal source Since 1993, joint studies of Paleoprote-
and may intrude vertically, or they may origi- rozoic dike swarms have been carried out by
nate from a high-level plutonic complex and the University of Oulu, University of Toronto,
be emplaced horizontally or with a strong Royal Ontario Museum (Canada), Geological
horizontal component. The swarms may be Survey of Finland, and the Russian Academy
many hundreds of kilometers long, and indi- of Sciences (Apatity and Petrozavodsk) uti-
vidual dikes and sills may extend 100 km in lizing geochronology (Vuollo et al., 1995a,
length. Their emplacement is associated with 1999, this study), geochemistry (Vuollo et
significant extension of the continental crust, al., 1995b; Vogel et al., 1998), and paleo-
and dike densities indicating an extension of magnetism (Mertanen, 1995; Mertanen et
510% can be found over large areas (Cadman al., 1999a,b). The aim has been to identify
et al., 1990). Dike swarms are also frequently various diking events in the eastern part of the
198 C H A P T E R 5 PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C M A F I C D I K E S I N N E F I N L A N D
350000 N
W E
S
NORWAY Lap KO
lan L A
dg PR
ran
ulit OV
eb I
elt NC
E
Central
Lapland
750000
750000
BE
LO
M
SWEDEN O
RI
A
N
BE
LT
Taivalkoski SuoperPaajrvi
Pudasjrvi block block area
KA
RE
LI
A
Kuhmo N
block
PR
FINLAND O
SV VI
N
EC C
O E
Iisalmi
FE block
N RUSSIA
700000
700000
N
IA
N
PR
O
VI
N
C
350000 E
295365 Ma 19701990 Ma Archean Paleo-
570800 Ma 19902130 Ma proterozoic
10001200 Ma 2200 Ma Archean Mesoprotero-
12001400 Ma 22502350 Ma Paleopro- zoicNeopro-
14001750 Ma 23502450 Ma terozoic terozoic
17501900 Ma Unclassified (>1980 Ma)
Fig. 5.1. Eastern Fennoscandian dike swarm map after Vuollo et al. (2001).
360000 363000
A B
Taivalkoski
720000
720000
block
730000
Kuhmo
717000
717000
block
720000
363000
446500 447000
7176500
716500
Kuhmo
block
710000
360000 446500 447000

Field observation dike or layered Age determination
intrusion/sill
Field observation petrophysical Dikes according to aeromagnetic
database anomalies and/or field observations
Fig. 5.2. Examples of GIS databases. (A) Low-altitude aeromagnetic map with observation and age
determination points. (B) Pseudocolor low-altitude aeromagnetic map showing dikes of the 1.98 Ga
dike swarm. (C) Ground survey magnetic map (data from Posiva Co.) with dike observation points,
dikes and Sm-Nd age determination sample sites.
Fennoscandian Shield and their relationship ogical database contains hundreds of silicate
to economically important layered intrusions and oxide microprobe analyses (see Janhila,
and ophiolites, and to establish the earliest 2001). An updated eastern Fennoscandian dike
part of the Proterozoic apparent polar wander swarm map has been digitized (on the scale
path for Fennoscandia (see Chapter 15). These of 1:50,000) utilizing all these sources (see
studies have provided valuable information Figures 5.1 and 5.2).
on the Paleoproterozoic geological evolution
of the shield and have enabled continental
reconstructions, e.g., in the North Atlantic 2. Geological background
area (Mertanen et al., 1999a). Dike swarms
were sampled (Figure 5.1) in several locations The Precambrian rocks of our study area are
in the Karelian province (Taivalkoski, Pudas- classified into two main groups the Archean
jrvi, and Kuhmo blocks in eastern Finland; basement complex (3.1 Ga to 2.6 Ga) and
Suoper and Lake Pjrvi areas in Russian the Paleoproterozoic cover. The latter can be
Karelia), where overprinting by the 1.9 Ga divided into the Karelian and Svecofennian
Svecofennian orogeny is thought be minimal Supergroups (Figure 5.3). The Karelian supra-
(Kontinen et al., 1992). This review paper and crustal sequence was deposited on the Archean
the associated dike maps (Figures 5.1 and 5.2) basement, which in central and eastern Finland
are based on these studies and further details can be divided into the Kuhmo, Taivalkoski,
can be found elsewhere (Nyknen et al., 1994; Pudasjrvi, and Iisalmi blocks (Figure 5.1).
Vuollo, 1994; Mertanen, 1995; Vuollo et al., The blocks are dominated by granitoids, base-
1995b, 2000; Vogel et al., 1998; Mertanen et ments gneisses, and remnants of greenstone
al., 1999a,b; Vuollo and Huhma, 2004). belts.
The eastern Fennoscandian mafic dike The Karelian Supergroup, which rests
swarm GIS databases (Salmirinne, 2001; unconformably on the Archean basement, is
Vuollo et al., 2001) were compiled in 1996 divided into three groups: SumiSariola, Jatu-
1999 (in ArcInfoArcview) to combine and li, and Kaleva (Figure 5.3). The SumiSariola
correlate the existing information (1: 100 000- Group consists of immature or moderately
scale geological bedrock maps for dikes in mature arkoses, conglomerates, and subaerial
eastern and northern Finland). Databases con- metalavas. The first Paleoproterozoic conti-
cerning the Russian part of the dike swarms nental rifting phase of the cratonized Archean
were compiled by the Russian Academy of basement involved emplacement of layered
Sciences (Apatity and Petrozavodsk) and mafic intrusions at ~2.5 Ga (Kola Province)
State Mineral Co. (St. Petersburg). We have and ~2.45 Ga (Kola and Karelian provinces;
also utilized aeromagnetic maps from our TornioNrnkvaara belt, central Lapland,
study area in the form of TIFF pictures (see and Burakovka) and boninitenoriticgab-
Figure 5.2). The observation database involved bronoritictholeiitic to Fe-tholeiitic dikes
includes more than 10,000 observations in in eastern and northern Finland (Figure 5.4).
both Finland and Russia and the petrophysical Thick chemical weathering sequences separate
database extracted from the national database the SumiSariola formations in Kainuu and
of the Geological Survey of Finland consists North Karelia. The next rifting phase occurred
of 3700 samples. The geochronological da- at ~2.32 Ga and was represented by small intru-
tabase includes 78 U-Pb and 29 Sm-Nd ages sions and dikes. Previous studies of the Perpo-
for dikes and sills of different types. The hja metavolcanic rocks have shown that those
geochemical database consists of more than in the Runkaus Formation are approximately
1500 whole-rock analyses, and the mineral- of the same age (Huhma et al., 1990).
Svecofennian Svecofennian
granite suite
Supergroup 1900
Kalevian Ophiolites
Group
Fe-tholeiitic
dikes
2000
Keivitsa & Otan-

mki Intrusions
Fe-tholeiitic
dikes
2100
Jatulian
Group
2200
Layered
Karelian Sills
Supergroup
2300 Fe-tholeiitic dikes

and intrusions
Sariolian
Group
2400
Layered Boninitenorite
Intrusions and tholeiitic
dikes
Sumi
2500
Group Noritic dikes
Layered
(Kola Peninsula)
Intrusions
(Kola)
Dike swarms Supracrustal rocks Granite rocks Ophiolite suite

Mafic intrusive Archean
Dike swarms basement
rocks
Fig. 5.3. Simplified Paleoproterozoic geological evolution scheme for the eastern part of the Fenno-
scandian Shield together with special emphasis on mafic igneous activity (dike swarms, intrusions,
ophiolites). Ages in Ma.
The Jatulian Group is dominated by ma- (Figures 5.2 and 5.23) together with field
ture quartzites and conglomerates and, in the studies indicate that there are several Archean
upper part, minor dolomites, pelites, and black high-grade terranes (Vuollo et al., 2000).
schists, traditionally assigned to the marine In addition, new seismic reflection surveys
Jatulian. The sedimentation of the Jatuli for- have revealed some uplifted areas (granulite
mations was accompanied by three mafic ig- blocks?) in the Kuhmo block (depth of reflec-
neous events. Low-Al tholeiitic or karjalitic tion Moho is 60 km in the west side of Kuhmo
magmas intruded through the basement at 2.2 greenstone belt and ~40 km in the east side of
Ga. Most of the karjalites (gabbrowehrlite as- it) (Annakaisa Korja, pers. comm., 2003).
sociation of Hanski, 1984) are found as layered
sills. An extensive set of dike swarms that cuts
the Archean crust and the Jatulian Group is 3. Mafic dike swarms
Fe-tholeiitic, ~2.1 Ga old, and trends EW in
the Kuhmo block. The Keivitsa intrusion in The mafic dike swarms in Finland have tradi-
central Lapland (Mutanen and Huhma, 2001) tionally been divided into three groups (e.g.,
and the Otanmki layered intrusion in Kainuu Aro and Laitakari, 1987): (1) the Jatulian
(Talvitie and Paarma, 1980) represent the next diabase dikes and sills (>1.9 Ga), (2) the
extensional phase, and there are also signs of Subjotnian diabase dikes (~1.6 Ga), and (3)
~2.05 Ga dike swarms (see Figure 5.3). the Postjotnian diabase dikes (~1.3 Ga). This
At the top of the Karelian sequence, turbid- paper provides a general account of the history
itic rocks of the Kalevian Group are present; and diversity of the Jatulian dike swarms and
these are separated from the Jatulian Group sills in the Fennoscandian Shield in eastern
by an unconformity. The 1.95 Ga ophiolites and northern Finland and Russian Karelia.
of Outokumpu and Jormua (Kontinen, 1987; A map of the areal distribution of mafic
Peltonen et al., 1996) are located in the upper dike swarms in the eastern Fennoscandian
Kaleva. Ophiolitic ultramafic rocks have also Shield is shown in Figure 5.1. U-Pb zircon
been identified in central Lapland (Hanski, geochronology (summarized by Vuollo, 1994)
1997). A significant sign of the breakup event, indicates that there were several dike emplace-
which predates the above-mentioned ophiol- ments between 2.5 Ga and 1.98 Ga. It is sug-
ites, is a 1.98 Ga tholeiitic and Fe-tholeiitic gested that these dike swarms and intrusions
dike swarm intersecting the Jatulian Group can be divided into at least six main groups
supracrustal rocks (North Karelia and central based on their geochemical composition,
Lapland) and the Archean craton (NW-trend; age, and mode of occurrence groups dated
Kuhmo block). Moreover, there is no indica- at 2.5 Ga, 2.45 Ga, 2.32 Ga, 2.2 Ga, 2.1 Ga,
tion of comparable magmatic activity in the and 1.98 Ga can be recognized (Table 5.1).
Kaleva turbidites. The 2.5-Ga age group occurs only in the Kola
The Paleoproterozoic lithological units Peninsula, but the others are found throughout
were deformed and metamorphosed in several the Karelian province (Figures 5.1 and 5.3).
stages during the Svecofennian orogeny at These six magmatic events are assigned here
~1.91.8 Ga. The Archean basement was in- to age groups that may contain dikes of slightly
volved in these and earlier processes, as shown different ages and involve rocks of different
by numerous basic dike swarms transecting geochemical compositions. The names chosen
it. Paleomagnetic studies from the Karelian for the main dike swarms indicate their prin-
province also show a strong Svecofennian cipal geochemical characteristics.
overprint (Mertanen, 1995; Mertanen et al., The U-Pb and Sm-Nd ages for mafic
1999a). Low-altitude aeromagnetic maps dikes and intrusions in northern and eastern
Table 5.1. (5) E-trending orthopyroxene-plagioclase-
Classification of Paleoproterozoic dike swarms phyric dikes.
in eastern and northern Finland and Russian The younger dike swarms (2.321.98
Karelia. Ga) form a homogeneous group in terms of
geochemical composition and, in general,
Eastern Fennoscandian Shield
resemble continental tholeiitic basalts. This
2.45 Ga dike swarms
- connected with layered intrusions; two magma
means that a more elaborate subclassification
types according to chemistry is virtually impossible.
(1) boninitenorite dikes (high MgO, SiO2, Cr, Ni, Nevertheless, it has been possible to classify
and LREE, low TiO2 and Zr), NE-trend
the ~2.1 Ga and 1.98 Ga dikes in the Kuhmo
(2) gabbronorite dikes (low TiO2, Cr, and Zr), NW-
trend block using their geochemical composition,
(3) low-Ti tholeiitic (NW-trend) and age, and orientation. The oldest group in the
(4) Fe-tholeiitic dikes (E-trend), continental type Kuhmo block comprises dikes with a 280
(5) orthopyroxene-plagioclase-phyric dikes (high
SiO2, LREE; calc-alkaline aff.), E-trend trend and the second group dikes with a 320
trend (Table 5.1). The 2.2 Ga layered sills are
2.32 Ga Fe-tholeiitic dike swarm and intrusions widespread in eastern and northern Finland
- few dikes and intrusions identified
- E-trend?
and are stratigraphically located near the Ar-
cheanPaleoproterozoic unconformity.
2.2 Ga low-Al tholeiitic (karjalitic) layered sills
- layered intrusions/sills (max. length 150 km) and minor
dikes
3.1. ~2.45 Ga dike swarms
- wehrliteclinopyroxenitegabbrogranophyre
- widespread in eastern and northern Finland The most conspicuous products of the ~2.45
Ga magmatism (Figure 5.3) are undoubtedly
~2.1 Ga Fe-tholeiitic dike swarm
- includes several pulses between 2.13 Ga to 2.05 Ga the mafic layered intrusions (Chapter 3), but
- continental tholeiitic type mafic dikes of this age are also found through-
- mainly E-trend (Kuhmo block) and minor NW-trend out the Archean areas (Figure 5.4). As noted
~1.98 Ga Fe-tholeiitictholeiitic dike swarm
earlier, this dike swarm is divided into five
- predates 1.95 Ga ophiolites subgroups (Table 5.1). The current percep-
- NW-trend (Kuhmo block), continental tholeiitic to IAT tion of the areal distribution of the ~2.45 Ga
type
dike swarms is shown in Figure 5.4. Further
- mainly unaltered (plagioclase and pyroxenes)
studies will probably show that these dikes are
even more voluminous the map in Figure
Finland are summarized in Figures 5.4, 5.14, 5.4 shows only boninitenorite dikes, some
5.15, 5.20, and 5.21 and in Table 5.2. Many gabbronorite dikes, and some tholeiitic and
of the U-Pb determinations are discordant Fe-tholeiitic dikes.
and heterogeneous, and we have included One isotope age has been published from
38 selected determinations. The discordant the Salla greenstone belt (2383 33 Ma;
analyses indicate ages mainly between 2.2 Manninen and Huhma, 2001), all other exist-
Ga and 2.0 Ga. ing ages (Vuollo et al., 2000) are from the
The ~2.45 Ga dike swarms (Table 5.1) can Archean basement area (Kuhmo, Taivalkoski,
be divided into five subgroups based on their and Pudasjrvi blocks, and Russian Karelia;
field relationships and geochemical and isoto- see Table 5.2). One U-Pb baddeleyite result
pic characteristics: (1) NE-trending boninite- (four fractions) indicates an age of 2446 6
noritic dikes, (2) NW-trending gabbronorite Ma (gabbronorite NW-trend), while other
dikes, (3) NW-trending tholeiitic dikes, (4) baddeleyite ages provide only crude estimates:
NW- and E-trending Fe-tholeiitic dikes, and a minimum age of 2395 Ma for a boninite
norite dike (NE-trend) and an age of 2378 Ma side. Glassy chilled margins have been found
for a tholeiitic dike (NW-trend). in places and, near the contacts, quench tex-
tures are seen (Figure 5.13C). These dikes are
Boninitenorite dikes medium- to coarse-grained, up to 50 m thick,
The boninitenorite dikes are found in many and they consist of clinopyroxene (25%), pla-
places in the Kuhmo block (Kilpel, 1991; gioclase (60%), and orthopyroxene (510%)
Vuollo et al., 1995b), in the vicinity of layered with minor amounts of olivine (12%),
intrusions of the TornioNrnkvaara belt quartz (<5%), biotite, and Fe-Ti-oxides. As
(Alapieti et al., 1990; Perttunen, 1991; Iljina the boninitenorites, they are also altered in
et al., 1992; Saini-Eidukat et al., 1997; Chapter many places on the Finnish side. The areal
3), and in Russian Karelia (Stepanov, 1994; distribution of the gabbronorites is difficult
Vuollo et al., 2002). The dikes have a general to assess because they have the same trend as
northeasterly trend in the Kuhmo block (Fig- the younger dikes. According to geochemical
ure 5.4). In the SuhankoKonttijrvi area, they studies (low Cr relative to the boninitenorite
are parallel to the basal contacts of the layered dikes; Figures 5.55.11), these dikes are
intrusions (Iljina et al., 1992). probably present on both sides of the border.
The dikes are 2060 m thick and some of They can be traced for a distance of some
them can be traced along strike for >40 km. kilometers.
They trend NE (3040) and are character- The gabbronorite dikes are always cumu-
ized by the presence of coarse plagioclase lus-textured (Figure 5.13D) and plagioclase
(35%), orthopyroxene (30%), and clinopy- laths (An5060) have the same cloudiness as
roxene (20%) with minor amounts of olivine in the boninitenorite dikes. Clinopyroxene
(5%), chromite, and Fe-Ti oxides (Figure is Ca-augite, with an average composition of
5.13A). The dikes are fresh only along the Wo32En51Fs17. Sometimes the clinopyroxene
FinnishRussian border and on the Russian grains have pigeonite exsolution lamellae
side of the border. Elsewhere pyroxenes are with a fishbone texture (Figure 5.13D). Ortho-
altered to amphibole and olivine to serpentine. pyroxene is bronzite (~En73Fs22Wo5).
Fine-grained chilled margins are occasionally
observed. Low-Ti tholeiitic dikes
Clinopyroxenes are always Ca-augites A low-Ti tholeiitic dike swarm (trend 340)
(~Wo35En52Fs13) and orthopyroxene is bronz- has been dated in the Pudasjrvi block (a mini-
ite (~En83Fs13Wo4). Plagioclase grains have mum age of 2378 Ma) and these dikes are also
a core-to-rim zonation from ~An70 to An30. seen in Kuhmo block both on the Russian and
Small chromite grains (<0.05 mm) occur as Finnish sides of the border (for geochemistry,
inclusions in olivine and pyroxenes. Their see Figures 5.55.11). In some places, they
Cr2O3 contents varies from 38 to 54 wt.% are fresh and consist of plagioclase (50%),
and the lowest Cr number is 0.56. The bo- clinopyroxene (35%), minor amounts of ortho-
ninitenorite dikes always exhibit a cumulus pyroxene (2%), quartz, secondary amphibole,
texture and their plagioclase grains are turbid and Fe-Ti-V oxides. The dikes are >2 km long
(Figure 5.13B), displaying the so-called tea- and normally 4070 m wide. Tholeiites are
color cloudiness. cumulus-textured (Figure 5.13E). Plagioclase
is An5060 and clinopyroxene is Ca-rich augite
Gabbronorite dikes with an average composition of Wo36En44Fs20.
The dikes of the gabbronorite dike swarm One feature in common with the other ~2.45
trend NW (310) and are fresh on the Russian dikes is that plagioclase is cloudy.
side and also in some areas on the Finnish
Fig. 5.4. Distribution and location of dated samples (green rectangleU-Pb zircon or baddeleyite age,
red rectangleSm-Nd age) of the 2.5 Ga dike swarms in the eastern and northern Fennoscandian
Shield (Finland and Russian Karelia). Age data: 1Manninen and Huhma (2001), othersVuollo et al.
(1995a, 2000), and Vuollo and Huhma (2004).
Table 5.2.
U-Pb and Sm-Nd ages (this study) and geographical orientations (trd) of the mafic dike swarms in
Kuhmo, Taivalkoski, and Pudasjrvi blocks and Russian Karelia.
U-Pb
Block Kuhmo Trd Taivalkoski Trd Russian Karelia Trd Pudasjrvi Trd
Dike swarm
1.1.Boninitenorite 2395(Min) 40 60 40 280
1.2 Gabbronorite 290 2446 +5/4 340

1.3.Tholeiite 320 2378 330
1.4. Fe-tholeiite
2. Fe-tholeiite 270 2332 18 278
2306 6 340
3. Fe-tholeiite 280 2118 14 300
4. Fe-tholeiite 19815 320 350?
Sm-Nd
Block Kuhmo Nd Trd Taivalkoski Nd Trd Russian Karelia Nd Trd Pudasjrvi Nd Trd
Dike swarm
1.1.Bon.norite 2370 70 1.8 40 60 40 280
1.2 Gabbronorite 2421 27 2.4 340
1.3.Tholeiite 2476 30 +1.7 320 2461 150 +0.5 330
1.4. Fe-tholeiite 2407 35 +1.6
285
2. Fe-tholeiite 2349 30 +1.0 270
2319 27 +1.8 340
3. Fe-tholeiite 2133 32 +0.6 280 300
2054 40 +0.3 280
4. Fe-tholeiite 2014 33 +0.4 320
350? 1992 47 +0.2 320
Fe-tholeiitic dikes width varies from 1 m to 3 m. The presence

So far, only one Fe-tholeiitic dike has been of relatively large (15 mm), well-preserved
dated (Sm-Nd isochron age of 2407 35 Ma orthopyroxene phenocrysts and, in some
and Nd value of +1.6; Vuollo and Huhma, places, large plagioclase laths (Figure 5.13G),
2004; Table 5.2). Nevertheless, we associate is a typical feature of these dikes. The fine-
these dikes with the previously recognized grained groundmass consists of plagioclase,
2.45 Ga dike swarms. The dated dike is ex- orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene with minor
posed just near the village of Taivalkoski at a amounts of Fe-Ti-oxide and biotite.
road cut, is 10 m wide, and shows conspicuous
chilled margins. The modal composition of 3.2. Geochemical and isotopic
the dikes is plagioclase (60%), clinopyrox- characteristics
ene (30%), and Fe-Ti-oxides (510%) with
minor amounts of quartz and biotite (Figure Major and some trace element analyses of
5.13F). different dike swarms (from Kuhmo and
Taival koski blocks and Russian Karelia;
Orthopyroxene-plagioclase- best-preserved areas) are presented in Figures
phyric dikes 5.55.11. In these diagrams, it is difficult
The E-trending orthopyroxene-plagioclase- to separate tholeiitic and Fe-tholeiitic dike
phyric dikes are known only in some places swarms of younger ages (2.451.98 Ga). On
in Russian Karelia and in the Kuhmo block the other hand, groups 1, 2, and 5 of the 2.45
near the border. The dikes are black and their Ga dikes (later called BN dikes) have similar
3 2500
2250
2.4 2000
1750
TiO2 (wt.%)
Cr (ppm)
1.8 1500
1250
1.2 1000
750
.6 500
250
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
MgO (wt.%) MgO (wt.%)
2.45 Ga dike swarms 500
Boninitegabbronorite
Low-Ti tholeiite
Orthopyroxene-phyric
Cr (ppm)
2.45 Ga Fe-tholeiite (NW), dated 250

samples
2.32 Ga Fe-tholeiite (E-trending), dated
samples
+ +
E-trending Fe-tho- NW-trending
leiitic
E -Wdike swarms
Fe-tholeiitic Fe-tholeiitic dike 0
(2.451.98 Ga) swarms (2.45 2 2.6 3.2 3.8 4.4 5 5.6 6.2 6.8
1.98 Ga) MgO (wt.%)
Fig. 5.5. Chemical analyses (320 samples) of the Paleoproterozoic dike swarms (~2.45 Ga, 2.32 Ga,
2.1 Ga, and 1.98 Ga) from the Kuhmo block and Russian Karelia plotted in MgO-TiO2 and MgO-Cr
diagrams.
geochemical trends showing a weak calc- the BN dikes fall into two groups: the first
alkaline affinity, while groups 3 and 4 (later has low TiO2 (0.30.9%) and high Cr values
called TH dikes) have a typical tholeiitic trend (1502300 ppm), the second group has moder-
with a nearly total overlap with younger dike ate TiO2 (0.91.2%) and low Cr (<100 ppm).
swarms. One distinctive feature of the 2.45 Ga The 2.45 tholeiitic dikes show the same traits
dike swarm compared with the younger dike as the BN dikes (moderate TiO2 and low Cr,
swarms is the wider range of geochemical 50250 ppm). The 2.45 Ga Fe-tholeiitic dikes
compositions. have high TiO2 contents (~2.5%) combined
Major element diagrams in Figures with low Cr values (150300 ppm) and plot in
5.55.7 demonstrate that the BN dikes have the same fields as all the younger (2.321.98
their own trend with a calc-alkaline affinity, Ga) dike swarms. Jensen cation plots (Figure
whereas the TH dikes and Fe-tholeiites plot 5.6) also show that the 2.45 Ga dikes com-
in the tholeiitic field. All the younger dike prise two groups: the BN dikes and the TH
swarms are homogeneous, normal tholeiites. dikes, the latter with high-Fe tholeiitic (HTF)
In terms of TiO2 and Cr values (Figure 5.5), affinity. Figure 5.7 shows that the BN dikes
FeO* + TiO2 2.45 Ga dike swarms
TA HFT Low-Ti tholeiite
BK
TD Orthopyroxene-phyric
TR
CA PK 2.45 Ga Fe-thol. (NW-trending), dated
CD
CR samples
Al2O3 MgO 2.32 Ga Fe-thol. (E-trending), dated
samples
FeO* + TiO2 FeO* + TiO2
+ +
E-trending Fe-tho- NW-trending
leiitic dike swarms Fe-tholeiitic dike
HFT (2.451.98 Ga) HFT swarms (2.45
TA TA
BK BK 1.98 Ga)
TD TD
TR HMT TR CA HMT
CA
CD PK CD PK
CR CR
Al2O3 MgO Al2O3 MgO
Fig. 5.6. Same analyses as in Figure 5.5 plotted on Jensens (1976) cation plot.
have much higher SiO2 (5057%) than the between the subcontinental lithospheric
TH dikes. In addition, their FeO*/MgO ratio mantle and mantle plumes sources (Condie,
is, in general, much lower than that of the TH 1997). Figure 5.10 shows selected analyses
dikes. A calc-alkaline affinity in the BN dikes from the dikes of Kuhmo and Taivalkoski
is also evident. blocks and Russian Karelia. It is evident that
Numerous tectonomagmatic discrimi- the eastern Fennoscandian Paleoproterozoic
nation diagrams have been developed for dikes are compositionally similar to the dike
volcanic rocks, and have also been applied swarms in other shields (Condie, 1997). The
to dikes. A Ti/V diagram (Figure 5.8) clearly BN dikes are mainly in the noritic field and
shows that the 2.45 Ga dikes (both BN and tholeiitic and Fe-tholeiitic dikes (2.451.98
TH) are distinct from the Fe-tholeiites. They Ga) plot in the tholeiitic field regardless of
show an island arc (IAT) signature, whereas their age (2.451.98 Ga).
the Fe-rich tholeiites fall in the within-plate Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for
basalt field (WPB). All Fe-tholeiitic dikes fall various dike swarms are shown in Figure
into the continental flood basalt field in the 5.11. The REE patterns for Fe-tholeiitic dike
Al2O3/TiO2 vs. Ti/Zr diagram (Figure 5.9). The swarms (2.451.98 Ga) are homogenous show-
BN dikes form a more diverse group plotting ing moderate LREE enrichment [(La/Yb)N ~
on both sides of the boundary between the 23)]. The BN dikes usually have relatively
boninite and volcanic arc basalt field, whereas high LREE/HREE ratios, with (La/Yb)N of
the TH dikes fall in the mid-ocean ridge basalt 39 for boninitenorites, 45 for gabbronorite
(MORB) field. dikes, and 711 for orthopyroxene-plagio-
Th/Ta and La/Yb ratios have been used clase-phyric dikes. The TH dikes are usually
to identify magma sources for mafic dike slightly LREE-enriched but may also show flat
swarms, particularly in order to distinguish or LREE-depleted patterns (Fig. 5.11).
80
75
2.45 Ga dike swarms
70
SiO2 (wt.%)
65
Low-Ti tholeiite
60 Calc-alkaline Tholeiite Orthopyroxene-phyric
55
2.45 Ga Fe-tholeiite (NW-trending),
50 dated samples
2.32 Ga Fe-tholeiite (E-trending), dated
45 samples
0 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
FeO*/MgO
80 80
E-trending Fe-tho- NW-trending Fe-tho-
75 75
leiitic dike swarms leiitic dike swarms
(2.451.98 Ga) (2.451.98 Ga)
70 70
SiO2 (wt.%)
SiO2 (wt.%)
65 65
60 60
Calc-alkaline Tholeiite Calc-alkaline Tholeiite
55 55
50 50
45 45
0 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5 0 .5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5
FeO*/MgO FeO*/MgO
Fig. 5.7. Same analyses as in Figure 5.5 plotted on the FeO*/MgO vs. SiO2 diagram (Miyashiro, 1974).
Sm-Nd isotope studies carried out on dike al., 1996; Saini-Eidukat et al., 1997; Hanski
groups 15 (this study and Vuollo and Huhma, et al., 2001; Chapter 3). The data on groups
2004) yield some new information on the 2.45 3 and 4 (tholeiiticFe-tholeiitic magma type)
Ga magmatism and its geochemical character. show slightly positive initial Nd values (from
We obtained reliable ages for groups 14 (see +0.3 to +1.7). The Tsipringa layered intrusion
Figure 5.12 and Table 5.2). Some preliminary in Russian Karelia has chondritic Nd values
Sm-Nd work has been done on the orthopyrox- (Figure 5.12). These results suggest that at
ene-plagioclase-phyric dikes also (group 5 of least the dikes of groups 1, 2, 3, and 4 may be
the ~2.45 Ga dikes). However, the whole-rock consanguineous with the 2.45 Ga intrusions.
plagioclaseorthopyroxene analyses indicate Group 1 and 2 dikes could be related to bo-
disequilibrium conditions. Our results (Figure ninite-like parental magmas (Cr-rich magma
5.12 and Table 5.2) show that groups 1 and type and Cr-poor magma type, respectively)
2 represent a (boninitic) magma type with and group 3 and 4 to tholeiitic parental mag-
negative initial Nd values (from 2.4 to 1.8), mas; the latter is also the case for the layered
consistent with the results recorded previously intrusions of that age (the Tsipringa intrusion
for the layered mafic intrusions (Huhma et and the Western Koillismaa intrusions; Amelin
al., 1990; Turchenko et al., 1991; Amelin et et al., 1996; Iljina and Hanski, 2003).
650
600 10 ARC 20 OFB
550
500 2.45 Ga dike swarms
450 WPS 50
400 Boninitegabbronorite
V (ppm)
350 Low-Ti tholeiite

300
250 100 Orthopyroxene-phyric
200
150 2.45 Ga Fe-tholeiite (NW-trending),
100 dated samples
50 2.32 Ga Fe-tholeiite (E-trending), dated
0 samples
0 5 10 15 20 25
Ti/1000 (ppm) E-trending Fe-tho- NW-trending
Fe-tholeiitic dike
leiitic dike swarms swarms
(2.451.98 Ga) (2.451.98 Ga)
650 650
600 10 ARC 20 OFB 600 10 ARC 20 OFB
550 550
500 500
450 WPS 450
WPS
50 50
400
V (ppm)
400
350 V (ppm) 350
300 300
250 100 250 100
200 200
150 150
100 100
50 50
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Ti/1000 (ppm) Ti/1000 (ppm)
Fig. 5.8. Same analyses as in Figure 5.5 plotted on the Ti/1000 vs.V (Shervais, 1982).
3.3. ~2.32 Ga dike swarm and intrusions 5 Ma Jorma Paavola, pers. comm., 2003)
together with previous results clearly indicate
Until recently, there have been few indications that the ~2.32 Ga magmatism represents a
of ~2.3 Ga magmatic events in the eastern significant magmatic event in the eastern part
part of the Fennoscandian Shield the first of the shield. Figure 5.14 shows the location
zircon age of 2331 33 Ma was published by of samples dated so far. Four Sm-Nd results
Paavola (1988). Geological evidence shows are just over 2.3 Ga within errors (Figure 5.14)
that the Runkaus Formation metavolcanic and U-Pb ages are approximately 2300 Ma
rocks in the Perpohja area are older than the (intrusions) and 2320 Ma (dikes).
2.2 Ga layered sills but younger than the 2.45 The areal distribution of the 2.32 Ga
Ga layered intrusions (Perttunen and Vaasjoki, dikes and intrusions is difficult to estimate,
2001). Huhma et al. (1990) obtained a Sm-Nd because of few available ages and the fact
isochron age of 2330 180 Ma for these meta- that, geochemically, these igneous rocks are
lavas. New age determinations (e.g., 2349 inconspicuous (see Figures 5.55.11). The
30 Ma and 2332 18 Ma, Vuollo et al., 2000, dikes consist of plagioclase (50%), clinopy-
and this study; 2306 6 Ma and 2319 27 roxene (3040%), quartz (5%), Fe-Ti-V oxides
Ma, Vesa Nyknen, pers. comm., 2003; 2295 (5%), and minor amounts of olivine (< 2%),
1000
Continental flood 2.45 Ga dike swarms

basalt Boninitegabbronorite
MORB
Ti/Zr
Volcanic arc
100 basalt
Low-Ti tholeiite
Ocean-island
basalt Orthopyroxene-phyric
Boninite 2.45 Ga Fe-tholeiite (NW-trending),

dated samples
10 2.32 Ga Fe-tholeiite (E-trending), dated
1 10 100 samples
Al2O3/TiO2
1000 1000
leiitic dike swarms leiitic dike swarms
Continental flood (2.451.98 Ga) Continental flood (2.451.98 Ga)
basalt basalt
Ti/Zr
Volcanic arc Volcanic arc
Ti/Zr
100 MORB basalt 100 MORB basalt

Ocean-island Ocean-island
basalt basalt
Boninite Boninite
10 10
1 10 100 1 10 100
Al2O3/TiO2 Al2O3/TiO2
Fig. 5.9. Same analyses as in Figure 5.5 plotted on the Al2O3/TiO2 vs. Ti/Zr (Wilson and Versfeld,
1994) diagram.
biotite, apatite, and epidote. The composition schist belts (Figure 5.15). These differenti-
of cloudy plagioclase (Figure 5.13H) is ~An50 ated sills and intrusions and/or parts of them
and clinopyroxene is Ca-augite to subalkaline have been called by a variety of names: kar-
augite, averaging Wo3035En40Fs30. The average jalite (Vyrynen 1938; Vuollo and Piirainen,
composition of small olivine grains is ~Fo50. 1992), hypabyssal spilite (Piirainen 1969),
Aeromagnetic maps and field observa- and the gabbrowehrlite association (Hanski,
tions show that the trend of the dike swarm is 1986). Various alternatives have also been
roughly E (95) and that the dikes are broken proposed for the parental magma, including
and can be traced only for a few kilometers. olivine basalt (Merilinen, 1961), tholeiite
(Piirainen, 1969), Fe-picrite (Hanski, 1986),
3.4. ~2.2 Ga layered sills and dikes and low-Al tholeiite (karjalite) (Vuollo and
Piirainen, 1992).
The karjalitic layered sills and intrusions Ages have been obtained for karjalitic
form a conspicuous maficultramafic mag- sills from Perpohja (22102220 Ma, Pert-
matic suite that is widely spread in eastern and tunen, 1991; Perttunen and Vaasjoki, 2001),
northern Finland, including all the Karelian central Lapland (2220 11 Ma, Tyrvinen,
20
Norite swarms
10
2.45 Ga dike swarms
Th/Ta
Tholeiite Low-Ti tholeiite

swarms
1 2.45 Ga Fe-tholeiite (NW-trending),

dated samples
.5 2.32 Ga Fe-tholeiite (E-trending),
1 10 30 dated samples
La/Yb
20 20
10 Norite swarms 10 Norite swarms

Th/Ta
Tholeiite Th/Ta Tholeiite

swarms swarms
1 leiitic dike swarms 1 leiitic dike swarms
(2.451.98 Ga) (2.451.98 Ga)
.5 .5
1 10 30 1 10 30
La/Yb La/Yb
Fig. 5.10. Selected chemical analyses (158 samples) of the Paleoproterozoic dike swarms (2.45 Ga,
2.32 Ga, 2.1 Ga, and 1.98 Ga) from the Kuhmo block and Russian Karelia plotted on the La/Yb vs.
Th/Ta diagram (Condie, 1997).
1983; 2210 4 Ma, Rastas et al., 2001; 2222 unconformity between the Archean basement
6 Ma, Rsnen and Huhma, 2001; 2209 and Paleoproterozoic metasediments, and they
10 Ma, Lauerma, 1995), Kuusamo (2206 9 are found within both of them. Most often
Ma, Silvennoinen, 1991; 2216 4 Ma, Evins they lie parallel to the overlying Karelian
and Laajoki, 2001), and Kuhmo (2172 Ma, metasediment series (Karelian belt) and are
Hyppnen, 1983). The data on the Koli sill thus referred to as sills. Most typically they
in North Karelia give a minimun age of 2170 are found as sills varying from a few kilo-
Ma (Vuollo and Huhma, 2004). New U-Pb meters up to 150 km in length and are quite
ion microprobe data also show ages slightly thin (200400 m) relative to their length.
older than 2.2 Ga. These figures allow us to Later tectonic movements have fragmented
conclude that the emplacement of the karjalitic the originally continuous intrusions.
sills and dikes took place at ~2220 Ma (Figures As exemplified by the Koli layered sill (see
5.3 and 5.15). Figures 5.16 and 5.17), the karjalitic intru-
Stratigraphically, the 2.2 Ga sills and sions contain only one magmatic cycle and
intrusions are restricted to the vicinity of the were crystallized from a single magma pulse
100
Sample/Chondrite
2.45 Ga dike swarms

Low-Ti tholeiite
10
2.45 Ga Fe-tholeiite (NW-trending),
1 dated samples
La Ce Pr Nd SmEuGd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 2.32 Ga Fe-tholeiite (E-trending),
dated samples
E-trending Fe-tho- NW-trending Fe-

leiitic dike swarms tholeiitic dike swarms
(2.451.98 Ga) 100
(2.451.98 Ga)
Sample/Chondrite
100
Sample/Chondrite
10 10
1 1
La Ce Pr Nd SmEuGd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu La Ce Pr Nd SmEuGd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Fig. 5.11. Examples of chondrite-normalized REE patterns for 2.45 Ga, 2.32 Ga, 2.1 Ga, and 1.98 Ga
dikes from the Kuhmo block and Russian Karelia.
that crystallized into a highly differentiated coarse-grained gabbro to granophyre (Figure

structure with a simple internal stratigraphy 5.18F). The granophyre crystallized from a
(e.g., the modified differentiation index, residual magma beneath the upper marginal
MDI, varies from 20 to 80; Figure 5.17). The zone. The rocks of the layered series are cu-
layered structure of the sill is similar to that mulus-textured and include cumulus minerals
of many maficultramafic layered intrusions, olivine (Fo8174), chromite, diopsidic clinopy-
comprising a marginal series, a layered series roxene, titanian magnetite, plagioclase, and
with occasional rhythmic layering (Figure apatite. Intercumulus phases include edenitic
5.18I), and a granophyre. The upper marginal hornblende, ilmenite, clinopyroxene, phlogo-
zone consists of a fine-grained chilled margin pite, plagioclase, and titanian magnetite.
(Figure 5.18J) and underlying coarse-grained Primary orthopyroxene occurs only in some
clinopyroxenites (Figures 5.18GH). Fraction- 2.2 Ga intrusions in central Lapland (Hanski,
ation of the layered series proceeded normally, 1987). Primary magmatic Ti-rich amphibole
i.e., from the bottom upwards, but the order is (edenitic hornblende) is found as an inter-
reversed in the upper marginal zone (Figures cumulus phase in the karjalites and indicates
5.16 and 5.17). The layered series contains high pH2O conditions during crystallization
wehrlites and clinopyroxenites in the lower (Figure 5.16).
part (Figures 5.18AD) and, in the upper part, Geochemically, the karjalitic sills form a
gabbroic rocks (Figures 5.18DE) grade via peculiar magmatic series (cf. Figure 5.19). In
gave rise to a dense, predominantly NW- and
3 Fe-tholeiite (NW-
trending)
E-trending dike network (Figure 5.20) that
2 Low-Ti-tholeiite now intersects the Karelian formations and
the Archean basement. New ages (see below)
1
from the Kuhmo block and central Lapland
Nd 0 show that there were many stages of dike in-
-1
trusion between 2.1 Ga and 1.98 Ga. Regional
differences can nevertheless be observed; e.g.,
-2
the nortwesterly orientation is dominant in the
-3 North Karelia and Kainuu schist belts (Figure
-4 5.20), whereas in the Archean basement of the
0 1 2 3 Kuhmo block, the main orientation is to the
(Nd/Sm)N
Kivakka (2445 1 Ma) east (Anttila et al., 1991; Kilpel, 1991; this
Tsipringa (2441 1 Ma) study). Unfortunately, the scarcity of outcrops
Lukkulaisvaara (2442 2 Ma)
Penikat (2428 35 Ma) and resultant lack of field data mean that the
Koitelainen (2439 3 Ma) distribution of the dikes in Lapland must be
Akanvaara (2435 7 Ma)
presented on analogical grounds, based on
Fig. 5.12. Sm-Nd data for the 2.45 Ga Fenno-
their stratigraphic position and geochemistry.
scandian layered intrusions (Huhma et al., 1990; Available material (Lehtonen et al., 1989),
Amelin et al., 1996; Hanski et al., 2001, and however, suggests that the Fe-tholeiitic dikes
Mutanen and Huhma, 2001) and dike swarms are also the main group in Lapland.
(Vuollo and Huhma, 2004). In the Archean basement (Kuhmo block),
the Fe-tholeiitic dikes form a highly regular
swarm in which individual dikes vary from a
the CMA diagram (Figure 5.19A), they show few centimeters up to 200 m in width with a
an almost continuous, curved trend from the typical range between 10 and 100 m. They can
MgO apex towards the Al2O3 apex. The cur- be followed for a few hundred meters to several
vature towards to the CaO corner is due to the tens of kilometers along the strike. On a large
dominant role of clinopyroxene as a cumulus scale, the dike swarms have an en echelon
phase. The Jensen cation plot (Figure 5.19B) structure (cf. Rickwood, 1990). The dikes are
displays a trend lying above the komatiitic and homogeneous in their modal composition, con-
normal tholeiitic trends. The composition of tain principally hornblende and plagioclase,
the cumulates, granophyre, and the chilled and have been referred to as metadiabases (e.g.,
margin is consistent with an overall LREE-en- Piirainen, 1969; Pekkarinen, 1979; Perttunen,
riched character of the parental magma (Figure 1991; Lehtonen et al., 1992).
5.19C). This was a low-Al tholeiite (~10 wt.% In the northern part of the Kuhmo block
Al2O3), i.e., karjalite, rich in iron (~13 wt.% (on the eastern side of the Kuhmo greenstone
FeOtot) and LREE [(La/Yb)N = 5.8]. A low belt), these ~2.1 Ga Fe-tholeiitic dikes have
Al2O3/TiO2 ratio of 5 to 6 is also a character- preserved their primary mineral composition.
istic feature of the 2.2 Ga layered sills. These dikes are ophitic and comprise 3040%
plagioclase (~An60), 3050% clinopyrox-
3.5. ~2.1 Ga dike swarms ene (Ca- to sub-alkaline-augite), and minor
amounts of Fe-Ti-V oxide (510 %), quartz,
Emplacement of the ~2.1 Ga Fe-tholeiitic dikes biotite, and apatite. Plagioclase is typically
was a widespread magmatic event that affected stained (Figure 5.13I).
all parts of central and northern Finland. It Several U-Pb ages are available for the Fe-
OLIV
OLIV
OPX
PLAG
PLAG
500 m 500 m
A B
CPX CPX
1000 m 500 m
C D
CPX
PLAG
1000 m 1000 m
E F
PLAG
CPX
OPX
1000 m 1000 m
G H
PLAG
PLAG
CPX
1000 m 1000 m
I J
Fig. 5.13. Photomicrographs of rock types from Paleoproterozoic dike swarms. 2.45 Ga: (A)
Boninitenorite dike, cumulus texture (sample VE3), crossed nicols; (B) Boninitenorite dike, cumulus
texture with plagioclase grains covered by tea-color cloudiness (sample VE3); (C) Gabbronorite
dike, sample near the contact, quench-texture (sample XD20); (D) Gabbronorite dike, clinopyrox-
ene grain with pigeonite exsolution lamellae, fish-bone texture (sample XD6), crossed nicols; (E)
Tholeiitic dike with a cumulus texture (sample 1-UD-93); (F) Fine-grained Fe-tholeiitic dike (sample
WD9); (G) Orthopyroxene-phyric dike (sample 42-VEN-94). 2.32 Ga: (H) Fe-tholeiitic dike with
cloudy feldspar (sample XD17). ~2.1 Ga: (I) Fe-tholeiitic dike with faintly cloudy feldspar (sample
VEPO2812.55). 1.98 Ga: (J) Fe-tholeiitic dike with faintly cloudy feldspar (sample KD12). Abbrevia-
tions: PLAGplagioclase, OLIVolivine, CPXclinopyroxene, OPXorthopyroxene. If not mentioned,
the scale bar is 500 m in length. Photos: Jouni Vuollo.
tholeiitic dikes in North Karelia (2115 6 Ma, 2001), Varpaisjrvi (2106 6 Ma, Jorma
Pekkarinen, 1979; 2113 4 Ma, Pekkarinen Paavola, pers. comm., 2003), and Kuusamo
and Lukkarinen, 1992; 2105 Ma, Huhma, (2078 8 Ma, Silvennoinen, 1991). These point
1986), Perpohja (2118 14 Ma, Perttunen, to an overall age of ~2.1 Ga for the emplace-
1987; 2117 6 Ma, Perttunen and Vaasjoki, ment of the Fe-tholeiitic dikes (Figures 5.3 and
740000 340000 360000
740000
6
234930 Ma
233218 Ma
Suoper
Paanajrvi
Pudasjrvi
area
block Taivalkoski
block
23066 Ma 231927 Ma
720000
720000
4
FINLAND RUSSIA
Kuhmo
3 block
235050 Ma 2
Iisalmi
block 22955 Ma
2.32 Ga dike swarms

1
233133 Ma
700000
Unclassified (>1980 Ma)

700000
2.32 Ga dike swarms

3
Sm-Nd age determination
227040 Ma
U-Pb age determination
Archean
Paleoproterozoic
340000 360000
Fig. 5.14. Distribution and location of dated samples of the ~2.32 Ga dike swarm in the
eastern and northern parts of the Fennoscandian Shield (Finland and Russian Karelia). Age
data: 1Paavola (1988); 2Hltt et al. (2000); 3Jorma Paavola, pers. comm. (2003); 4Osmo
Nyknen, pers. comm. (2003); 5Vuollo et al. (2000); 6Vuollo and Huhma (2004).
340000 360000
10 218535 Ma 7
4 22105 Ma 10
218744 Ma
22104 Ma
10
222011 Ma
1 223130 Ma 3
22226 Ma 220910 Ma
5
740000
740000
2
221710 Ma 2 9
7 5
2205220 Ma 221618 Ma
222343 Ma
22135 Ma 6
2 221515 Ma
22069 Ma
2
221610 Ma Pudasjrvi Taivalkoski
2 block block
720000
720000
Kuhmo
block 7
223119 Ma
~2200 Ma
FINLAND
8 RUSSIA
8
Min 2186 Ma
2.2 Ga layered sills Iisalmi
block 7 7
2.2 Ga layered sills 217040 Ma Min 2172 Ma
U-Pb age determination

700000
700000
Koli intrusion
(ion microprobe) ~2200 Ma 3
U-Pb age determination 7 221230 Ma
(conventional)
Archean 7
220349 Ma
Paleoproterozoic 7
340000 360000
Fig. 5.15. Distribution and location of dated samples of the ~2.2 Ga layered intrusions/sills
in eastern and northern Finland. Age data: 1Tyrvinen (1983); 2Perttunen and Vaasjoki
(2001); 3Lauerma (1995); 4Rastas et al. (2001); 5Rsnen and Huhma (2001); 6Sil-
vennoinen (1991); 7Vuollo and Huhma (2004); 8Hyppnen (1983); 9Evins and Laajoki
(2001); and 10Eero Hanski, pers. comm. (2003).
Straticgrafic 100% cumulus %intercumulus Zirc
height (m) Oliv Chrom Flog Hbl Cpx Plag Apat Allan
0 50 100 50 100 (Fo%) (%Mg) (Ca:Mg:Fe) Magn Quarz
330 72.6
aCp Plag +
+
Qz +
+
300 +
+
+
+
+
+
pamC + 63.5
+
+
250 + 68.4
+
+ 65.1
+ 60.0
69.0 44 42 14
+
Plag.
+
+
amCp + 63.8 44 41 15
200 +
Magn. + 68.0 43 43 14
+
+ 69.1 43 43 13
+
+
+
+
+
150 amCp +
Cpx +
+ 70.1 43 45 12
+
+
+ 43 46 11
Plag +
+
100 +
+
+
+
+
+ 71.6 43 47 10
aCp +
+
+
50 + 71.3 43 48 9
Olivine Edhb +
Cpx+ 71.7 43 49 8
oaCh + 73.4 45 48 7
80.4 79.7
Flog 80.5 79.6
81.1 81.5
81.0 82.5
80.4 79.2
o(c) Crom 77.0 81.1
Cah 74.4 79.2
0
Wehrlite Wehrlite Granophyre Upper marginal zone (chilled

o(c)Cah oaCh margin and clinopyroxenite)
Clinopyroxenite/ Magnetite Archean basement complex
magnetite clinopyroxenite gabbro
Fig. 5.16. Stratigraphy of the ~2.2 Ga Koli sill, North Karelia. Solid line = cumulus mineral, dashed line
= intercumulus mineral, plus sign = subsolidus mineral. Mineral abbreviations for cumulate (C) names
after Irvine (1982): olivine (o), chromite (c), augite (a), edenitic hornblende (h), plagioclase (p), and
titanian magnetite (m).
Height
(meters)
350 MDI MgO (%) Cr (%)
aCp
300
pamC
250
amCp
200
150
aCpm 100
50
oaCh
0(c)Cah
0
0 50 100 0 20 40 0 0.2 0.4
Wehrlite o(c)C Magnetite gabbro pamC

Wehrlite oaC Granophyre
Clinopyroxenite aC Upper clinopyroxenite aC
Magnetite clinopyroxenite amC Chilled margin
Fig. 5.17. Variation of MDI (modified differentiation index by von Gruenewaldt, 1973), MgO, and Cr
as a function of stratigraphic height in the Koli layered sill.
5.20). New U-Pb ages from central Lapland Geochemically, the Fe-tholeiitic dikes
(2046 9 Ma, 2060 8 Ma, and 2052 7 Ma; form a relatively homogeneous group from
Rastas et al., 2001; and 2054 14 Ma and 2046 North Karelia through Kainuu to Lapland
18 Ma; Rsnen and Huhma, 2001) show that (Vuollo et al., 1992; Vuollo, 1994, and this
a significant magmatic event occurred also at study). They are quartz-normative, sub-alka-
~2.05 Ga. This event is also registered by the line tholeiitic basalts (see Figures 5.55.11)
Keivitsa and Otanmki intrusions. For the dikes and form a set of continental dike swarms of
within the Archean basement, we have two the type frequently found in shield areas (e.g.,
Sm-Nd ages from the Kuhmo block: 2133 Tarney and Weaver, 1987).
33 Ma and 2054 40 Ma (Vuollo et al. 2000,
and this study).
Fig. 5.18. Photomicrographs of rock types in the Koli layered sill. (A) Olivine-(chromite) cumulate,
sample 26-JIV-85; (B) Contact between olivine-(chromite) cumulate and olivine-clinopyroxene cumu-
late, sample 33B-JIV-85; (C) Clinopyroxene cumulate, sample 35-JIV-85; (D) Sharp contact between
clinopyroxene-magnetite and clinopyroxene-plagioclase-magnetite cumulates, sample 43-JIV-85; (E)
Laminated plagioclase-clinopyroxene-magnetite cumulate, sample 47-JIV-85; (F) Granophyre, sample
51-JIV-85; (G) Upper clinopyroxenite, sample 53-JIV-85; (H) Chilled margin, sample 54-JIV-85. Out-
crops: (I) Rhythmic layering near the contact of wehrlite and clinopyroxenite (sample 31-JIV-85); (J)
Upper chilled margin against Archean granite (sample 54-JIV-85). Abbreviations after Irvine (1982).
Photos: Jouni Vuollo.
3.6. ~1.98 Ga dike swarm Paleoproterozoic mafic dike swarm observed

within the Fennoscandian Archean craton. It
Previous studies (Vuollo, 1994) have shown is also the least deformed (Figure 5.3J) and is
that this dike swarm is not as voluminous as closely connected to the 1.95 Ga ophiolites
the ~2.1 Ga dike swarm. However, recent (Kontinen, 1987; Vuollo et al., 1992; Hanski,
geochronological (Vuollo and Huhma, 2004) 1997). These coarse- to medium-grained,
and field studies, combined with aeromagnetic ophitic dikes (Figure 5.13) consist of subhed-
data (Figure 5.2), show that the ~1.98 Ga dikes ral, coarse plagioclase (3050%) in a matrix
are found throughout the Archean basement of fine-grained anhedralsubhedral clinopyro-
and the Karelian formations (Figure 5.21). xene (2030%), Fe-Ti-V oxide (520%) with
The swarm consists of up to 70-m-wide dikes quartz (3%), biotite (4%), uralitic amphibole
that form prominent NW-trending (320340), (10%), and occasional orthopyroxene (13%).
linear features >120 km in length (Kuhmo Plagioclase is turbid labradorite (An60), clino-
block). Data from the Veitsivaara nuclear pyroxene is Ca-augite, and orthopyroxene
waste study area (material from Posiva Co.) varies from bronzite to hypersthene. In some
give valuable information on the trends and places, fine-grained chilled margins of the
mutual age relationships of these ~2.1 Ga and dikes can be observed.
~1.98 Ga dike swarms (see Figures 5.2C and There is one U-Pb baddeleyite age of 1981
5.22C). In this relatively small study area, the 4 Ma from the Archean basement area (Fig-
~2.1 Ga dikes have an easterly trend (280) and ure 5.21; Vuollo et al., 1995a). Sm-Nd isotope
the ~1.98 Ga dikes trend nortwest (330). We data (a dike with the same NW-trend) give
have used these data to make a generalization the same age value within errors (1992 47
over the entire Kuhmo block. Ma; see Figures 5.2C and 5.22C). Other U-Pb
The 1.98 Ga dike swarm is the youngest ages from Lapland (2003 4 Ma and 1995
A MgO
Wehrlite o(c)C
Wehrlite oaC
Clinopyroxenite aC
Magnetite clinopyroxenite amC
Magnetite gabbro pamC

Granophyre
Upper clinopyroxenite aC
Chilled margin
CaO CMA Al2O3
B Fe2+ + Fe3+ + Ti C
1000
100
High-Fe basalt
10
High-Mg
basalt
Basaltic
komatiite Peridotite
Calc-alkaline field Komatiite
1
Al Mg La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb Lu
Fig. 5.19. Analyses of the low-Al tholeiites (Koli sill; see Fig. 5.15) plotted on (A) CMA, (B)
Jensens (1976) diagram, and (C) REE patterns for cumulates and chilled margin.
9 Ma; Rastas et. al., 2001) and North Karelia dike swarms. Analyses from the Kuhmo block
(1972 5 Ma; Vuollo et al., 1992) are rather show that all the ~1.98 Ga dikes are typical
scattered but show that the ~1.98 Ga swarm continental Fe-rich tholeiites; tholeiites from
is present throughout the eastern part of the the North Karelia schist belt, however, have
Fennoscandian Shield. a weak island arc tholeiitic (IAT) affinity
According to the earlier geochemical stud- (Vuollo et al., 1992).
ies from North Karelia and the Kuhmo block
(Vuollo et al., 1992) the 1.98 Ga dikes are Fe-
tholeiitic to tholeiitic in composition (Figures
5.55.11). It is thus impossible to separate
them geochemically from the older tholeiitic
340000 360000
20527 Ma 4
20608 Ma
4
3
20469 Ma 205414 Ma
740000
740000
4
204818 Ma 3 5
20788 Ma
21176 Ma
2
Pudasjrvi Suoper
block Paanajrvi
Taivalkoski
block area
211814 Ma
1
720000
720000
10
213332 Ma
10
205440 Ma
FINLAND Kuhmo
block
9
212147 Ma
Iisalmi RUSSIA
~2.12.05 Ga dike swarms block
21066 Ma
9

700000
700000
~2.12.05 Ga dike swarms

7
Sm-Nd age determination 21135 Ma
U-Pb date age determination 21156 Ma
Archean 6
210515 Ma
Paleoproterozoic 8
340000 360000
Fig. 5.20. Distribution and location of dated samples of the ~2.1 Ga dike swarms in eastern and
northern Finland. Age data: 1Perttunen (1987); 2Perttunen and Vaasjoki (2001); 3Tyrvinen (1983);
4Rastas et al. (2001); 5Rsnen and Huhma (2001); 6Silvennoinen (1991); 7Pekkarinen (1979);
8Pekkarinen and Lukkarinen (1992); 9Huhma (1986); 10Jorma Paavola, pers. comm. (2003); and
11Vuollo et al. (2000) and Vuollo and Huhma (2004).
4. Tectonic significance of the dike The new data (Figures 5.4 and 5.22A)
swarms from the Kuhmo block and Russian Karelia in-
dicate that paleostress directions varied within
4.1. Paleoproterozoic rifting events in a short period of time around ~2.45 Ga. As
the Archean Kuhmo block shown in Figure 5.22A, the paleostress trends
are orthogonal and point to small changes in
The earliest (~2.45 Ga) dikes were emplaced the tension field. The reason for this variation
when a late Archean supercontinent (see Hea- may relate to processes in the mantle, e.g.,
man, 1997) began to breakup. The large mafic rising mantle plumes, tapping of different
layered intrusions were formed at this stage. levels of magma sources, etc. Sm-Nd isotope
These intrusions, which are known for their studies indicate that the earliest boninite-like
Cr and PGE ores, include the TornioNrn- parental magma type had negative initial Nd
kvaara belt (Chapter 3) and the Koitelainen values, probably arising from an Archean
and Akanvaara intrusions (Chapter 4) in Fin- subcontinental lithospheric mantle (Puchtel et
land and also the Oulanka complex (Lukku- al., 1997; Hanski et al., 2001). Tholeiitic and
laisvaara, Tsipringa, and Kivakka intrusions) Fe-tholeiitic dikes (~2450 Ma) have roughly
near the Finnish border in Russia, and the Bura- zero to positive Nd values and low Th/Ta and
kovka intrusion east of Lake Onega (Alapieti La/Yb ratios, indicating a depleted or primitive
et al., 1990; Chapter 3). The boninitenoritic mantle source or a modest degree of crustal
gabbronoritictholeiiticFe-tholeiitic dikes, contamination.
which cut the Archean basement, were formed Young large igneous provinces (LIP) have
slightly before or almost contemporaneously been regarded as evidence for the presence of
with the layered intrusions. The dikes are mantle plumes and/or active hotspots (e.g.,
distributed over a broad area extending from White and McKenzie, 1989; Campbell and
Pudasjrvi via the Taivalkoski and Kuhmo Griffiths, 1990; Ernst and Buchan, 1997; El-
blocks to Russian Karelia. dholm and Coffin, 2000), whereas radiating
Overall, the mafic layered intrusions and giant mafic dike swarms have been used to
associated dike swarms appear to herald the identify mantle plumes in older cratonic re-
breakup of the Archean crust and formation gions such as the Canadian Shield (e.g., Ernst
of the continental rift system at the beginning and Buchan, 2001b). However, such huge
of the Paleoproterozoic Era. These 2.45 Ga coherent regions (continuous Archean crustal
intrusions and dikes are intimately associated blocks) are not present in eastern Fennoscan-
with the volcano-sedimentary sequences of dia (see Figures 5.2 and 5.23), and potential
the Sumi group (Lehtonen et al., 1992; Man- reactivation of the same tensional directions
ninen, 1991; Strand, 1993; Hanski and Huhma, (Fig. 5.22) makes it difficult to identify mantle
Chapter 4). The metavolcanic rocks of this age plume centers.
are found in central Lapland, SallaKuusamo, Figure 5.22B shows the main paleostress
and Kainuu (Rsnen et al., 1989; Manninen, trends for the ~2.1 Ga and ~1.98 Ga Fe-tho-
1991; Huhma et al., 1996). It is significant leiitic dike swarms, indicating a difference
that the SumiSariola felsic metavolcanic of ~4050 in their extensional fields. The
rocks near the layered Oulanka complex have 1.981.95 Ga mafic magmatic events were
yielded a U-Pb age of 2434 24 Ma (Turchen- extremely significant for the ore-forming
ko et al., 1991) and that potassic granites are processes of the Fennoscandian Shield, as
associated with the 2.45 Ga mafic magmatism indicated by the ore-bearing ophiolite forma-
(Luukkonen, 1988; Lauri and Mnttri, 2002; tions (a breakup event at ~2.0 Ga) in Finland.
Russia: Stepanov, 1994). The latest Paleoproterozoic Fe-tholeiitictho-
340000 360000
19959 Ma
20034 Ma
2
740000
740000
Suoper
Pudasjrvi Paanajrvi
block Taivalkoski area
block
3
19814 Ma
720000
720000
201433 Ma
199247 Ma
4
4 Kuhmo
block
1.98 Ga dike swarms Iisalmi

block
1
1.98 Ga dike swarms 19725 Ma
7
700000
700000

U-Pb age determination 198580 Ma
Archean 1
Paleoproterozoic
340000 360000
Fig. 5.21. Distribution and location of dated samples of the ~1.98 Ga dike swarms in eastern
and northern Finland. Age data: 1Vuollo et al. (1992); 2Rastas et al. (2001); 3Vuollo et al.
(2000); and 4Vuollo and Huhma (2004).
leiitic dike swarms (1.981.97 Ga) formed and Mutanen, 2002; Taivalkoski block: Kon-
throughout the Archean continental crust tinen et al., 1992, and Jorma Rsnen, pers.
almost contemporaneously. However, it must comm., 2003). Dike swarm investigations to-
be remembered that some other dike swarms, gether with previous field surveys have clearly
such as the 2.45 Ga Fe-tholeiites and tholeiites defined areas of high-grade metamorphism
and 2.32 Ga Fe-tholeiites could also show the (uplifted Archean granulites?) in different
same paleostress directions as the younger parts of the Fennoscandian Shield (Figure
swarms. 5.23). One indication of these dry Archean
The ~2.132.05 Ga Fe-tholeiitic dike areas is the preservation of primary mag-
swarms running in an EW direction through- matic minerals (cloudy feldspar, see Figure
out the Archean crust are indicative of 5.13, and fresh pyroxenes) in the examined
pronounced crustal extension and incipient dike swarms. However, paleomagnetic stud-
rifting. A clear thinning of the continental ies (Mertanen, 1995; Chapter 15) have shown
crust towards the west, together with marine that all Paleoproterozoic dike swarms exhibit
sedimentary environments, is detectable in the strong Svecofennian overprinting. Figure 5.23
marine Jatuli formations of the Tohmajrvi shows the proposed uplifted Archean high-
area in the southern part of the North Karelia grade terranes based on our dike swarm
schist belt, whereas the Ilomantsi area (Ar- studies and existing field data. The most ex-
chean craton) farther east represents thicker tensive areas (the KuusamoPjrvi block
continental crust (see Nyknen et al., 1994). and the VodlozeroViianki block) are located
near the Finnish-Russian border and can be
4.2. Uplifted Archean high-grade clearly delineated on aeromagnetic maps.
terranes Kontinen (2002) showed that the granulites
of the Varpaisjrvi block were uplifted in the
The eastern part of the Fennoscandian Shield Archean time. On the other hand, in some
contains several Archean cratonic blocks sur- parts of the Kuhmo block, all the examined
rounded by Proterozoic cover rocks. Archean dikes have cloudy feldspars, suggesting the
cratons and especially their margins have same deep erosional level. This means that
been demonstrated to be reworked, e.g., show the uplift of the Archean granulites may have
reset isotope ages (Kontinen et. al., 1992; occurred after emplacement of the Paleopro-
Kontinen, 2002). Hence, dike swarms can be terozoic dike swarms.
used to monitor the postcratonization history Dike swarms are ideal tools for recon-
of Archean shields (Halls and Zhang, 1998). structing Precambrian crustal blocks, because
For example, petrographic (cloudy feldspar) they provide information on both long-term
and paleomagnetic (magnetic polarity) data and variable paleostress directions (e.g., Halls
on dikes indicate that Paleoproterozoic (~2.0 and Palmer, 1990; Neuvonen et al., 1997).
Ga) uplift has occurred in the interior of the Paleomagnetic studies from the Varpaisjrvi
Superior Province. block (Neuvonen et al., 1997) show clear
A few speculations can be made about the evidence for rotation of the granulitic crustal
uplifted Archean high-grade terranes in the blocks by ~16. According to Neuvonen et
Kuhmo, Taivalkoski, and Pudasjrvi blocks al. (1997), the rotation of the blocks took
and Russian Karelia in view of our dike swarm place before intrusion of the dikes. Further
studies and knowledge of high-grade terranes integrated studies (including geochemistry,
(Varpaisjrvi: Hltt et al., 2000; Russian age determination, paleomagnetism, seismic
Karelia: Korsakova et. al., 1987, Ylo Systra, reflection surveys, and field mapping) will
pers. comm., 2003; Pudasjrvi block: Huhma probably clarify how the various crustal blocks
360000 370000 360000 370000
730000
730000
730000
730000
2.44 Ga younger
1.98 Ga
720000
720000
720000
720000
~2.1 Ga
2.44 Ga older
710000
710000
710000
710000
360000 370000 360000 370000
361000 362000 Sm-Nd dates
U-Pb dates
205440 Ma Archean
717000
717000
Paleoproterozoic
1.98 Ga dike swarms

199247 Ma 2.1 Ga dike swarms
2.2 Ga layered intrusion/sills
2.45 Ga dike swarms
716000
716000
361000 362000
Fig. 5.22. The 2.45 Ga, 2.1 Ga, and 1.98 Ga mafic dikes and related paleotress directions (heavy ar-
rows) in the Kuhmo block, east-central Finland.
were reassembled and if any rotation or tilting Acknowledgments

was, in fact, involved.
The work presented here was carried out at the
Department of Geology, University of Oulu,
735000 345000 350000 355000 360000 365000 370000 375000
735000
730000
730000
725000
725000
720000
720000
715000
715000
FINLAND RUSSIA
710000
710000
705000
705000
700000
700000
345000 350000 355000 360000 365000 370000 375000
No primary pyroxenes Archean granulites?/uplifted blocks

Fresh to partly fresh primary pyroxenes
Fig. 5.23. Uplifted Archean granulites drawn according to aeromagnetic maps and mineralogical
(cloudy feldspar and primary mineral composition) studies of dike rocks in the Taivalkoski, Pudasjrvi,
and Kuhmo blocks.Varpaisjrvi granulites according to Korsman et al. (1997).
Finland and, Geological Survey of Finland, with English abstracts and figure and table
Rovaniemi, in the framework of the research captions)
project Early Proterozoic mafic magmatism Cadman, A., Tarney, J., Park, R.G., 1990. Intrusion
and crystallisation features in Proterozoic
and related ore deposits in eastern and north- dyke swarms. In: A.J. Parker, P.C. Rick-
ern Finland. The project was financed by wood, D.H. Tucker (Eds.), Mafic Dykes
the Ministry of Trade and Industry, Geologi- and Emplacement Mechanisms. Balkema,
cal Survey of Finland, and the University of Rotterdam, 1324.
Oulu. The Academy of Finland and the Finnish Campbell, I.H., Griffiths, R.W., 1990. Implications
of mantle plume structure for the evolution
International Geological Correlation Pro- of flood basalts. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett. 99,
gramme (IGCP) committee are also thanked 7993.
for financial support. We wish to express Condie, K.C., 1997. Sources of Proterozoic mafic
our sincere gratitude to Professor Emeritus dyke swarms: constraints from Th/Ta and
Tauno Piirainen for numerous discussions La/Yb ratios. Precambrian Res. 81, 314.
during the project and Professor Eero Hanski Eldholm, O., Coffin, M.F., 2000. Large igneous
provinces and plate tectonics. In: M.A.
for reading the manuscript and making many Richards, G. Gordon, R.D. van der Hilst
valuable suggestions. Eero Hanski, Asko Kon- (Eds.), The history and dynamics of global
tinen, Vesa Nyknen, and Jorma Paavola are plate motions. Am. Geophys. Union, Geo-
acknowledged for putting their unpublished phys. Monogr. 121, 309326.
age data at our disposal. We also thank Viena Ernst, R.E., Buchan, K.L., 1997. Giant radiat-
ing dyke swarms; their use in identifying
Arvola for drawing the diagrams. preMesozoic large igneous provinces
and mantle plumes. In: J.J. Mahoney,
M.F. Coffin (Eds.), Large Igneous Prov-
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Chapter 6
OPHIOLITES
P. Peltonen
Cover page: Sheeted dike complex consisting of subparallel EMORB dikes. Plagioclase-
phyric dikes (with a drill hole) are cut by sligthly younger aphyric dikes with chilled
margins. The Jormua ophiolite.
Photo: Asko Kontinen.
Peltonen, P., 2005. Ophiolites. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A.,
The Precambrian of Finland includes three maficultramafic rock complexes

Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio that are interpreted to represent ancient
ophiolites. Of these, the Jormua ophiolite is most complete containing all the
salient units of an ophiolite: mantle tectonites, sheeted dikes, gabbros and
plagiogranites, and lavas and hyaloclastites. The mantle unit of Jormua ophio-
lite is, however, atypical for ophiolites as it mainly consists of subcontinental
lithospheric mantle. Pyroxenitic and hornblenditic dikes intrusive into the
mantle peridotites contain Archean zircon xenocrysts, whereas the gabbros,
plagiogranites, and volcanic rocks crystallized at ~1.95 Ga. These features
imply that the Jormua ophiolite was formed within a passive oceancontinent
transition zone where old subcontinental lithospheric mantle became unroofed
along low-angle detachment faults and was injected by basaltic melts from an
asthenospheric source.
The Outokumpu ophiolite consists of several tens of allochthonous
mantle tectonite massifs that are not associated with sheeted dikes complexes
or abundant basalts. Compared to Jormua, Outokumpu peridotites are more
depleted and are also devoid of pyroxenitic/hornblenditic veins and associated
mantle metasomatism. These massifs are, however, intruded by gabbros that
yield similar crystallization ages as Jormua gabbros, suggesting that Outokumpu
and Jormua share a common origin. The Outokumpu-type massifs probably
represent mantle from the same passive margin environment as the Jormua
ophiolite but from a more oceanic setting. The more residual character of the
Outokumpu peridotites and the presence of Cu-rich sulfide mineralization are
indicative of high heat flow, and the Outokumpu massifs are interpreted to
represent oceanic mantle from ridge-axis discontinuity, which is a favorable
site for both peridotite exposure and hydrothermal activity.
The third ophiolite, Nuttio, was formed in a different geodynamic set-
ting than Jormua and Outokumpu. Highly depleted peridotite and chromite
compositions, together with presence of boninitic, tholeiitic, and calc-alkaline
dikes suggest that Nuttio metaperidotite massifs represent fragments of oceanic
mantle from a fore-arc basin or intra-oceanic island arc. Whether the origin of
Nuttio ophiolite is somehow related to that of the Jormua and Outokumpu, as
the similar isotope age constraints would suggest, remains unclear.
CHAPTER 6 OPHIOLITES 239

1. Introduction which can be subdivided into the autochtho-
nous 2.52.0 Ga Jatuli strata and younger,
The Precambrian of Finland is unique in 2.1 <1.92 Ga, Kaleva strata (e.g., Chapter 7).
exposing several allochthonous rock assem- The Kaleva assemblage consists of two main
blages that closely resemble ophiolites, i.e., tectonostratigraphic units: the autochthonous
fragments of ancient oceanic lithosphere. This lower Kaleva and allochthonous upper Kale-
chapter attempts to provide a state-of-the-art va tectofacies (terminology of Kaleva after
review of what is currently known about these Kontinen, 1987). The upper Kaleva consists of
rocks. The three early Proterozoic ophiolites marine turbiditic metagraywackes with thick
in Finland, Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio, intercalations of black schists and, in the Outo-
display distinct internal characteristics. They kumpu region, metaperidotite massifs close
differ from each other with respect to the to its basal contact. In the Kainuu schist belt
ophiolite units present/preserved, chemical the association of the Jormua ophiolite with
composition of mantle tectonites, and nature allochthonous upper Kaleva is less evident
of their intrusive and extrusive rock types (Figure 6.2) as some of the ophiolite slices are
(Table 6.1). The Jormua ophiolite represents intimately associated with imbricated slices
a complete Ligurian-type ophiolite with mod- of both Archean basement and riftogenic and
erately depleted peridotites being intruded by marine sediments of lower Kaleva. The ophi-
sheeted dikes and capped by a thin basaltic lid olitic Nuttio serpentinites in northern Finland
composed of enriched mid-ocean ridge type are also located within the western margin of
lavas and hyaloclastites, isotropic gabbros, and the Karelian continent (Figure 6.1), but in a
plagiogranites (Kontinen, 1987). In contrast, truly distinct lithological setting compared to
the Outokumpu and Nuttio rocks do not con- Jormua and Outokumpu. They are sporadically
tain much else than strongly depleted and ser- distributed along the eastern margin of the
pentinized mantle peridotites. Nevertheless, Kittil volcanic complex. The whole Kittil
their ophiolitic character is not determined complex has been interpreted to represent
solely by the petrology of the ultramafic and an allochthonous sheet of early Proterozoic
mafic lithologic units but also by their regional oceanic lithosphere (Hanski et al., 1995).
setting. Some important features of the Finn- The chemical heterogeneity of the associated
ish ophiolites become evident from their areal volcanic rocks (EMORB, WPB, OIB, VAB,
distribution depicted in Figure 6.1. They all BON) suggests that this allochthon consists
occur in eastern and northern Finland within of several smaller amalgamated volcanic ter-
allochthonous <2.0 Ga old sedimentary or rains. Interestingly, the obduction of the Kittil
volcano-sedimentary sequences obducted allochthon occurred roughly at the same time
on the Archean (3.52.5 Ga) basement and (~ 1.92 Ga) as that of the Jormua ophiolite and
its autochthonous (2.52.0 Ga) sedimentary the Outokumpu serpentinites (Chapter 4).
cover deposits. The Jormua ophiolite and In the following, description of the regional
Outokumpu-type serpentinite massifs are stratigraphic context is kept to a minimum, as
found close to the western margin of the Kare- this is extensively discussed elsewhere in this
lian craton within the Kainuu schist belt and volume (Chapter 7). Furthermore, although
North Karelia schist belt, respectively. Some the chemical composition of the rocks will
ser pentinite massifs are also located within be scrutinized in some detail, no analytical
the sedimentary-deficient suture between data are tabulated. An interested reader can
the Iisalmi complex (IC) and Eastern Finland find most of the whole-rock analyses that
complex (EFC). Both schist belts consists were used in the construction of the diagrams
of basically similar metasedimentary strata, from the original contributions by Kontinen
240 CHAPTER 6 OPHIOLITES

Table 6.1.
Characteristics of the Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio maficultramafic complexes.
Rock type Jormua Outokumpu Nuttio

western block central block eastern block
Crustal units
Extrusive unit ++ ? ?
Sheeted dike complex ++ ++
Gabbros/plagiogranites ++ +
Ultramafic cumulates ?
Sulfide mineralization +
Intrusive to mantle tectonites

EMORB-dikes ? ++ ++ +
IAB-dikes +
Gabbroic mantle dikes + ++ +
Chromitite pods + + +
OIB-type dikes ? +
Cpx + amph grt mantle dikes ++
Boninitic dikes ? +
Mantle tectonites
Lherzolites (>3 wt.% Al2O3) + +
Depleted lherzolites (1< Al2O3 < 3 wt.%) ++ ++ ++ +
Harzburgites and dunites (<1 wt.% Al2O3) + + ++ ++
absent, + minor component, + + abundant
(1987), Hanski (1997), and Peltonen et al. Evidence for plate tectonics is also seen in
(1996b, 1998). the composition of even older basaltic rocks
(e.g., Condie, 1990), and therefore, it is likely
that oceanic crust during the Proterozoic and
2. Significance of ancient ophiolites Archean was formed in a similar manner as
at the present-day ocean floor. It is important
Although ophiolites are rather common in to keep in mind, however, that because the
younger, particularly Mesozoic orogenic Paleoproterozoic ophiolites are still few in
belts (Tethyan), they are notably rare in the number and seem to have formed in island
Archean and early Proterozoic rock record. arc, mature ocean/oceanic island, and passive
An Archean, 2.505 Ma ophiolite with most of margin settings (Kontinen, 1987; Peltonen et
the major components required by the Penrose al., 1998; Dann, 1991; Scott et al., 1991), they
Conference ophiolite definition (Anonymous, bear little information on the properties of the
1972) has recently been reported from the oceanic lithosphere in major Paleoprotero-
North China Craton (Kusky et al., 2001). The zoic oceanic basins. On a more local scale,
second oldest ophiolites reported are the early however, the presence of ophiolites and their
Proterozoic ophiolites in Finland and Canada characteristic features have great potential to
(Kontinen, 1987; Peltonen et al., 1996b; 1998; yield information on the processes that lead to
Scott et al., 1991). An apparent implication continental breakup, evolution of continental
of the recognition of ancient ophiolites is margins, and subsequent tectonic evolution
that they attest to the operation of modern- of orogenic belts. As will be discussed later,
type plate tectonic processes at that time. this is particularly true also for the suture zone

SUTURE
Gr
an
uli
te
be
lt
Kittil allochthon
Nuttio serpentinite belt
Proterozoic
cover Archean
PC
EFC
Jormua ophiolite
complex
IC Outokumpu-type
ultramafic massifs
Svecofennian
mobile belt
SU
TU
RE

100 km
Fig. 6.1. Distribution of Paleoproterozoic ophiolites in Finland. Modified from Kontinen (1987), Kors-
man et al. (1997), and Hanski and Huhma (Chapter 4).
between the Archean Karelian craton and the Purtuniq ophiolite (Cape-Smith thrustfold-
early Paleoproterozoic Svecofennian mobile belt, Canada) contain both depleted (MORB)
belt (Figure 6.1) in eastern Finland. and enriched (OIB) type basaltic rocks. This
In addition to providing proof for the is convincing evidence that such mantle
operation of modern-type plate tectonics sources were already isolated during the
and recognition of ancient plate boundaries, earliest Proterozoic and their interaction was
Archean and Paleoproterozoic ophiolites are similar to that in the modern mantle (Scott et
sources of other fundamental information. al., 1991; Peltonen et al., 1998). The mantle
The ophiolite basalts, for instance, provide an sections of ophiolites also permit direct study
uncontaminated window to the processes that of the petrology, geochemistry, and physical
took place in the ancient oceanic mantle. For processes of the upper mantle at the scale of
example, the Jormua ophiolite (Finland) and several kilometers. Importantly, the lowest

ophiolitic units may expose not only oce- lite and gabbroic dikes that intrude the mantle
anic lithospheric mantle, but some ophiolites tectonites deeper in the ophiolite stratigraphy,
(Ligurian-type) that record the early stages Peltonen et al. (1998) dated a pegmatitic vari-
of continental breakup may also expose ex- ety of one gabbroic feeder dike. This yielded
humed old subcontinental lithospheric mantle, a high-precision U-Pb zircon age of 1953 2
SCLM (e.g., Rampone and Piccardo, 2000). Ma, which is consided to most reliably date the
Ophiolites that have lower units composed formation of oceanic crust at Jormua. Western
of continental mantle bear some similarities block peridotites particularly, but locally also
to orogenic lherzolite massifs, both of which central block tectonites, have been intruded
provide more representative SCLM samples by dry clinopyroxenite and hydrous horn-
than small mantle xenoliths. blendite dikes. Recently, zircons from two
such clinopyroxenite dikes were dated by the
NORDSIM ion microprobe (Peltonen et al.,
3. Age constrains for 2003). Two distinct types of zircon grains
Finnish ophiolites were recovered from clinopyroxenitic dike
24 F (Table 6.2). The first subgroup consists
The first isotope age determinations of the of euhedral, brownish grains with clear mag-
Finnish ophiolites were published by Huhma matic growth zonation. These zircons yielded
(1986) who reported an U-Pb zircon age of concordant Archean ages with an average of
197218 Ma for the Horsmanaho gabbro peg- 2747 8 Ma (n = 7). One grain records even
matite enclosed in one of the Outokumpu-type an older age of 2858 14 Ma. The second
serpentinite massifs (Table 6.2). This age was subgroup of zircons consists of colorless
based on four highly concordant fractions of rounded grains which lack magmatic growth
euhedral, elongated magmatic zircon grains, textures. They record concordant ages between
which are believed to reliably date the em- 2020 and 1940 Ma (see below for details).
placement of the gabbro. As lavas and sheeted Nd isotope data clearly imply that the clino-
dikes are practically absent in the vicinity of pyroxenite dikes are Proterozoic. Therefore,
the Outokumpu-type massifs, it is unclear if Archean grains in these dikes must represent
this age corresponds to seafloor magmatism. xenocrysts inherited from older metasomatic
The possibility remains that the gabbros veins deeper in the mantle, suggesting that
were emplaced into the uppermost part of the the host serpentinites represent Archean sub-
mantle diapir before the final breakup of the continental lithospheric mantle. The younger
continental crust and the formation of a new age group consists of ~2.1 Ga igneous grains
oceanic basin. In such a case, the Horsmanaho that were partially recrystallized in the 1.95
gabbro would provide the maximum age for Ga event. Hornblenditic, OIB-type, and carbo-
the continental breakup and ophiolite forma- natitic mantle dikes also record crystallization
tion. ages of ~2.1 Ga, thus predating the 1.95 Ga
Samples from the crustal unit of the Jor- ocean-floor magmatism. Altogether, zircon
mua ophiolite, one high-level gabbro and one chronology indicates that the Jormua ophiolite
plagiogranite, yield ages of 1960 12 Ma and includes both Archean and Proterozoic units
1954 11 Ma, respectively (Kontinen, 1987). consistent with its postulated origin within
These determinations were made from clear the oceancontinent transition zone (Peltonen
and euhedral tetragonal zircon prisms and et al., 1998).
constrain the age of the seafloor magmatism The exact age of the Nuttio serpentinite
reasonably well. To define the age relationship massifs is not known. The only age constraint
between the crustal unit of the Jormua ophio- comes from Sm-Nd isotope analyses of two

Table 6.2.
Isotope age data for the Precambrian ophiolites in Finland.
Lithology Sample mineral/method Age Ref.
Jormua
Gabbro A729 zr/conventional 1960 12 Ma 1
Plagiogranite A196 zr/conventional 1954 11 Ma 1
Gabbroic feeder dike A1402 zr/microcapsule 1953 2 Ma 2
Hornblenditic mantle dike A1403 zr/microcapsule > 1.94 Ga 2
Clinopyroxenitic mantle dike 24F xenocrystic zr/sims ~28602730 Ma 3
zr/sims ~20401960 Ma 3
Clinopyroxenitic mantle dike 23B xenocrystic zr/sims ~31102800 Ma 3
OIB mantle dike A1529 zr/sims ~20201960 Ma 3
Carbonatitic mantle vein 60-L purple, high-U zr/sims ~2.1 Ga 3
bright, low-U zr/sims 1948 30 Ma 3
Outokumpu
Gabbro pegmatite A235 zr/conventional 1972 18 Ma 4
Nuttio
Calc-alkaline dike in Sm/Nd, TDM < 2.1 Ga 5
serpentinite
zr = zircon
References: (1) Kontinen, 1987; (2) Peltonen et al., 1998; (3) Peltonen et al., 2003, (4) Huhma, 1986; (5) Hanski and Huhma,
Chapter 4.
cross-cutting calc-alkaline dikes crosscutting sediment intercalations, (ii) a sheeted dike

serpentinites. They yielded a TDM of ~2.1 complex with dike-in-dike intrusive features
Ga, which can be regarded as the maximum implying extensional setting, (iii) cumulate
crystallization age for the dikes (Hanski and gabbros, and (iv) a mantle tectonite unit. Im-
Huhma, Chapter 4). However, the timing of portantly, most of the gabbroic cumulates and
the separation of the Nuttio ultramafic rocks sheeted dikes occur as intrusions within the
from the convecting mantle has not been upper mantle tectonites. Thick units of layered
constrained. ultramafic and gabbroic cumulate rocks, which
characterize many younger ophiolites and
modern oceanic crust, are poorly developed
4. The Jormua ophiolite at Jormua. Overall, the pseudostratigraphy of
the Jormua ophiolite closely resembles that
The Jormua ophiolite in eastern Finland is of lherzolite-type ophiolites (LOT) believed
the prime example of a Precambrian ophio- to have formed at slow spreading ridges or
lite (Kontinen 1987). In fact, it is the oldest continental rift zones (Nicolas, 1989). The
maficultramafic rock complex where the younger analogues for the Jormua ophiolite
transitional contacts between all the main include, e.g., the western Alps ophiolites
ophiolite units can be demonstrated, providing (Lanzo, Liguria, Apennines, Corsica) and the
strong evidence for their consanguinity. All Trinity ophiolite (USA). The internal struc-
the major components of a typical ophiolite ture and postulated paleogeographic setting
are present (Figures 6.2 and 6.3): (i) a unit of of the Jormua ophiolite are thus different
massive and pillow lavas devoid of terrigenic from those of the other two early Proterozoic

3545
Eastern block
P C
Central block
7140 P 7140
cpx OIB
OIB
?
hbl
cpx
hbl cpx hbl
cpx
hbl
cpx
Western block
3545
4 km
Allochthonous rocks
Upper Kaleva tectofacies (deep marine metasediments)
Pillow lava and pillow breccia Serpentinite (mostly Archean

subcontinental mantle)
Sheeted dikes C Chromitite pods
~1.95 Ga
Gabbro Autochthonous rocks
Lower Kaleva tectofacies (riftoge-
P Plagiogranite
nic marine sediments, 2.11.95 Ga)
OIB OIB-type early dikes Jatuli tectofacies (shallow marine,
~2.1 Ga epicratonic sediments, 2.32.1 Ga)
hbl Hornblendite dikes
cpx Archean basement (>2.82.5 Ga)
Clinopyroxenite dikes
Fig. 6.2. Geology of the Jormua ophiolite (modified after Kontinen, 1998b).

ophiolites: the 1.99 Ga Purtuniq ophiolite in distinct generation of maficultramafic dikes
northern Quebec, considered to represent a that are not found within the eastern block.
mature open ocean or back-arc basin (Scott et These early dikes are oriented parallel to
al., 1991), and the 1.83 Ga Payson ophiolite the mantle tectonite foliation and are crosscut
in Arizona believed to be of intra-arc origin. by MORB dikes. The chemical character of
The feature that makes Jormua unique among the early dikes is similar to that of ultra-
ancient ophiolites is that it exposes extensive mafic lamprophyres and OIB (Peltonen et al.,
areas of upper mantle rocks, which enable the 1996b). The western block is truly distinct
direct study of mantle processes at the scale from the eastern and central blocks and bear
of several kilometers. more similarities to the orogenic lherzolite
Since the original description of the massifs than to oceanic mantle. Major dif-
Jormua ophiolite (Kontinen, 1987) it has be- ferences between the western block and the
come evident that the complex is much more remaining ophiolite include: (a) the western
variable than originally assumed. Detailed block peridotites are less depleted compared to
mapping of the mantle section has revealed those of the other blocks, (b) the western block
major differences between individual tectonic is not associated with any of the rock types
blocks (Peltonen et al., 1996b; 1998). These of the crustal unit (MORB dikes or lavas), (c)
are summarized in Table 6.1. The eastern block the western block is spatially associated with
is similar to normal Ligurian-type ophiolites imbricated slices of the Archean basement and
as it consists of depleted mantle harzburgites riftogenic autochthonous lower Kaleva sedi-
that have been intruded by MORB dikes, gab- ments instead of allochthonous upper Kaleva
broic pods, and small podiform chromitites sediments, and (d) the western block mantle
(Figure 6.2). Dike complex or, locally, mantle tectonites are extensively veined by clinopyro-
tectonites, are directly overlain by a thin, origi- xenitic and hornblenditic high-pressure cu-
nally 100400-m-thick, extrusive unit, which mulate dikes (Figure 6.3, 6.4G, 6.4H). These
mainly consists of pillow and massive lavas differences between the individual blocks bear
(Figure 6.4A). The lavas are overlain by basic a major role in reconstructing and presenting
tuffs interbedded with carbonate rocks which the paleogeographic setting for the Jormua
in turn are structurally overlain by upper Ka- ophiolite (Section 8 of this chapter).
leva graywacke and black shales. The central
block is in many respects similar to the eastern 4.1. The crustal unit
block, but some important differences are
evident. This block mainly consists of mantle Petrology of the basalts
peridotites and sheeted dikes, while gabbros The basalticgabbroic crustal part of the Jor-
and lavas are almost absent. This suggests that mua ophiolite is rather thin, only 100400
the central block represents a somewhat deeper m on average. Locally, field observations
section of the original ophiolite stratigraphy. indicate that basaltic flows deposited directly
In fact, the central block might represent onto mantle peridotites. The extrusive rocks
a nearly vertical section through the lower include pillow lava and massive lava flows
oceanic crust and uppermost mantle as the with minor hyaloclastites. Kontinen (1987)
volume of dikes gradually decreases from the argued that the presence of hyalo clastite
spectacular 100% in dike-in-dike sets (Figure inter pillow matrix and the vesicle-rich pil-
6.4B) in the southeast to sporadic deep dikes low flows imply eruption in a shallow-water
intruding the peridotites (Figure 6.4C) in the environment. Most of the basaltic rocks in the
northwestern part (Figure 6.2). The central Jormua ophiolite, however, are found as dikes.
block peridotites have been intruded also by a They occur as an extensive dike complex > 1

Basic hyaloclastic tuffite,
carbonate rocks
Pillow lava
Massive lava
Pillow breccia and hyaloclas-
Chromitites tite
Sheeted dikes, gabbro, and

mantle peridotite screens
Fe-Ti-gabbro and plagiogran-
ite (1954 11 Ma)
Isotropic gabbro
Early OIB-type dikes
(1960 12 Ma)
(~2.1 Ga)
Deep dikes
Gabbro pods Gabbroic dikes

(1953 2 Ma)
Mantle tectonite (serpenti-
nite)
Clinopyroxenitic mantle dikes
Mantle foliation (~2.1 Ga)
Hornblenditic mantle dikes

(~2.1 Ga)
Fig. 6.3. Stratigraphic reconstruction of the Jormua ophiolite. The lowermost unit separated by a
fault refers to the western block of the ophiolite (see Table 6.1 and Figure 6.2). The western block is
lithologically distinct from the remaining ophiolite. Recent ion microprobe age determinations (Pel-
tonen et al., 2003) suggest that the ~2.1 Ga clinopyroxenitic dikes from both the central and western
blocks contain inherited Archean zircon grains and thus these blocks represent ancient subcontinen-
tal lithospheric mantle. Hornblenditic dikes within the western block and early OIB dikes at the
central block are most likely related and Paleoproterozoic in age, being older than the main suite
basalts and gabbros.
km in thickness and several square kilometers cm thick, aphyric or plagioclase-phyric with

in extent and also as individual dikes intrud- sharp chilled mutual contacts (Figure 6.4B).
ing mantle tectonites deeper in the ophiolite Half-split dikes and marginless septa are com-
stratigraphy. The presence of lava, gabbro, mon, attesting to an extensional setting typical
and mantle tectonite as interdike screens of ophiolitic dike-in-dike complexes. These
suggests that the contact between the main dikes are generally well-preserved, whereas
ophiolite units are transitional. Dikes in the individual dikes deeper in the ophiolite stra-
sheeted dike complexes are generally 20120 tigraphy are strongly altered because of the

A B
C D
E F
G H

ser pentinization of the adjacent peridotites compatible with an origin as ultramafic lampro-
(Figure 6.4C). phyre melts derived from a mantle domain in
Two distinct types of basalts are present the stability field of garnet.
in the Jormua ophiolite, the main suite ba- The chemical and Nd isotope composi-
salts and early dikes. The former include tion of the basalts implies that two distinct
all the MORB-type lavas and sheeted dike mantle sources were incolved. Peltonen et al.
complexes, whereas the latter are OIB-type (1996b) modeled trace element abundances
and occur as subordinate dikes deep in the and came to the conclusion that the early
ophiolite stratigraphy (Figure 6.3). Field ob- dikes represent melts from a distinct OIB-like
servations imply that the emplacement of the deep mantle source. The early dikes thus
early dikes preceded that of the main suite provide important evidence for the existence
basalts. The main suite basalts are subalkaline of OIB-type mantle sources already at 2 Ga.
EMORB with flat chondrite-normalized REE The modeling further suggested that the main
patterns (Figure 6.5A) and only moderately suite lavas and sheeted dikes were not derived
depleted Nd composition [Nd (at 1950 Ma) from a normal depleted mantle source either.
~ +1.9]. Most of the basalt samples, espe- Trace element ratios imply that they contain
cially lavas, cannot be related to each other a small and rather uniform proportion of an
by fractional crystallization (see below) but OIB-like component and that their chemical
instead represent distinct, rather primitive melt composition is consistent with mixing of a
fractions directly fed from an asthenospheric NMORB end member with a small amount of
diapir. This is consistent with the absence an an OIB-like end member. Magma mixing
of large cumulate units (magma chambers), was considered unlikely because of the com-
where pre-eruption fractionation would have plete absence of compositionally intermediate
occurred. The chemical composition of the dikes between the MORB-like main suite
OIB-type early dikes is truly distinct from basalts and OIB-type early dikes. Instead,
that of the main suite basalts. They have high Peltonen et al. (1996b) suggested that the OIB-
Nb/Y similar to alkali basalts or basanites. like dikes were emplaced during the initial
Their low Al2O3, high Cr and Ni, fractionated stages of continental rifting and oceanic basin
LREE and HREE (Figure 6.5A) together with formation. Meanwhile, they metasomatized
non-depleted Nd (at 1950 Ma) close to zero are the uppermost convective mantle from which
Fig. 6.4. (facing page) (A) Hydrothermally altered pillow lava. Note the concentrically zoned pillows
with vuggy interiors and fine-grained pillow rims against the hyaloclastic interpillow matrix; Asko
Kontinen for scale. (B) Outcrop of sheeted dike complex consisting of 100% of subparallel EMORB
dikes. Plagioclase-phyric dikes (with drill holes) are being cut by slightly younger apphyric dikes with
chilled margins. Diagonal light streaks are traces of late fractures. (C) Main suite EMORB dikes (deep
dikes) intruded into mantle tectonites. The dark dike margins are due to postmagmatic dikeperido-
tite interaction during serpentinization and regional metamorphism. (D) Gabbroic feeder dike (dark)
intruding mantle tectonite. Note the prominent concentration of plagioclase (now largely epidote)
into the core of the dike. (E) Knobby-textured mantle peridotite with serpentine pseudomorphs
after orthopyroxene standing up with higher relief. (F) Small massive chromitite pod (black) approxi-
mately 1by 5 m in size. (G) Clinopyroxenitic cumulate dike (brown weathering surface) intruding
mantle peridotite. (H) Garnet-bearing hornblenditic mantle dike, garnet (white pseudomorphs) crys-
tals define comb-layering. Photos by the author except (A) by Ari Linna, and (B), (C), and (F) by Asko
Kontinen; (D), (E), (G), and (H) reprinted with the permission from Oxford University Press.

A
1000 Lavas and dikes
Chondrite normalized
100
Jormua
10
Outokumpu
1
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
500 B
Gabbros
Jormua plagiogranites
100
Chondrite normalized
Jormua gabbros
10
1 Outokumpu gabbros
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
Fig. 6.5. (A) Chondrite (Boynton, 1984) normalized rare earth element patterns for lavas and basaltic
dikes from the Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolites. For similar patterns of Nuttio basalts the reader
is referred to Chapter 3 of this volume. The Jormua ophiolite contains two distinct suites of basaltic
rocks: EMORB type lavas and dikes with flat chondrite normalized patterns and less common OIB-
type dikes with fractionated patterns. Note that the basalts spatially associated with Outokumpu-type
ultramafic massifs have lower absolute REE abundances and LREE depleted patterns indicative of their
derivation from more depleted sources than the Jormua EMORBs. (B) Chondrite-normalized rare
earth element patterns for gabbro and plagiogranite samples from Outokumpu and Jormua. Note the
generally lower REE abundances of the Outokumpu gabbros compared to those from Jormua consis-
tent with their coeval formation with the associated basalts. Plagiogranites from Jormua are charac-
terized by more fractionated patterns (accompanied by negative Eu-anomaly) than Jormua gabbros.

the main suite basalts were soon to be gener- ever, their internal structures and alteration
ated. Alternatively, the source of the main of primary minerals are distinct. While the
suite obtained its OIB-like component through upper-level gabbros frequently underwent
thermal erosion of the base of the old OIB- extensive closed-system fractionation, the
metasomatized subcontinental lithospheric gabbro dikes crystallized in dynamic conduits
mantle. Importantly, the absence of any kind and developed mineral layering parallel to the
of geochemical subduction signature in the ba- conduit walls. Locally, large clinopyroxene
salts implies that the Jormua ophiolite did not phenocrysts occur aligned parallel to the dike
form in an arc-related geotectonic setting. margins. Some crystals show microtextures in-
dicative of pervasive ductile deformation and
Gabbros and plagiogranites they may represent megacrysts transported
Gabbros are a subordinate component of the from deeper levels of the mantle (Peltonen
Jormua ophiolite. Two main types are pres- et al., 1998). In such feeder dikes, the dike
ent: (a) relatively large, up to > 1 km2 size centers are composed of progressively more
upper-level stocks spatially associated with evolved cumulates (Figure 6.4D). The gab-
volcanic rocks and (b) thin, only a couple of bro stocks and feeder dikes also underwent
meters wide but tens to hundreds of meters distinct types of alteration: while olivine
long gabbro dikes intruding and brecciating and clinopyroxene were replaced by chlorite
mantle tectonites (Figure 6.4D). Most of the and amphibole in the high level gabbros, the
group (a) gabbro intrusions can be regarded as feeder dike gabbros became rodingitized due
belonging to the oceanic crustal unit, but some to serpentinization of the enclosing mantle
are completely enclosed by mantle tectonites. peridotites.
They range in composition from high-Mg In the AFM diagram of Irvine and Baragar
olivine gabbros to ilmenite-rich ferrogabbros (1971), samples from the upper-level gabbro
with minor tonalitetrondhjemite segrega- stocks and feeder dike gabbros form separate
tions, which closely resemble oceanic pla- groups. First, upper-level gabbro samples
giogranites of younger ophiolites and modern show extensive compositional range along the
oceanic ridges (Kontinen, 1987). The group MgOFeOtot join, indicative of extensive tho-
(b) gabbroic dikes are found stratigraphi- leiitic fractional crystallization of their paren-
cally beneath the upper-level gabbro stocks. tal magmas (Figure 6.6). These gabbros range
Field evidence suggests that they represent from primitive Mg-gabbros to ferrogabbros
feeder dikes for the upper-level gabbro bodies. that may contain up to 10 vol.% ilmenite.
Samples from the upper-level gabbro stocks, Low abundances of incompatible elements,
gabbroic feeder dikes, and plagiogranites have such as REE, imply that the amount of inter-
yielded a whole-rock + clinopyroxene Sm-Nd cumulus liquid in the gabbros is low and that
isochron of 1936 43 Ma with an initial Nd postcumulus growth took place (Kontinen,
(at 1950 Ma) of +2.0 0.3. Importantly, the 1987). Chondrite-normalized REE patterns
average main suite basalt plots exactly along (Figure 6.5B) remain subparallel through the
this isochron implying that the lavas, sheeted crystallization sequence with all showing clear
dikes, plagiogranites, upper-level gabbros, and positive Eu-anomalies. Such patterns indicate
gabbroic feeder dikes are cogenetic and rep- that the accumulation of olivine (+spinel)
resent progressively deeper expressions of the and plagioclase have controlled the cumulate
oceanic crust-forming magmatism in Jormua compositions, whereas clinopyroxene or am-
(Peltonen et al., 1998). Originally, both types phibole fractionation was less important. The
of gabbros consisted of low-pressure plagio- feeder dike gabbros have a similar range in
clase+clinopyroxeneolivine cumulates. How- MgOFeOtot and similar REE patterns but are

FeOtot
0 100 P Jormua plagiogranites
Jormua upper-level gabbros
10
90
Jormua gabbroic feeder
20 dikes
80
30
Outokumpu gabbro stocks
70
40 P
60
THOLEIITIC
50 P
50
60 40
P
770 CALC-ALKALINE
P 30
P
80 20
P
90
10
100 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Na2O+K2O MgO
Fig. 6.6. The AFM diagram for Jormua and Outokumpu gabbros and plagiogranites. Boundary between
tholeiitic and calc-alkaline series after Irvine and Baragar (1971). Note how the gabbroic feeder dikes
are depleted in alkalies due to rodingitization reactions.
extremely depleted in alkalis. This is a typical (Figure 6.6). Plagiogranites have equal Zr/Y
compositional feature of gabbros that have with high-level gabbros and typically occur as
been enclosed by peridotites undergoing ser- segregations and dikes within highly fraction-
pentinization. Such gabbros typically become ated gabbro pods (Kontinen, 1987). They have
depleted in silica and enriched in calcium, yielded a crystallization age equal to that of the
and lose their alkalies due to interaction with gabbros (~1.95 Ga, Table 6.2), implying that
serpentinizing hydrous fluids. Ultimately, their origin is intimately related to the oceanic
they become transformed into grossular and crust-forming magmatism. The REE patterns
diopside-bearing rodingites by-products of of plagiogranites are more fractionated than
serpentinization (e.g., OHanley, 1996). This those of the most evolved gabbros and show
implies that the feeder dike gabbros at Jormua pronounced negative Eu-anomalies.
that have the typical metarodingite mineral as-
semblage diopside-epidote-amphiboles-gros- 4.2. The mantle section
sular garnet, were emplaced into the peridotite
protoliths before extensive serpentinization of The well-exposed mantle section makes the
their host rocks. Jormua ophiolite unique among ancient ophio-
The plagiogranite analyses plot along the lites. It permits the direct study of processes
(Na2O+K2O)FeOtot join in the AFM diagram that took place in the upper mantle during
and show extreme alkali (sodium) enrichment the early Proterozoic continental breakup and

formation of a new oceanic basin (Peltonen These dunites are not, however, comparable to
et al., 1998). In fact, mantle rocks cover ap- the thick layered cumulate sequences common
proximately 70% of the total exposure of the in many younger ophiolites.
Jormua ophiolite (i.e., > 30 km2). The mantle Chromite is the only primary mineral
section consists of mantle peridotites and that has been preserved to some extent in
various types of intrusive rock types. Because Jormua metaperidotites. It occurs as discrete
of their intimate genetic relationship with the grains or is sometimes concentrated into thin
crustal unit, basaltic dikes and gabbroic feeder seams. Most of the grains are thoroughly
dikes, which also intrude mantle tectonites, altered but occasionally translucent deep red
were described already in the preceding sec- chromite cores are present and surrounded
tion. In addition, the western block peridotites by ferrian chromite and chromian magnetite.
are veined by abundant clinopyroxenitic and The present silicate mineralogy of the mantle
hornblenditic dikes that do not have counter- tectonites is dominated by non-pseudomor-
parts in the crustal unit. They are not coeval phic antigorite. Such non-pseudomorphic
with the formation of the oceanic crust in textures form through recrystallization of
Jormua and are therefore described separately pseudomorphic serpentine textures or di-
below. rectly through hydration of Fe-Mg silicates
at elevated temperatures (OHanley, 1996).
Serpentinites Bastite ovoids represent pseudomorphosed
Most of the Jormua mantle sequence consists primary orthopyroxene and the intervening
of thoroughly serpentinized and regionally antigorite domains with some magnetite dust
metamorphosed lherzolites and harzburgites, derive from mantle olivine. Stable prograde
which do not show any evidence for magmatic mineral parageneses vary according to the
layering or cumulus textures. Instead, their tex- bulk-rock-composition of the serpentinites.
tures and chemical compositions discussed The antigorite-olivine-tremolite assemblage,
in more detail in Section 7 are consistent for example, belongs to the ideal prograde
with them representing mantle peridotites that sequence of metamorphosed serpentinites
have undergone variable degrees (~725%) equilibrated at the lowermost-amphibolite
of partial melting. The primary mineralogy facies (Will et al., 1990). In some less calcic
of the peridotites has been nearly completely samples the stable mineral paragenesis is an-
destroyed by multistage serpentinization and tigorite-olivine. Qualitative estimates for the
regional metamorphism with the exception of metamorphic peak temperature at Jormua are
occasional chromite relicts. Still, the central 480 and 530 C for pressures of 2 and 5 kb,
parts of the larger serpentinite massifs display respectively. Later, metamorphic olivine and
obvious mantle tectonite fabrics and foliation tremolite became partly replaced by pseudo-
defined by bastite pseudomorphs after elon- morphic lizardite. Talc-carbonate alteration is
gated/flattened orthopyroxene crystals (Figure present as narrow marginal zones of serpen-
6.4E). This foliation is intersected at steep tinite massifs. Talc-carbonate rocks consist
angles by 1950 Ma gabbroic feeder dikes (em- of carbonate and talc in approximately equal
placed >50 Ma before the onset of the regional proportions, together with some magnetite
deformation), which clearly implies that this and sulfides (pyrite, pyrrhotite, pentlandite,
foliation must be of a mantle origin. Locally, gersdorffite, and trace chalcopyrite). The car-
some serpentinite domains are moderately bonate-talc and antigorite-carbonate-talc as-
enriched in altered chromite and the possibil- semblages stabilized under the same prograde
ity remains that they represent small dunitic conditions but at significantly higher XCO2 than
cumulate pods within the residual peridotites. the carbonate-free mineral assemblages.

Although the general lithological charac- (Conqur, 1971; Bodinier et al., 1987a,
teristics of the eastern block suggest that the 1987b; Fabris et al., 2001). Clinopyroxenite
peridotites associated with the gabbros and dikes are medium-grained ortho- and mesocu-
sheeted dikes represent oceanic lithospheric mulates. Clinopyroxene is the only cumulus
mantle stabilized at ~1.95 Ga, the Re-Os study mineral and has been extensively replaced
of Tsuru et al. (2000) resulted in a different by secondary low-Al actinolitic amphibole.
interpretation. They demonstrated that Re-Os Hornblenditic dikes form a more heteroge-
isotope composition of chromite separated neous group of dikes: they include medium-
both from eastern block serpentinites and grained hornblendite dikes and veins which
local chromitite boulders are consistent with may contain garnet, pegmatitic varieties,
closed-system behavior. Chromite from ser- garnetite veins, and carbonatitic segregations
pentinites yield very depleted present-day (Figure 6.4H). The primitive mantle-normal-
187
Os/188Os with an average calculated initial ized REE patterns are particularly informative
Os(at 1950 Ma) of 5.1 0.8. Such a nega- in petrogenetic studies. Clinopyroxenites have
tive value requires that the peridotites were low abundances of REE and slightly upward-
depleted in Re already approximately one bil- convex patterns consistent with clinopyroxene
lion years before the time of the formation of accumulation (Figure 6.7A). The mantle nor-
the Jormua ophiolite at 1.95 Ga and, therefore, malized pattern shapes for the hornblendites
they most likely represent old subcontinental clearly reflect their mineralogical composition.
lithospheric mantle (SCLM). This suggests Hornblenditic samples yield patterns similar
that true oceanic mantle (asthenospheric diapir to those expected for pure hornblende on the
at 1.95 Ga) is probably not exposed at Jormua, basis of published partitioning coefficients
but that all peridotites represent stretched sliv- (Figure 6.7B). In addition, dikes with abundant
ers of the subcontinental lithospheric mantle. garnet pseudomorphs yield HREE-enriched
This does not contradict with the presence of and LREE-depleted pattern shapes indicative
ocean floor basaltic rocks (dikes, lavas, gabbro of accumulation of garnet (Figure 6.7C). Tran-
pods) within the eastern block peridotites. In sitional cumulates are dikes which contain
a compatible scenario, listric faulting would both magmatic amphibole and garnet (now
have exposed SCLM at the incipient oceanic preudomorphosed) in varying amounts (Fig-
basin, which subsequently became intruded by ure 6.7D). The presence of magmatic garnet in
basalts fed from the underlying asthenospheric these dikes is indicative of their relatively high
diapir (for more details, see Section 8). crystallization pressures of the order of 1015
kb (Green, 1969; Vtil et al., 1988).
Clinopyroxenitic and hornblenditic The exact timing of the emplacement of
mantle dikes of the western block clinopyroxenitic and hornblenditic dikes is not
As emphasized above, the western block peri- well-constrained. Two clinopyroxenite dikes,
dotites of the Jormua ophiolite are unique in one from the western and one from the central
being intruded by clinopyroxenitic and horn- block, so far dated by ion microprobe, contain
blenditic cumulate dikes (Table 6.1; Figure two concordant zircon populations with dis-
6.4G). Such dikes are not typical of oceanic tinct ages: Archean (~2.72.8 Ga) and Paleo-
mantle units but are a more typical feature of proterozoic (~2.05 Ga and 1.95 Ga), (Peltonen
the subcontinental lithospheric mantle. et al., 2003). This age data imply that at least
Peltonen et al. (1998) stressed the similar- the western block peridotites must represent
ity of these intrusive rocks with those found Archean subcontinental lithospheric mantle.
within orogenic lherzolite massifs of the Hornblenditic dikes (and related carbonatitic
French Pyrenees particularly that of Lherz veins) have yielded crystallization ages equal

A 50 B 50
Clinopyroxenitic mantle dikes
10 10
1 1
Hornblenditic mantle dikes
La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb La Ce Pr Nd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
C 50 D 50
10 10
1 1
Garnet-rich mantle veins Transitional mantle dikes
Fig. 6.7. Primitive mantle-normalized (McDonough and Sun, 1995) REE patterns for clinopyroxenitic
and hornblenditic mantle dikes from the western block of the Jormua ophiolite. Clinopyroxenites
are equigranular ortho- and mesocumulates (A), whereas hornblendites form a more heterogeneous
suite, consisting of pure hornblendites (B), garnet-rich dikes (C), and transitional cumulates (D).
to or slightly older than those of gabbros and Ga. The involvement of the ascending astheno-
plagiogranites (Table 6.1) and could represent spheric diapir and associated magmatism at
alkaline magmatism related to the initial stages 1.95 Ga inevitably led to intense heating of
of continental rifting. They do not have their the adjacent streched remnants of the Archean
counterparts in the crustal sequence of the SCLM, and resulted in strong recrystallization
Jormua ophiolite and therefore it is probable of primary 2.7 Ga and 2.1 Ga zircon crystals in
that the magmatism evolved from early OIB- these dikes into anhedral metamorphic grains,
type magmatism towards EMORB-type in with ages close to 1.95 Ga (Table 6.2).
the course of continental breakup. It is likely
that the mantle peridotites of those ophiolitic
blocks that contain either OIB-type, clinopyro- 5. Outokumpu-type ultramafic
xenitic or hornblenditic dikes represent the massifs
remnants of the Archean subcontinental
lithospheric mantle. It is interpreted that the The second occurrence of ophiolitic rocks
clinopyroxenites and OIB-type dikes and horn- is found within the North Karelia schist
blendites were emplaced in the SCLM at ~2.1 belt, which is located at the junction of the

N
Losomki
Miihkali
Luikonlahti
KUOPIO Kylylahti
Sola
OUTOKUMPU
Tilahti
JOENSUU
Kivijrvi
Sv
ec
Petinen
of
en
nid
es
20 km Puiroonmki
Serpentinite massifs (~1.97 Ga) Jatulian: mainly quartzites, minor

metavolcanic and calc-silicate rocks
Allochthonous metaturbidites upper 1.891.80 Ga granitoids + minor gab-
Kaleva bros
Autochthonous metaturbidites lower Archean Karelian craton
Kaleva
Fig. 6.8. Distribution of Outokumpu-type ultramafic massifs in the North Karelia schist belt. Note
that some massifs (Tilahti, Puiroonmki) are found in close vicinity to the westernmost (subsurface)
margin of the Karelian craton. After Sntti et al. (in preparation).
Neoarchean Karelian craton in the east and mafic massifs range from several kilometers
the 1.931.80 Ga Svecofennian island arc long and several hundred meters thick tabular
complex in the west (Figure 6.1). Within this bodies to just a few tens of meters long and
domain, several tens of ultramafic massifs of some meters thick lenses (Gal et al., 1975;
variable size are distributed over an area of Koistinen, 1981). Their estimated total volume
more than 5000 km2 (Huhma and Huhma, exceeds 200 km3 (Kontinen, 1998a). Examples
1970; Koistinen, 1981; Figure 6.8). The ultra- of these massifs are illustrated in Figures 6.9

and 6.10. The chemical composition of the 5.1. Ultramafic rocks
peridotites implies that they are refractory re-
sidual mantle peridotites, i.e., harzburgites and Serpentinization, metasomatic alteration, and
dunites (see Section 7). The ultramafic rocks regional metamorphism of the peridotite mas-
have commonly been intruded by gabbroic sifs have resulted in complete replacement
and basaltic stocks and dikes which are absent of the primary silicate minerals. The only
in the enclosing metasediments. Importantly, remaining primary mineral is chromite, which
some large massifs, e.g., Outokumpu, are is well-preserved within the chromitite bodies
practically devoid of all kinds of mafic rocks. and may still yield information of the igne-
These gabbro intrusions have yielded a U-Pb ous evolution of the complex (Vuollo et al.,
zircon age of ~1.97 Ga (Huhma, 1986; Table 1995; Walker et al., 1996). The metamorphic
6.2) and thus they intruded the peridotites some equilibria of the ultramafic massifs has been
70 Ma before their inferred ~1.90 Ga obduc- studied in detail by Sntti (1996) who came to
tion. Koistinen (1981) proposed that these ul- the conclusion that the ultramafic massifs were
tramafic massifs might represent fragments of thoroughly serpentinized into lizardite before
ancient ophiolites and thus oceanic lithosphere. the onset of the regional metamorphism. The
Soon after, this view was strengthened by the regional metamorphic isograds transect the Ou-
identification of the Jormua maficultramafic tokumpu nappe and thus individual ultramafic
complex in the northwestern extension of the massifs record varying metamorphic grades
belt as a well-preserved ophiolite; also, similar (Figure 6.11A, B, C). According to Sntti et
crystallization ages were obtained for the Ou- al. (in preparation) ultramafic massifs record
tokumpu and Jormua gabbros (Huhma, 1986; four distinct mineral parageneses depending
Kontinen, 1987). Although some basaltic and on the grade of the regional metamorphism
gabbroic dikes intrude the peridotites, the (Table 6.3). The main constituent of the anti-
ophiolitic sequence of Outokumpu is far from gorite zone massifs is non-pseudomorphic
complete: an extensive sheeted dike complex antigorite found as a fine-grained mass of
is absent, a layered cumulate sequence has not interpenetrating, randomly oriented to sub-
been positively identified, and seafloor-type parallel blades and flakes. Increase in the
volcanic rocks are uncommon, being present metamorphic grade has resulted in the appear-
only in the Losomki area (Park and Bowes, ance of olivine and tremolite porphyroblasts,
1981). However, the presence of chromitite which give the rocks a mottled appearance.
bodies with high IPGE/PPGE ratios and Chromite (now largely chromian magnetite)
mantle-like initial Os isotope compositions schlierens represent banding inherited from
strengthens the ophiolite connection (Vuollo the mantle tectonite protolith. The ultramafic
et al., 1995; Walker et al., 1996). The incom- bodies within the higher grade zones have
plete nature of the Outokumpu ophiolite is massive, porphyroblastic or crystalloblastic
certainly partly due to tectonic dismembering textures without any preferred orientation. This
and selective preservation. However, the non- implies crystallization of the metamorphic
fractionated composition of the basalts (see paragenesis in a late, postkinematic stage of
below) and extremely low Pb content of the the regional metamorphism. In addition to the
sulfide ores, together with their intimate as- serpentinization that thoroughly hydrated the
sociation with mantle tectonites, suggest that ultramafic massifs, the outer margins of the
Outokumpu-type massifs more likely represent peridotite massifs became metasomatically
fragments of ancient peridotitic seafloor (Gal altered. Removal of Mg and addition of Ca and
and Parkkinen, 1993). CO2 produced successive shells of carbonate
rocks and silicified rocks around the massifs

OUTOKUMPU MINE
CROSS-SECTION Y=186.63
10A 23A 24A 703 461 718 112A 726 719 728
724
2 km
Mica schist Calc-silicate rock Black schist Drill hole
Quartz rock Serpentinite Ore Tectonic slide
Fig. 6.9. Vertical cross-section of an ultramafic massif associated with semimassive Cu-Zn-Co-Ni
sulfide ore, Outokumpu. Note how the quartz and calc-silicate alteration shells, together with black
schists, envelop the serpentinite bodies (modified from Koistinen, 1981).
(Haapala, 1936; Kontinen, 1998a). As Konti- et al., 1996a) and extensive substitution of Cr in
nen (1998a) pointed out, individual ultramafic garnet, diopside, epidote, tremolite, muscovite,
massifs are often completely surrounded by and staurolite (Figure 6.11D, E; Eskola, 1933;
such thin metasomatic alteration shells. This Treloar, 1987).
implies that the alteration of the peridotites
into carbonate and quartz rocks took place af- 5.2. Basaltic rocks
ter the obduction-related fragmentation of the
ultramafic massifs. Sedimentary origin for the Mafic rocks are particularly common in the
carbonate and quartz rocks can be discarded on Losomki, Miihkali, and Kylylahti serpenti-
the basis of the presence of abundant chromite nite massifs. Small stocks and dikes of me-
and mantle-like abundances of the least mobile dium- to coarse-grained metagabbro are the
elements such as Ir, Cr, Ni, and Zr (Kontinen, most common variant, whereas fine-grained
1998a). The metamorphism of the serpentinites basaltic dikes are uncommon. The volume of
in the Outokumpu region resulted in breakdown mafic intrusions relative to these ultramafic
of the primary Cr-bearing phases (chromite, hosts ranges from 5 vol.% to 25 vol.%. Field
clinopyroxene) and subsequent redistribution observations suggest that the gabbros rep-
of Cr by metamorphic fluids resulted in the for- resent intrusions into the mantle tectonites
mation of rare mineral species such as eskolaite (Asko Kontinen, pers. comm., 2001). Many
(Cr2O3; Kouvo and Vuorelainen, 1958; Peltonen occurrences comprise clear dikes or small

N
200 m
Outokumpu association Country rocks

Serpentinite Mica schist
Carbonate rocks Black schist
Tremolite/diopside skarn Calc-silicate rocks
Sulfide ore Metabasalt

Granite
Fig. 6.10. Geological map of the ultramafic massif associated by the Luikonlahti Cu-Zn ore. Quartz-
rich alteration margins are absent but calc-silicate rocks (tremolite/diopside skarns) are abundant at
the margins of the serpentinite massif and frequently are the host rock for the ore. The Luikonlahti
body is extensively intruded by granitic dikes related to the younger Maarianvaara granite. Modified
from the map of the Malmikaivos Ltd.
pods with apophyses and chilled margins which attests to their pretectonic origin and
against peridotite. Dike-in-dike intrusion emplacement (Figure 6.11F). Narrow (<1 m
structures are present in several gabbro oc- wide) dikes have been completely altered to
currences suggesting emplacement in an chlorite and amphibole. Thicker dikes contain
extensional tectonic regime. All intrusions metagabbroic portions in their cores. The
enclosed in the ultramafic massifs are severely larger stock-form bodies have chlorite schists
tectonized, strongly schistose, and folded, along their margins and less strained and al-

A B
C D
E F
Fig. 6.11. (A) Medium-grade metamorphic mineral paragenesis antigorite (gray) + olivine (granular)
+ tremolite (bladed) in mantle tectonite, crossed polarizers, width of the image is ~5 mm. (B) Stable
mineral paragenesis orthopyroxene + carbonate + olivine in mantle tectonite, crossed polarisers,
width of the image is ~5 mm. (C) High-grade mineral paragenesis olivine (black) + orthopyroxene
(white, retrograded by talc) in ultramafic rock. (D) Eskolaite (Cr2O3) crystal in Cu-ore from the
Outokumpu sulfide mine. (E) Chromian diopside crystals in carbonate-rich skarn. (F) Polished slab of
deformed gabbro stock intruded into Outokumpu-type peridotite massif. Photos: (A), (B), (C), and
(F) by Jaakko Sntti; (D) and (E) by Jari Vtinen.

Table 6.3.
Metamorphic mineral parageneses of the Outokumpu nappe (Figure 6.8) from east to west
(after Sntti et al., in preparation).
Zone Characteristic mineral assemblage Equilibration temperature
Antigorite zone antigorite olivine tremolite 500550 C

Talc zone olivine+talc 550680 C
Anthophyllite zone olivine+anthophyll. cummington. talc 660700 C
Enstatite zone olivine+enstatite anthophyll. Mg-Al spinel 700770 C
5.3. Cu-Co-Zn-NiAu sulfide deposits

The Outokumpu-type ultramafic massifs are
intimately associated with polymetallic Cu-
Co-Zn-NiAu sulfide deposits (Figure 6.12).
The mining history of the district extends
from 1913 to 1988 involving exploitation of
three major deposits with a total production
of ~42 Mt of ore. The detailed description of
the ore deposits and historical development
of the deposit modeling falls outside this re-
Fig. 6.12. About 42 million tons of ore averaging view but some salient features of the ores are
3.1 wt.% Cu, 1 wt.% Zn, 0.2 wt.% Co, 0.1 wt.% outlined below.
Ni, and 0.6 ppm Au was mined between 1913
Most of the Outokumpu-type sulfide de-
and 1988 from sulfide deposits intimately associ-
ated with the ultramafic massifs. Photo: Archives
posits are thin (<110 m), narrow (<50400
of the Outokumpu Mining Ltd. m) and up to >6.5-km-long lenses and sheets
of sulfides with quartz, diopside, and tremo-
lite as principal gangue (Vhtalo, 1953;
Koistinen, 1981). Contacts of the ore lenses
tered metagabbros in their core parts. Uralite are frequently sharp and in some cases the
pseudomorphs after pyroxene are preserved in sulfide material intrudes and brecciates the
many samples, whereas plagioclase is usually wall rocks. These features imply that the
recrystallized into granoblastic mass, which final emplacement of the sulfide mass was
may still preserve the outlines of the original structurally controlled. The sulfide sheets
coarse-grained plagioclase. Gabbro stocks are are frequently semimassive and the amount
frequently rodingitized and consist of the min- of quartz exceeds that of sulfides. The main
eral assemblage clinopyroxene+hastingsitic sulfide minerals are pyrite, pyrrhotite, chal-
amphibole+grossular garnet (primarily hydro- copyrite, cubanite, and sphalerite. Accessory
garnet)+epidotezoisite. Rodingitization of sulfides include Co-pentlandite, stannite, and
the gabbros implies that ultramafic massifs cobaltite. Galena is extremely rare. Gold is
were at least partly serpentinized before the present in metallic form as Au+AgHg grains.
regional metamorphism. Pyrite is abundant in the Outokumpu and Ky-
lylahti deposits, whereas all the other deposits
are pyrrhotite-dominated. Ore structures and
textures reflect metamorphic recrystallization

and subsequent annealing. Rare colloform 75-km-long Nuttio serpentinite belt has
textures in the pyritic parts of Outokumpu been described from central Lapland, northern
and especially the Kylylahti deposit are prob- Finland (Figure 6.1). Kontinen (1981) came to
ably the only relicts of primary depositional the conclusion that the thin slivers of serpen-
features (Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, 1999). tinized ultramafic rocks along fault zones on
Geochemically, Outokumpu-type sulfide the eastern flank of the Kittil greenstone belt
occurrences can be divided into two distinct (KGB) share many features common with
subtypes, (1) those with Cu-dominated sulfide residual mantle tectonites (Figure 6.13). Hans-
compositions, i.e., Cu-Co-Zn-NiAu depos- ki et al. (1995) suggested that the protoliths
its, and (2) those with Ni-rich sulfide phase for the Nuttio serpentinites were fragments
notably poor in copper, i.e., Ni-dissemina- of oceanic lithospheric mantle. These ultra-
tions (Huhma, 1970). All the major deposits mafic massifs have gone through a complex
exploited belong to the Cu-ore subtype. metamorphic history that has largely destroyed
The Ni-disseminations refer to low grade their primary minerals. Typically, they consist
(0.20.5 wt.% Ni) sulfides in the margins of of olivine and lizardite cores surrounded by
the ultramafic massifs (Parkkinen and Reino, successive shells of antigorite serpentinites,
1985). The present composition of the Cu- carbonate-serpentine rocks, talc-carbonate
Co-Zn-NiAu deposits resulted from mixing rocks, and finally a reaction zone (blackwall)
between two end member sulfides having a consisting of monomineralic talc, actinolite,
distinct origin and age. These end members and chlorite seams against country rocks
are (a) the Cu-rich proto-ore that deposited (Kontinen, 1981). Most of the olivine in Nut-
from hydrothermal solutions in an ultramafic tio-type serpentinites is strain-free and is be-
sea-floor environment, and (b) the younger lieved to be a metamorphic mineral produced
Ni-sulfide disseminations that formed within through serpentine dehydration reaction or,
altered marginal zones of the ultramafic mas- in some cases, recrystallized primary olivine.
sifs during obduction. Field evidence suggests However, in the core parts of the larger mas-
that mixing and homogenization of these end sifs, olivine is present as large strained grains
members took place during remobilization of with smaller neoblasts in between, and the
the sulfides and produced the polymetallic Cu- rock texture thus closely resembles that of
Co-Zn-NiAu ores. The Outokumpu-type ores porphyroclastic mantle tectonites (Harte,
represent an uncommon ore type which seems 1976). Cumulus textures are absent.
to have no clear ancient or modern analogue The Nuttio ophiolite is, however, far
elsewhere (Papunen, 1987). The distinctive from being a complete lithological sequence
features include the lack of associated volcanic required by the definition of an ophiolite
rocks and hydrothermal sediments, close as- (Anonymous, 1972). Still, several lines of
sociation with mantle tectonite massifs, high evidence suggest an affinity with oceanic
Ni and Co content of Cu-Zn sulfide ore, low lithosphere. Some of the strongest evidence
contents of trace elements such as Bi and Se, for an ophiolitic origin comes from the geo-
low Se/S, and extremely low abundances of tectonic setting of the serpentinites. They are
Pb in the ore and its mantle-like initial isotope located within a major lithologic boundary
composition (Vaasjoki, 1981). between the eastern autochthonous cratonic
domain and western allochthonous marine
domain (Figure 6.13). The western domain,
6. The Nuttio serpentinite belt i.e., the Kittil greenstone belt, consists of
NMORB-, EMORB-, IAT-, and MORB-type
The third Paleoproterozoic ophiolite the volcanic rocks, which according to their

Younger 1.91.8 Ga granites
b
b b Kittil allochthon (~2.0 Ga)
b b b Serpentinite massifs
b
b
Mg-tholeiitic and minor felsic
metavolcanic rocks
b BIF, Fe-sulfide, and Fe-carbonate
b
schist
b b
Fe-tholeiitic metavolcanic rocks
b b
b Proterozoic autochthonous cover
b Archean basement
10 km
Fig. 6.13. Simplified geology of the Kittil allochthon emphasizing the distribution of ophiolitic ser-
pentinite massifs (Nuttio serpentinite belt) along its eastern margin. Modified from Lehtonen et al.
(1998).
depleted mantle-like initial Nd isotope ratio of some larger ultramafic massifs contain
(Hanski and Huhma, Chapter 4) lack any highly strained olivine porphyroclasts which
interaction with the Archean basement. Fine- may also be primary. The serpentinites contain
grained leucocratic igneous rocks associated <0.5 wt.% Al2O3 and <0.05 wt.% TiO2 and thus
with the Kittil greenstone belt lavas yield their protoliths were highly depleted dunites
equally depleted Nd isotope compositions. and harzburgites. Most of the serpentinite
Hanski (1997) considered this, together with samples have depleted REE patters typical of
the absence of cratonic sediments, to indicate residual peridotites but some are clearly LREE
that much of the KGB could represent an allo- enriched with La up to seven times chondritic.
chthonous nappe consisting of ancient oceanic Similarly, LREE-enriched mantle tectonites
lithosphere and its volcanic-sedimentary cover were also described from the Jormua ophiolite
sequence overthrusted onto the craton (Salla, where their origin is related to percolation and
Onkamo, Sodankyl, and Savukoski Groups). chromatographic fractionation of tholeiitic
The detailed stratigraphy of the region is be- and alkaline melts in the refractory peridotite
yond the scope of this paper and is described (Peltonen et al., 1998).
in Chapter 3 of this volume. With respect to the intrusive rocks, the Nut-
The serpentinite bodies of the Nuttio tio ophiolite is remarkably different from the
ophiolite range in thickness from 20 to 400 Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolites. While the
m and in length from 100 to 1000 m (Hanski, intrusive rocks in the Jormua and Outokumpu
1997). Alteration of the bodies has been so mantle tectonites are dikes and cumulates de-
pervasive that cores of large chromite grains rived from EMORB- and OIB-type melts, the
probably represent the only relicts of primary Nuttio dikes include both ultramafic boninitic
minerals. The relict chromite grains have very and mafic tholeiitic and calc-alkaline dikes
high Cr/(Cr+Al) and low TiO2. The interiors with island arc geochemical affinities (Hanski

and Huhma, Chapter 4). The ultramafic dikes amount of basaltic component. Outokumpu-
are very low in incompatible elements (REE type massifs generally contain only < 1 wt.%
0.72 times chondrite) but high in Cr and Ni. Al2O3, their compositions correspond to highly
Hanski (1997) considered them to be similar residual harzburgites and dunites. Nuttio
to highly depleted boninites. The mafic dikes samples are even more depleted. Several other
include both tholeiitic dikes with flat REE moderately incompatible elements such as Sc,
patterns and a suite of rather primitive calc- V, and Ti show consistent behavior relative to
alkaline basaltic dikes. The dike compositions, aluminum.
together with the highly depleted composition Although these mantle tectonites are
of both serpentinites and chromites led Hanski strongly altered and metamorphosed, several
(1997) to suggest that the Nuttio metaperido- immobile elements can still be applied to
tites represent fragments of oceanic mantle study their pre-alteration igneous history. For
from a fore-arc basin of an intra-oceanic example, Peltonen et al. (1998) discussed the
island arc. mobility of REE and came to the conclusion
that they had behaved as immobile elements,
with the exception of La that was slightly
7. Comparative geochemistry of leached from some samples. Chondrite-nor-
the Finnish ophiolites malized REE patterns (Figure 6.15) imply that
several distinct types of peridotites are present
7.1. Metaperidotites in Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio. Although
Al2O3 (and Sc, V, and Ti) abundances are
Major element compositions of these ultramaf- considerably depleted, LREE contents and
ic massifs are not particularly useful because (La/Yb)N of many peridotites are relatively
their pervasive serpentinization. However, the high and, in fact, enriched relative to primitive
SiO2/MgO ratios of the Jormua serpentinites mantle. This implies complex post-melting
are still very close to those at fresh mantle history for the peridotites, involving mantle
tectonites elsewhere and it is probable that metasomatism by infiltrating fluids or melts.
the serpentinization conserved both MgO and Importantly, the Al2O3 abundances show a
SiO2. In this case, however, the volume of the good correlation with HREE implying that
peridotites must have increased (OHanley, the HREE abundances have not been disturbed
1996). Aluminium is a largely immobile at the post-melting stage. Such correlations
element and thus whole-rock Al2O3 contents become, however, progressively weaker
can be used as an approximate measure of through MREE to LREE suggesting interac-
the basaltic component in the peridotites tion of peridotites with fluid or melt that had
(e.g., McDonough and Frey, 1989). Primi- a high LREE/HREE. The serpentinites from
tive mantle is estimated to contain 4.44 wt.% the eastern and western blocks of the Jormua
Al2O3 (McDonough and Sun, 1995) and, in ophiolite (Figure 6.15) have distinct charac-
the simplest case, any values less than that are teristics. Most of the eastern block samples
indicative of extraction of basaltic melt from have low REE abundances, being indicative of
the peridotite. The Al2O3 abundances of the their highly residual character. Some samples
Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio peridotites exhibit U-shaped patterns, which suggests that
imply that they are all depleted relative to peridotites were first depleted by an extensive
the primitive mantle (Figure 6.14). The least melt extraction and afterwards, probably much
depleted peridotites are those of the Jormua later, enriched in LREE (e.g., McDonough
ophiolite, particularly those of the western and Frey, 1989). The western block peridotites
block, but even they have lost a considerable show distinct, steep fractionated or sinusoi-

5
primitive mantle:
4 Al2O3 = 4.4 wt.%
Al2O3(wt.%)
2
Eastern Central Western Lu Mi Ou
Jormua Outokumpu Nuttio
Fig. 6.14. Box-and-whisker diagram emphasizing the Al2O3 contents of the mantle peridotites (now
metaserpentinites) samples from the Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio ophiolites. The vertical lines
refer to median and 90th, 75th, 25th, and 10th percentiles. Outliers outside the 10th and 90th percentiles
are indicated as black dots. As Al2O3 contents can be related to the degree of partial melting of the
mantle peridotite (McDonough and Frey, 1989), this diagram implies that, compared to primitive
mantle, most Jormua peridotites are moderately depleted, whereas samples from Outokumpu and
especially from Nuttio are strongly depleted in basaltic constituents. LuLuikonlahti, MiMiihkali, and
OuOutokumpu (see Figure 6.8).
dal patterns compared to the eastern block dotites of the Jormua ophiolite. Outokumpu
peridotites. It is not a coincidence that the peridotites seem to completely lack signs of
western block peridotites became extensively mantle metasomatism that are ubiquitous in
veined by hornblenditic mantle dikes, which the Jormua western block peridotites. Equally,
show similar mantle-normalized pattern as as noted above, the Outokumpu massifs are
the peridotites (Figure 6.7). Hornblenditic devoid of veining by alkali melts.
dike material, probably as percolating melt, Nuttio serpentinites yield variable mantle-
is the apparent candidate for the cause of normalized REE patterns: they may be either
the enriched patterns of the western block LREE depleted, flat, or LREE enriched (Hans-
peridotites. ki, 1997). Again, due to analytical limitations,
Outokumpu peridotites have REE abun- the REE distribution of the most depleted
dances close to or below the detection limit samples remains obscure. Enriched patterns
of the used analytical procedure (ICP-MS). show a gradual rise towards La and do not
This is consistent with their Al2O3 abundances, resemble the sinusoidal patterns of the western
which are lower compared to those of Jormua block of the Jormua ophiolite. In fact, the CA-
samples. The sensitivity of the analytical dikes (see above) of Nuttio are strongly LREE
method does not permit the detection of enriched and infiltration of 34 wt.% of such
possible U-shaped patterns for Outokumpu CA basalt filtrated into the residual peridotite
metaserpentinites with confidence. They are, would explain their patterns. In summary, the
however, similar to the eastern block peri- chemical composition of the peridotites indi-

10 Jormua/eastern block serpentinites Jormua/western block serpentinites
Primitive mantle-normalized
1
1
0.1
0.01
10
Outokumpu serpentinites Nuttio serpentinites (Hanski, 1997)
1 1
0.1 0.1
0.01
0.01
Fig. 6.15. Primitive mantle-normalized rare earth element patterns for metaserpentinites (altered
mantle tectonites) from the Precambrian ophiolites of Finland. Normalization values from
McDonough and Sun (1995).
cates that distinct processes have taken place OIB-type dikes have distinct, steeply fraction-
in the mantle sections of Jormua, Outokumpu, ated patterns indicative of derivation from an
and Nuttio. enriched mantle source within the stability
field of garnet. Their chemical composition
7.2. Lavas and dikes is modified due to alteration, but Peltonen et
al. (1996b) considered them to be similar to
The lavas and dike rocks associated with the ultramafic lamprophyres. The Outokumpu
Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio ophiolites lavas are distinguished from the Jormua ba-
span an extensive compositional spectrum. salts by their lower REE abundances (410
Chondrite-normalized REE patterns for the times chondrite) and LREE-depleted patterns.
Jormua and Outokumpu lavas and dikes are This is consistent either with derivation from
presented in Figure 6.5A, whereas correspond- a more depleted mantle source, or that they
ing diagrams for Nuttio samples can be found represent higher degree mantle melts than the
elsewhere in this volume (Chapter 3). All Jor- Jormua main suite basalts.
mua main suite dikes and lavas have broadly Lava and dike analyses (excluding Jormua
flat REE patterns 1020 times chondrite, being OIB-type dikes) have been plotted on the Ti-
similar to transitional MORB in this respect Zr diagram of Pearce (1982) in Figure 6.16.
(e.g., Sun and McDonough, 1989). The early These two elements have equal bulk partition-

ing coefficients during partial melting and fractionation and in spite of their position
differences in the Ti/Zr can thus be related to beneath the lavas in the ophiolite stratigraphy
source heterogeneity. All main suite samples most of them cannot represent feeders for
from Jormua plot within the elongated field of the lavas. Furthermore, deep dikes, which
MORB with the Ti/Zr between NMORB and are located below the sheeted dike complex,
EMORB (Figure 6.16). Lava samples (Jaakko are the most fractionated samples and cannot
Sntti and Asko Kontinen, unpublished data) be considered feeders for any of the other
from Outokumpu (Losomki) have lower basalts. Compared to Jormua, the Outokumpu
abundances of Ti and Zr and plot within the (Losomki) lavas are even more primitive
field of island arc tholeiites. However, the low and have compositions indicating extensive
LILE abundances, low LREE/HREE and high (3040%) mantle melting (Figure 6.17). Some
compatible element abundances of Losomki of these lavas, however, underwent extensive
samples (see below) are incompatible with the chromite + olivine plagioclase fractionation
indicated island arc setting. Rather, the similar and resemble the evolved MORB dikes of the
Ti/Zr and the fact that they plot on the linear Nuttio complex. The ultramafic dikes from
extension of the Jormua samples imply that Outokumpu, together with their composition-
these lavas represent high-degree melts from ally equal counterparts from Nuttio, have un-
similar mantle source as the Jormua main reasonably high Cr abundances to be primary
suite EMORB. The dikes that crosscut the melts from undepleted mantle. Instead, they
Nuttio serpentinites seem to have multiple must represent melting products of a mantle
origins: three samples plot within the field source that had been already depleted by ear-
of calc-alkali basalts, two resemble MORB, lier melt extraction.
and three boninitic dikes of Hanski (1997) The Zr-Nb relationship is particularly
are extremely depleted in incompatible ele- informative in studying the relative contribu-
ments. Rare ultramafic dikes from Outokumpu tions of depleted and enriched mantle sources
ultramafic massifs are closely similar to the to the chemical composition of oceanic basalts
boninitic Nuttio dikes. It is also noteworthy (Figure 6.18). As discussed above, two dis-
that the boninitic and ultramafic samples tinct suites of basalts are present in Jormua.
plot within the extension of the narrow com- The main suite basalts have Nb/Zr equal
positional field defined by the less primitive to or somewhat higher than that of primitive
Jormua and Outokumpu basalts. This suggests mantle and are thus similar to EMORB. The
that also the Nuttio dikes could have been early dikes (ultramafic lamprophyres) have
derived from a similar, yet more depleted Nb/Zr similar to OIB. Peltonen et al. (1996b)
source. concluded that the chemical (and Nd isotope)
High abundances of Cr, Ni, and Sc imply composition of the main suite basalts would be
that practically all lavas and dikes from Jor- compatible with mixing of a depleted mantle
mua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio represent rather source with a relatively uniform proportion
primitive mantle melts. On the Cr vs. Zr plot of OIB-type source (mixing lines in Figure
(Figure 6.17), for example, most samples fol- 6.18). Outokumpu lavas record distinct char-
low the subhorizontal melt trend. The Jormua acteristics compared to those of Jormua. They
data illustrate the apparent complexity of the have Nb/Zr equal to that of primitive mantle
magmatism at oceanic ridges. The Jormua la- with absolute concentrations far lower than
vas have high Cr content at given Zr value and observed in Jormua lavas. This is compatible
plot close to the trend defined solely by partial with the previous conclusions (above) that the
melting. On the contrary, the sheeted dikes Outokumpu lavas were derived from a roughly
have experienced some chromite + olivine similar mantle source as the Jormua basalts

11000
10000
9000
8000
N
7000
Ti (ppm)
6000 E

5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
Zr (ppm)
0
0 50 100 150 200
Jormua main suite lavas and dikes Island arc tholeiite
+ Outokumpu basalts MORB, calc-alkali basalt, island

arc basalt
Nuttio dikes Calc-alkali basalt
MORB
Fig. 6.16. Ti vs. Zr diagram for the lavas and dikes from Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio ophiolites
(OIB-type Jormua dikes are not shown). Note that the Jormua lavas are characterized by higher
absolute abundances than Outokumpu (Losomki) lavas, but their Ti/Zr ratios are equal. This suggests
similar source characteristics and that the Jormua and Outokumpu lavas can be related by varying de-
grees of partial melting. The Nuttio boninites are extremely depleted in these trace elements. N and
E refer to average NMORB and EMORB compositions of Sun and McDonough (1989), respectively.
Compositional fields after Pearce (1982).
but by a significantly higher degree of partial to the evolution of the Karelian continental
melting. The former are completely devoid of margin (e.g., Koistinen, 1981; Kon tinen,
the OIB-type component. 1987). Therefore, detailed study of these
maficultramafic complexes can yield a wealth
of information concerning the timing and
8. Environments of ophiolite mode of the breakup of the Karelian Archean
formation craton, subsequent formation of the (passive)
continental margin and its later geodynamic
The origin and tectonic evolution of the Finn- evolution during the Svecofennian orogeny.
ish Precambrian ophiolites, especially those of Tectonic evolution of the craton margin en-
Jormua and Outokumpu, are intimately related vironment has been reviewed extensively

Primitive mantle
80%
60%
1000 40%
30% 20% 10% 5%
plagioclase
olivine
Cr (ppm)
orthopyroxene
100
chromite, clinopyroxene
Y (ppm)
10
0 10 20 30 40
Jormua sheeted dikes Nuttio dikes
Jormua lavas + Outokumpu (Losomki) lavas
Jormua deep dikes + Outokumpu ultramafic dikes
Fig. 6.17. Cr vs.Y diagram for the Jormua, Outokumpu, and Nuttio lavas and dikes. The subhorizontal
line is the partial melting line (with melt percentages indicated) from Pearce (1982), primitive mantle
composition is according to (McDonough and Sun, 1995), and mineral vector calculations after Pel-
tonen et al. (1996b). Note that most of the samples plot close to the partial melting line implying that
the sample suite can be related by varying the degree of mantle melting, whereas fractional crystal-
lization has had only minor effect.
elsewhere (e.g., Koistinen, 1981; Kontinen, Table 6.1 summarizes the characteristic fea-
1987; Gal and Gorbatchev, 1987; Kohonen, tures of the three blocks of the Jormua ophio-
1995; Peltonen et al., 1996b, 1998; Korsman et lite. Based on the composition of the mantle
al., 1999; Laajoki, Chapter 7; Lahtinen et al., peridotites and the presence of high-pressure
Chapter 11) and are not be repeated here. clinopyroxenite, hornblendite, and garnetite
Recent studies have emphasized the great dikes similar to those found in fragments of
complexity of the mantle section of the Jormua SCLM elsewhere (mantle xenoliths, orogenic
ophiolite, implying that it is rather atypical lherzolite massifs), Peltonen et al. (1998)
ophiolite as it includes fragments of both the suggested that the western block represents
Archean subcontinental lithospheric mantle a piece of the ancient lithospheric mantle,
(SCLM) and younger oceanic lithosphere. exposed beneath the Archean crust by detach-

1000
.7
15
b=
r/N
le:Z
a nt
m
ve OIB
iti
im
Pr
Zr (ppm)
100
N E
fractional crystallization
source enrichment
partial melting
10
1 10 100
Nb (ppm)
Jormua early dikes + Outokumpu (Losomki) lavas
Jormua main suite lavas and dikes
Fig. 6.18. Zr vs. Nb diagram for Jormua and Outokumpu basalts. Primitive mantle ratio and NMORB,
EMORB, and OIB compositions according to Sun and McDonough (1989). Calculated mixing lines
between NMORB (N), EMORB (E), and OIB are indicated.
ment faulting. Zircons dated from these dikes ~1.95 Ga gabbros and volcanic rocks derived
by ion microprobe (Peltonen et al., 2003; Table from an unexposed asthenospheric diapir
6.2) and the Re-Os study of the peridotites that intruded the shallow remnants of the
and chromitites by Tsuru et al. (2000) have SCLM. These features imply that the Jormua
unequivocally shown that the western block is ophiolite formed within the transition zone
Archean in age. The oldest dikes yielded up to where the continental lithosphere graded into
3.1 Ga zircons suggesting that the peridotites an oceanic regime (Figure 6.19). In younger
are still older. Furthermore, the Re-Os study terrains, such lithological successions are
indicates that not only the western and central seldomly exposed, but have been found for
blocks but probably all Jormua peridotites example in the Zabargad Island of the Red
represent Archean SCLM (Tsuru et al., 2000). Sea area where continental mantle became
Thus the Jormua ophiolite may consist of exhumed due to extreme crustal thinning and
two main components of distinct origin and detachment faulting during the final stages
age: (a) strongly streched Archean subconti- of continental breakup (e.g., Bonatti et al.,
nental lithospheric mantle, and (b) younger 1981). Also the passive margins of modern

oceans expose Jor mua-like lithological se- noted above, Outokumpu serpentinites have
quences. One such location is the West Iberia more depleted whole-rock compositions than
Margin where oceancontinent transition zone Jormua peridotites and bear no evidence of
between rifted and thinned continental crust mantle metasomatism or veining by alkaline
and true oceanic crust has been studied in pyroxenitic or hornblenditic dikes. These
detail. There, seismic studies have identified a compositional features are believed to exclude
~100 km wide zone of partially serpentinized subcontinental lithospheric mantle origin for
peridotites exposed at the seafloor (Chian et the Outokumpu-type ultramafic massifs, and
al., 1999). In this zone, scarce basaltic rocks, is more consistent with them having derived
locally pillowed, were deposited directly on from an oceanic asthenospheric mantle diapir.
subcontinental lithospheric peridotites a In spite of the affinity with oceanic litho-
likely scenario for Jormua, too (Figure 6.19). sphere, these massifs are not associated with
These peridotites enclose strongly sheared and an oceanic crustal unit (cumulates, sheeted
metamorphosed gabbro intrusions and alka- dikes complex, lavas). The almost complete
line pyroxenites. Not all these intrusions are absence of the oceanic crustal unit may result
believed to be comagmatic with the volcanic from selective tectonic preservation. However,
rocks but are interpreted to represent magmas as the crustal unit is practically absent from all
that under plated the continental crust already Outokumpu-type massifs, it is more likely that
before the final rifting (Cornen et al., 1999). these massifs were derived from an oceanic
Similar lithologic associations as identified at basin where abyssal peridotites were directly
Jormua are also present in the ophiolites of the exposed at the seafloor (Figure 6.19). Modern
External Ligurides, northern Apennines, Italy. analogues for such a peridotitic seafloor have
These consist mainly of subcontinental (Pro- been located in a number of regions (Bonatti
terozoic) mantle unroofed at a non-volcanic et al., 1990; Brun and Beslier, 1996; Cannat,
continental margin along low-angle detach- 1993; Cannat and Casey, 1995; Nicholls et al.,
ment faults. Mantle tectonites became injected 1981; Pickup et al., 1996), and are sometimes
by minor basaltic magmas that crystallized as also associated with hydrothermal venting
basaltic flows or gabbro pods within the peri- and deposition of sulfides onto the ultramafic
dotite (Rampone and Piccardo, 2000). seafloor (Bogdanov et al., 1997; Murphy and
In terms of ophiolite stratigraphy, the Ou- Meyer, 1998).
tokumpu-type ultramafic massifs represent a The third ophiolite, Nuttio, was formed in
far less complete ophiolite than Jormua. The a different geodynamic setting than Jormua
absence of layered cumulate units and sheeted and Outokumpu. Highly depleted peridotite
dike complexes, and the scarcity of volcanic and chromite compositions, together with
rocks in Outokumpu are in apparent contrast the presence of boninitic, tholeiitic, and
with the ophiolite model. Reinterpretation calc-alkaline dikes suggest that the Nuttio
of the carbonate rocks and quartz rocks as metaperidotite massifs represent fragments of
strongly altered peridotites instead of seafloor oceanic mantle from a fore-arc basin or intra-
sediments (Kontinen, 1998a), further blurs the oceanic island arc. The composition of peri-
ophiolite connection. Thus, one is left with dotites or intrusive dikes are distinct from the
ultramafic mantle peridotite massifs with other two ophiolites, but the available isotope
some gabbroic dikes and chromitite bodies, age data indicate that the ocean floor volcanic
enclosed by graywackeblack schist metasedi- rocks of the Kittil allochthon formed roughly
ments thrusted onto the craton margin. Some at the same time as the gabbros of Outokumpu
constraints on their origin is provided by the and Jormua. Furthermore, as these volcanic
chemical composition of the serpentinites. As rocks have been intruded by a 1.92 Ga grano-

Lithosperic detachment faulting 1.95 Ga
Onset of seafloor spreading 1.95 Ga
J
O
Upper/lower crust of the Mid-ocean ridge lavas and gabbros

Archean craton
Asthenospheric 1.95 Ga Young oceanic lithosperic mantle
mantle diapir
Old subcontinental (Archean) Faults active during lithospheric
lithosperic mantle, SCLM boudinage
J Faults active during lithospheric detach-
Protolith for the Jormua ophiolite ment
O Protolith for the Outokumpu Faults active during onset of sea-floor
ophiolite spreading
Fig. 6.19. A schematic lithosphere-scale model illustrating a possible tectonic setting for the Jormua
and Outokumpu ophiolites within a magma-poor passive margin at ~1.95 Ga (modified from Whit-
marsh et al., 2001). See text for details.
diorite (Hanski and Huhma, Chapter 4), the ment of the Nuttio ophiolite is related to the
obduction of the Kittil greenstone belt and same collisional event as Jormua and Outo-
associated ophiolitic serpentinites probably kumpu remains speculative. One possible plate
took place between 2.0 and 1.92 Ga, which configuration that relates Nuttio, Jormua, and
approximates the timing of the emplacement Outokumpu to the same orogenic event is pre-
of the Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolites as sented in Chapter 11 of this volume.
well (~1.921.90 Ga). Whether the emplace-

9. Concluding remarks compared to that of Jormua. These features
are consistent with the Outokumpu protoliths
In summary, the petrology and internal struc- representing oceanic mantle from a ridge-axis
ture of Jormua and Outokumpu indicate that discontinuity, which was a favourable site for
these ophiolites are related to continental both peridotite exposure and hydrothermal ac-
breakup and subsequent initial stages of tivity. Soon after their formation, these passive
oceanization. The volcanic rocks of both margin ophiolites became covered by upper
ophiolites are devoid of subduction-zone Kaleva sloperise turbidites. The youngest
geochemical components (Peltonen et al., detrital zircons in these metasediments have
1996), which, together with the absence of been dated at 1.92 Ga (Claesson et al., 1993),
any other subduction related igneous rocks which constrains the maximum age for the
west of Jormua, implies that the breakup was ophiolite obduction. The minimum for the
not within an ensialic back-arc/fore-arc basin obduction is provided by a 1.87 Ga granite
(e.g., Park, 1988; Kohonen, 1995). Detach- intruding the upper Kaleva schists.
ment faulting that resulted in exposures of Within the Outokumpu nappe, some ultra-
continental mantle at the seafloor at ~1.95 Ga mafic massifs are found immediately east of
and the formation of the thin basaltic lid of the SvecofennianArchean suture zone. This,
the ophiolites was more likely related to pas- together with the nappe tectonics (Koistinen,
sive rifting and formation of a non-volcanic 1981), suggest that the Outokumpu-type mas-
continental margin. sifs formed west of the suture zone between
The Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolites the Svecofennian mobile belt and the Karelian
are believed to have been derived from distinct craton. This is less evident in the case of Jor-
positions within such a margin. Jormua repre- mua and a major uncertainty remains whether
sents fragments of seafloor consisting of con- this ophiolite formed in a continental rift zone
tinental mantle, which was exposed relatively close to its present location (e.g., Kontinen,
close to the continental crust. The affinity of 1987; Kohonen, 1995) or whether the Jormua
Jormua to the continental mantle is evident rocks were tectonically transported to their
not only in the petrology of the mantle section present location from the passive margin
but also in the chemical composition of the west of the suture zone across the Archean
basaltic rocks. The lavas and sheeted dikes of Pudasjrvi and Iisalmi complexes (PC and
Jormua contain a small but uniform proportion IC in Figure 6.1). Both of these settings are
of the OIB-type end member which is believed equally capable of producing passive margin-
to result from the thermal erosion of the conti- type ophiolites.
nental mantle by an ascending asthenospheric
mantle diapir. In contrast, the Outokumpu
lavas are devoid of this enriched component, Acknowledgments
which is indicative of more advanced stages of
oceanization, when the mantle diapir did not Several colleagues are thanked for stimulating
have significant interaction with the ancient discussions and putting unpublished data at the
subcontinental lithospheric mantle. This is authors disposal, especially Asko Kontinen,
consistent with the lack of SCLM charac- Jaakko Sntti, Hannu Huhma, Eero Hanski,
teristics in the Outokumpu-type ultramafic Irmeli Mnttri, Jarmo Kohonen, Raimo La-
massifs. The higher degree of mantle melting htinen, and Kalevi Korsman. I am particularly
and formation of massive peridotite-associ- indebted to Asko Kontinen who also care-
ated copper sulfide deposits at Outokumpu, fully reviewed the manuscript. Over the past
however, require a different thermal subregime ten years this authors work on the Finnish

ophiolites has been made possible through the of magmatism in serpentinized peridotites
generous support of the Geological Survey of from the 15N region. In: R.L.M. Vissers,
Finland (GTK), Outokumpu Mining Oy, and A. Nicolas (Eds.), Mantle and lower crust
the Academy of Finland. exposed in oceanic ridges and in ophiolites.
Dordrecht, Kluwer Academic Publisher,
534.
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Bodinier, J.-L., Fabris, J., Lorand, J.-P., Dos-
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black smokers of the hydrothermal field
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gol. Finlande 164, 198.

Chapter 7
KARELIAN
SUPRACRUSTAL ROCKS
K. Laajoki
Cover page: Cross-bedded arkositic hematite-bearing quartzite, Finnish Lapland.
Photo: Jari Vtinen.
CHAPTER 7 KARELIAN S U P R AC RU S TA L RO C K S
Laajoki, K., 2005. Karelian supracrustal rocks. In: Lehtinen,
M., Nurmi, P.A., Rm, O.T. (Eds.), Precambrian Geology of
Finland Key to the Evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield.
Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 279342.
The Karelian formations comprise Paleoproterozoic supracrustal rocks that ank

late Archean basement blocks in eastern and central Finland. These rocks were
folded and metamorphosed at lower-greenschist facies to upper amphibolite
facies during the Svecofennian orogeny at ~1.9 Ga. They consist of several
fault- and thrust-bounded fragments that can be divided into six tectofacies
separated by unconformities. The four lowermost (Sumi, Sariola, Kainuu,
Jatuli) and the fth (Lower Kaleva) represent continentalepicontinental and
riftmarginal basin deposits, respectively, whereas the sixth (Upper Kaleva)
probably represents an allochthonous marine basin.
The predominantly volcanic Sumi tectofacies marks the initial rifting of
the Archean basement. The Sariola tectofacies was formed during renewed
rifting of the basement and is separated from it by a ~2350 Ma weathering
crust. It consists of immature uvial rudites and arenites and locally preserved
basinal turbiditictempestitic sequences. Basicintermediate volcanic rocks
abound in some basins and glaciouvialglaciomarine deposits are also pres-
ent. The Sariola stage was followed by a period of intense chemical weathering
with resultant kaolinitic crust (now kyanite-bearing quartzites). The Kainuu
tectofacies consists of uvial and deltaic sandstones overlain by transgressive
marine sandstones, heteroliths, and carbonate rocks deposited during continued
extension of the continental crust. The Jatuli tectofacies is separated from the
Kainuu tectofacies by a major erosional unconformity and mainly consists of
uvial and shallow marine feldspathic arenite, quartz arenite, and shelf dolomite
with well-preserved stromatolites. The Lower Kaleva comprises heterogeneous
autochthonousparautochthonous sequences, deposited unconformably on
Jatuli or the Archean basement, and is characterized by black shales, banded
iron-formations, and turbiditic arenites and graywackes. Available basin models
include a rift or rifted continental margin. The probably allochthonous Upper
Kaleva consists of monotonous basinal turbidites that were deposited after the
formation of the ~1.95 Ga Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolites. In Kainuu and
Savo, these rocks were thrust to the east atop older tectofacies and Archean
basement rocks.
CHAPTER 7 KARELIAN S U P R AC RU S TA L RO C K S 281

1. Introduction 2. Geological setting and basin
classication
Precambrian supracrustal formations in
eastern Finland, the ages of which vary from 2.1. Regional distribution of the supra-
~2500 Ma to ~1850 Ma, occur in fragmen- crustal belts
tary erosional basins within the east-central
Fennoscandian Shield (Figure 7.1). They are All the basins in question are found east or
poorly exposed, metamorphosed in lower northeast of the RaaheLadoga zone and
greenschist to upper amphibolite facies, south of the Central Lapland granitoid and
complexly deformed, and separated from Kemijrvi complexes within the area known
each other by major tectonic zones. Thus it is as the Karelian domain (Figure 7.1; Gal and
difcult to apply conventional basin analysis Gorbatschev, 1987). This domain consists of
methods to them. The most hampering thing a late Archean basement subdivided into the
is the lack of continuous vertical stratigraphic Kuhmo, Iisalmi, Manamansalo, and Pudas-
sections and the small size of the outcrops. The jrvi complexes (or Kianta, Iisalmi, and Ranua
result is that unconformities and their correla- terrains; Chapter 2) and Paleoproterozoic
tive surfaces, which are essential in sequence sedimentary rocks with minor volcanic units.
stratigraphy, can be observed in a few places The latter, known as the Karelian formations
only. Consequently, interbasinal correlations or the Karelian supergroup, are found as
can be done only in a broad way (see for separate supracrustal belts within, around or
instance, discussion in Kohonen and Marmo in between the basement blocks.
1992, pp. 5659). It is, however, possible to The major supracrustal belts are as follows
apply conventional facies analysis methods (Figures 7.1 and 7.2):
to the outcrops with primary sedimentary The Kainuu belt (1) has been squeezed
features. In fact, this method has been applied between the Archean Kuhmo, Iisalmi, Mana-
quite successfully to the Finnish sedimentary mansalo, and Pudasjrvi complexes (Figure
formations see several articles in Laajoki 7.3). Its eastern and southwestern margins
and Paakkola (1988). Isotopic and other geo- with the Kuhmo and Iisalmi complexes are
chemical methods (dating of detrital zircons, mainly autochthonous. The central part is
Sm-Nd provenance studies, C isotopes of intensely deformed and contains thrust/shear
carbonate rocks, and REE) offer additional slices of supracrustal rocks and ophiolite and
important tools, but the data available are basement complexes. The Central Puolanka
rather scanty (Huhma, 1986, 1987; Claesson Group, the depositional age of which is a little
et al., 1993; Karhu, 1993; Kortelainen, 1998; problematic, occupies the western part of the
Vaasjoki, 2001). belt. Its lower part passes gradually into the
This review concerns the Paleoproterozoic paragneisses of the Oulujrvi shear zone. The
sedimentary basins in eastern (North Karelia Hirvaskoski shear zone forms the tectonic
and Savo) and northern (Kainuu, Kiiminki, contact in the northwest.
Perpohja, PosioKuusamo) Finland (Figure The North Karelia belt (2) is composed
7.1). Their sequences and bounding uncon- of a thin autochthonousparautochthonous
formities are described in stratigraphic order quartzite-dominated occurrence rimming the
with the main emphasis on the stratigraphy Kuhmo complex in the east (Figure 7.4). Its
and sedimentology of the best-studied oc- bulk is underlain by the Hytiinen basin,
currences. Volcanism, metamorphism, and which is bordered by the Outokumpu nappe
deformation of the belts are discussed only complex (3) in the west. The contact of the
briey. latter with the Paleoproterozoic Svecofen-
282 CHAPTER 7 K A R E L I A N S U P R AC RU S TA L ROCKS

Central Lapland complex 28 30 Salla
belt belt Paanajrvi
Kemijrvi belt
complex
t KiF
Perpohja belt Narkaus par
W E part
S 16 Posio 9 Kuusamo
W belt
E
Suhanko 8
D Penikat KF 1 Kuusamo
E Kuusijrvi
N Kemi PUDASJRVI
COMPLEX
lt
R
fau
Kiiminki belt U
ho
S
Au
GULF OF
BOTHNIA S
I
HSZ
15 A
Oulu 7
UF Kainuu belt
S 11 6
V OSZ
MANAMAN- Nuasjrvi
basin
E SALO CPX
10 KUHMO 2
Tectonic zones/faults C 5 COMPLEX
HSZ = Hirvaskoski shear zones 64
KiF = Kitka fault O SaariKiekki
KTZ = Kajaani tectonic zone Salahmi
belt
OSZ = Oulujrvi shear zone F belt KTZ
14
1.95 Ga Jormua ophiolite complex E IISALMI
COMPLEX
Northern part of the Perpohja N Hytiinen
Nilsi basin
Upper Kaleva N belt
12
I
Lower Kaleva 4 North
Kuopio Karelia
D belt
Utajrvi Formation / Lower Kaleva 13
E
SariolaJatuli (KF = Karkuvaara Fm.)
3
S Outokumpu
2.44 Ga layered intrusions (Sumi) nappe
complex
Basement domes
100 km 28 30
Fig. 7.1. A simplied geological map of the central part of Finland (mainly from and appropriately
amended from Lundqvist et al., 1996, and Korsman et al., 1997). Notice that faults and overthrust sur-
faces (thick lines) divide the bedrock into blocks and hamper correlation between supracrustal for-
mations between different areas. The hatched blue line marks the RaaheLadoga zone, a deep-seated
fault zone that denes the boundary between the Karelian domain (includes the Archean basement
complexes and Karelian formations) in the northeast and the Svecofennides in the southwest. Maps
of the Kainuu, North Karelia, Kuusamo, and Perpohja belts are given in Figures 7.3, 7.4, 7.5, and 7.6,
respectively. Numbers 116 refer to the columns in Figure 7.2.

1. Kuusijrvi 2. SaariKiekki
km 3
Kainuu
Sariola Sariola 1
1
2
Sumi 0
Kuhmo complex 3
5.Vuokatti 4
7. East Puolanka km 5
6. Ristijrvi Upper 4. Koli
2 Kaleva
3. Kiihtelys- 5
Pyssy- vaara
kulju Fm.
Lower 6
8. East Kaleva
Kuusamo 7
III III III
9. West
East Puolanka Gr.
Jatuli
Kuusamo/ 8
East Posio Jatuli
Kolmilouk- III 0 9
konen
Kainuu
Korvuan- Kuhmo complex 10
joki Gr.
Jatuli
10. Jormua 11
Kk Kuhmo complex Upper 12
Kainuu Kaleva
Nv 11. West Puolanka
Jormua 13
Viha- Ophiolite
A jrvi Gr.
Kv Cpx. km 14
Sariola 12. Nilsi
Kainu
??
15
u
IV Lower Kaleva
3 16
Somerjrvi Gr. Jatuli
Basin
IV
al Sa
Pk Kainuu 5
rio
Central Puolanka Gr.
Av Sariola
la
Iisalmi complex
15. Kiiminki
Pj
16. Perpohja 13. Kuopio
Paragneisses of Paragneisses
Lower
Kaleva Oulujrvi shear
14. Salahmi 0
zone
IV
4 III IV
plex Iisalmi complex

com
s jrvi
Puda
Sumi

nian crust (Svecofennides) is tectonic (e.g., Its border with the Central Lapland granitoid
Lundqvist et al., 1996). complex is tectonicmetamorphic, and it is
The Kuopio belt (4) is a small belt south- separated from the Kalix belt in Sweden and
west of the Iisalmi block deposited on small the Kuusamo belt by the Bothnia and Hirvas-
basement domes (Figure 7.4). The other koski shear zones, respectively.
boundaries are arbitrary, as the better-pre- In addition to these main belts there are
served rocks pass into gneisses and migmatites several smaller ones of which the most im-
closer to the RaaheLadoga zone. portant are the SaariKiekki belt (9) within
The Salahmi belt (5) is a tiny, but well the Kuusamo block (Figure 7.1) and relict
preserved belt rimming the western margin of supracrustal sequences closely associated with
the Iisalmi complex (Figure 7.1). the Kuusijrvi (Figure 7.5) and Suhanko (Fig-
The northeastern part of the rather large ure 7.6) layered mac intrusions within the
Kiiminki belt (6) lies autochthonously on the northern parts of the Kuhmo and Pudasjrvi
Pudasjrvi complex, whereas its central parts complexes, respectively.
are folded and likely thrust to the northeast
(Figure 7.1). Svecofennian granitoids and the 2.2. Metamorphism
Mesoproterozoic Muhos Formation occupy
the southwestern margin. The supracrustal rocks of all the belts have
The Kuusamo belt (7) rims the northern been metamorphosed and thus the original
part of the Kuhmo complex (Figure 7.5). It volcanic and sedimentary rocks are now di-
continues on the Russian side as the Paanajrvi verse metamorphic rocks, which, especially
belt (Figure 7.1). The Kemijrvi complex and close to the borders of the Svecofennides and
the Salla belt border it in the west and north, Central Lapland and Kemijrvi complexes and
respectively. These contacts are tectonicmeta- within the Oulujrvi shear zone, are migma-
morphic in the west and delineated by a fault tized and intruded by Svecofennian plutonic
zone in the north. rocks.
The Perpohja belt (8) rims the Pudas- In eastern Finland, the grade of meta-
jrvi complex in the northwest (Figure 7.6). morphism increases westwards, so that the
Fig. 7.2. (facing page) Simplied stratigraphic columns of the basins reviewed (Figure 7.1). Succes-
sions 1 and 2 include sequences that were deposited in SumiSariola rifts within and on the margins
the Kuhmo complex, respectively; sequences of successions 3 and 4 were deposited on the pres-
ent northeastern and southwestern margins of the IisalmiPudasjrvi complex, respectively. Sources
for the column data (keyed to the numbers before locality names): 1Karinen (1998); 2Luukkonen
(1989); 3Pekkarinen (1979); 4Kohonen and Marmo (1992); 5Gehr and Havola (1988); 6Kontinen
(1986); 7Laajoki (1991); 8Silvennoinen (1972) and Pekkala (1985); 9Laajoki (2000); 10Peltonen et
al. (1996); 11Laajoki (1991); 12Paavola (1984); 13Aumo (1983); 14Korkiakoski and Laajoki (1988);
15Honkamo (1985); 16Perttunen (1991). Legend: 1Sumi layered intrusions; 2Sariola conglomer-
ates and metasandstones; 3Arenitic turbidites; 4Tempestitic semipelites etc.; 5Quartzite with basal
conglomerate; 6Basic metavolcanic rock; 7Tufte; 8Dolomite; 9Utajrvi conglomerate; 10Lower
Kaleva turbidites and mica schists etc.; 11Lower Kaleva iron-formations; 12Upper Kaleva turbidites
and mica schists; 13Kolmiloukkonen conglomerate and metasandstone; 14Sariola glacigenic deposits;
15Jormua ophiolite complex; 16Tectonic contact. III and IV dolomite sections refer to Karhus (1993)
carbon isotope stages III and IV, respectively. The red line marks the nonconformity between the Ar-
chean basement and its Paleoproterozoic cover. Formations in the West Puolanka and West Kuusamo/
East Posio columns area: PjPuolankajrvi; AvAkanvaara; PkPrekangas; KvKarkuvaara; AAhola;
NvNilovaara; KkKirintkangas.

27 28
Intrusive rocks
KUHMO COMPLEX
Otanmki alkaline gneiss
Hirvaskoski shear zone

Nenkangas Paleoproterozoic gran-
itoids
Jokijyrkk
PUDASJRVI
COMPLEX Hetehon- Western part
gikko
Vihajrvi Group
Somerjrvi Group
Kolkonkangas
65 65 Central Puolanka Group
Fig. 7.10
Paragneisses
Hepo-
kngs Eastern margin and central part
Pu
SB Pyssykulju Formation
e
on
Upper Kaleva
rz
ea
Jormua ophiolite
sh
Pitukan-
vi
complex
jr
suo
ulu
Lower Kaleva
O
East Puolanka & correla-

R tive groups
SB
Haapala Korvuanjoki & correlative
quarry groups
Haapalan- Kurkikyl & correlative
mki P groups
J Late Archean basement
NB
complex
Kajaani
NB V
64 64
IISALMI COMPLEX
50 km
27 28

rocks of the eastern part of the Kainuu and and produced N-, SW-, and NW-striking shear
North Karelia belts belong to the greenschist zone patterns (e.g., Koistinen, 1981; Ward,
facies and the western parts of the Kainuu, 1987; Laajoki and Tuisku, 1990; Krki et al.,
Savo, Kuopio, Salahmi, and Kiiminki belts 1993; Krki and Laajoki, 1995). Tectonism
are upper amphibolite facies (e.g., Campbell of the Perpohja and Kuusamo belts differs
et al., 1979; Tuisku and Laajoki, 1990). The from the more southern belts in that their early
primary features of the rocks are relatively tectonic evolution may be more closely related
well preserved in the east, whereas they may to the Central Lapland and granulite belts than
be completely destroyed in the west where the to the Svecofennides. The Perpohja belt is
rocks are banded gneisses or granite-veined characterized by E-trending D2 fold and fault
migmatites. structures and is crosscut by D3 shear zones
Within the Perpohja belt, the grade of (subparallel to the contact zone between the
metamorphism increased towards the Central Central Lapland granitoid complex and the
Lapland granitoid complex in such a way Perpohja belt) and by younger NW-trend-
that its southern margin was metamorphosed ing brittle faults (Perttunen et al., 1996). The
in lower-greenschist facies. In the north, the early EW grain of the Kuusamo belt was
grade is upper amphibolite facies and the affected by a shear zone located between it
supracrustal rocks pass into paragneisses and and the Salla belt, and the Hirvaskoski shear
migmatites thermometamorphosed during the zone, resulting in a complex fold interference
emplacement of the Central Lapland granitoid structure.
complex (Lappalainen, 1994; Perttunen et al.,
1996). In Kuusamo, the eastern and southern 2.4. Basin classication
parts represent greenschist facies, whereas
upper-amphibolite facies gneisses occur in the The basins and their lithologic units are all
western part close to the tectonic-metamor- considered Paleoproterozoic, although there
phic contact with the Kemijrvi complex. is some doubt as to the depositional age of the
As this review emphasizes the sedi- Central Puolanka Group. The basins are lled
mentation of the formations, the effects of by the supracrustal rocks for which the infor-
metamorphism are not considered and the mal collective names Karelian formations
metasedimentary rocks are usually named and Karelian supergroup have been used.
according to their protolith. There is no strict understanding of how the
Karelian units should be classied (Laajoki,
2.3. Tectonic features 1986a). A rather useful way is to group them
informally into the Sumi, Sariola, Kainuu
The Paleoproterozoic tectonic evolution of (or Lower Jatuli), Jatuli (or Middle and Up-
the supracrustal belts in eastern and central per Jatuli), Lower Kaleva, and Upper Kaleva
Finland involves four main Svecofennian subunits; these are treated by some authors
phases. The rst two represent folding and as lithostratigraphic units (e.g., Merilinen,
overthrust stages, the latter two are more brittle 1980; Ojakangas et al., 2001). Melezhik et al.
Fig. 7.3. (facing page) Geological map of the Kainuu schist belt combined from the maps by Kontinen
(1989, 1993), Havola (1981), Laajoki (1991), and Lundqvist et al. (1996). The thick lines depict faults,
of which only the most obvious ones are marked. Within the Kainuu schist belt there are probably
overthrust surfaces. The area of Figure 7.10 is framed. NB and SB Nuasjrvi and Salmijrvi basins,
respectively. Locations: JJormua; PPaltamo; PuPuolanka; RRistijrvi;VVuokatti.

28 30
Keyritty
IISALMI KUHMO COMPLEX

COMPLEX
Nilsi Juuanvaarat
Pisa
Koivusaari Fm.
Suhmura thrust
6300'
Herajrvi Group
Kuopio
Hytiinen
Kyykk Group
Sotkuma
Ra
Hyypi & Raate-

Joensuu
ahe
OUTOKUMPU vaara Groups

L
NAPPE
ado
N COMPLEX
ga
zon
e
Oravisalo Tohmajrvi
SVECO-
FENNIDES
50 km
28 30
Svecofennian plutonic rocks Lower Kaleva volcanic rocks
Upper Kaleva pelites, psammites Jatuli volcanic rocks
& gneisses
Serpentinites of the Outokumpu ophiolite Kainuu & Jatuli (quartzite)
Lower Kaleva pelites & psammites Archean basement
Fig. 7.4. Simplied geological map of North Karelia and eastern Savo (mainly according to Lundqvist
et al., 1996; southernmost part from Korsman et al., 1997).
(1994) used them as large-scale informal units single basin.

and correlated them to formally established Within the North Karelia and Kainuu belts,
lithostratigraphic groups. In this study, each the major units are bounded by unconformities
of them refers to a group of formations or and can thus be considered synthems (Salva-
sequences that can be considered as coeval, dor, 1994). Ojakangas et al. (2001) interpreted
but that were not necessarily deposited in a them as unconformity-bounded second-order

28 30
Lithostratigraphy
Limestonedolomite Fm.
SA
Amphibole schist Fm.
LL
Dolomite Fm.
A
Rukatunturi Fm.
BE
R
U
LT
Greenstone Fm. III S
Siltstone Fm. S
I
Greenstone Fm. II A
Sericite quartzite/Nilovaara Fms.
Ahola Fm.
KL
Greenstone I/Karkuvaara Fms.
Archean basement
F
6610 Ki 6610
Posio
HL
Kuusamo
+
Kuusijrvi
+ + Intrusive rocks
+ + ~1.8 Ga granitoids
+
+
2.2 Ga metadiabases
+ +
2.4 Ga layered mac intrusions
+
0 50 km
+
+
28 30
Fig. 7.5. Simplied geological map of the Kuusamo belt (mainly from Silvennoinen et al., 1992, and
Korsman et al., 1997). Abbreviations: HLHimmerkinlahti; KLKolmiloukkonen; KiFKitka fault.
depositional sequences. In this article they are related to Hubbards (1988) megasequences.
treated as tectofacies. A tectofacies is dened The Karelian tectofacies are summarized in
to include all the formations formed during Figure 7.2 and Table 7.1. In the following, the
a specic tectonic phase of the depositional- tectofacies are often referred to simply by their
volcanic history of a basin or nearby basins names (Sumi, Sariola, etc).
(Laajoki, 1990, 1991). This is a broader usage
than that of Krumbein and Sloss (1951) who
defined tectofacies as the laterally vary-
ing tectonic aspects of a stratigraphic unit.
In terms of sequence stratigraphy, they are

CENTRAL LAPLAND GRANITOID COMPLEX
OV
Rovaniemi
6628 KV
6628
Keinokangas Narkaus
Suhanko
Southern part Younger

S 11 5 intrusive
W rocks
E 10 4 15
D
E 9 3 Northern
N part
Penikat 8 2 14
7 1 13
30 km Figure 7.8
6 12
Kemi
25 30
Fig. 7.6. Geological map of the Perpohja belt (simplied from Perttunen et al., 1995). Legend: 1Ar-
chean basement; 22.42-Ga layered mac intrusions. Paleoproterozoic formations of the southern
part (311): 3Sompuvaara and Runkaus Formations with 2.2 Ga metadiabase; 4(Palo)Kivalo; 5Jout-
tiaapa; 6Kvartsimaa; 7Tikanmaa; 8Poikkimaa and Hirsimaa; 9Rantamaa; 10Vystj; 11Martimo.
Northern part (1214): 12Ounasvaara (OV) and other quartzite formations; 13Korkiavaara (KV)
and other arkosite formations; 14Pylijrvi Formation. 15Haaparanta and other younger plutonic
rocks. Area of Figure 7.8 and location of the Keinokangas porphyry are indicated.
3. Sumi tectofacies 3.1. Supracrustal rocks
The oldest Karelian supracrustal rocks, mainly The only occurrence of the Sumi supracrustal
acid and intermediate volcanic rocks, are most rocks in the area examined in this chapter
abundant in Russian Karelia and Kola Penin- is a thin unit of acid volcanic rocks and
sula, where they are known as the Sumi forma- granophyre on the Kuusijrvi layered mac
tions and are closely associated with 2440-Ma intrusion (Figure 7.5; Karinen, 1998; Karinen
layered mac intrusions. The latter are also and Salmirinne, 2001; Lauri et al. 2003), but
common in Finland, whereas only relics of the they may also occur in the basal parts of the
Sumi supracrustal rocks are found. Kuusamo belt (Rsnen, 1999). Felsic volca-
nic rocks of this group are, however, abundant
at the eastern extension of the Kuusamo belt

Table 7.1.
Karelian tectofacies.
Tectofacies/un- Age frame (Ma) Type occurrence/type Distinctive features Interpretation

conformity unconformity
Upper Kaleva*) <1870<1920 Jormua and Outokumpu Monotonous turbidites as- Marine basin
Kaleva
(allochthonous) nappe complexes sociated with ophiolites

tectonic contact?
?Lower Kaleva 1970?2060 Vihajrvi Conglomeratearenite Fluvialmuddy shelf
tempestite sequence
Lower Kaleva 1970?2060 Nuasjrvi, Turbidites with P- and Shallow-water turbidite
Hytiinen Mn-bearing BIFs and black basin
Martimo shales
Sub-Lower Kaleva Jatuli/Upper Kaleva Marked by polymictic con- ?Continental breakup
unconformity boundary in Kainuu glomerates with abundant
and North Karelia Jatulian clasts
Jatuli 2060>2200 North Karelia Fluvialshallow marine Epi-/pericontinental basins

East Puolanka arenites dolomites and
associated shales and tuffs
Sub-Jatuli uncon- Nenkangas Marked by polymictic con- Block faulting and tilting
formity glomerates with abundant and local deep erosion
Kainuan clasts
Kainuu >22002350 (a) Prekangas (a) Shallow-marine hetero- (a) Highstand deposits
(intruded by liths and volcanic rocks
2200 Ma sills) (b) Korvuanjoki, (b) Quartz-pebble (b) Fluvial ?half-graben
Akanvaara conglomeratesericite basins
schistquartzite sequence
Karelia sensu stricto
Sub-Kainuu Hokkalampi Lateritic weathering prole Chemical weathering

unconformity period
Sariola 2350<2440 (a) Puolankajrvi (a) Mediumthin bedded (a) ?lowstand fanBasinal
(basal parts pass to turbidites Sariola
paragneisses)
(b) Kurkikyl, (b) Mixed immature sedi- (b) Narrow rift basins
SaariKiekki mentary-volcanic sequence developed on late Archean
glacigenic units on continent.
weathered basement Continental Sariola
Unconformity Speri, (a) Sharp unconformity (a) Inversion of Sumi rifts
upon Sumi. Srkilampi, with the layered intrusions
Nonconformity Hetehongikko (b) Gradual change from (b) Mainly physical
upon basement KemiPenikat fresh basement to regolith weathering under
aridsemiarid conditions
Sumi 2440 KemiPenikatKoillismaa Acid metalavas and layered Initial rifting of the Archean
intrusions basement
Late Archean basement of the Kuhmo, Iisalmi, and Pudasjrvi complexes.
*)The depositional basement and basal units of the Upper Kaleva are unknown, but it may have deposited upon the the
Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolite complexes. Contact with the Lower Kaleva is presumably tectonic. The Upper Kaleva is
generally considered allochthonous. This is supported by the fact that the detrital zircon populations dated so far do not
allow a distinction between this tectofacies and the Svecofennian metasediments (Claesson et al., 1993).

in Paanajrvi, Russia (Systra, 1996). Small Fig. 29), Srkilampi (op cit., Figs. 12 and 32)
occurrences are also reported from central and Ilvesvaara (Kohonen and Marmo, 1992)
Lapland (Manninen et al., 2001; Rsnen and in North Karelia, Lippumki (Aumo, 1983)
Huhma, 2001). in the Kuopio area, Hetehongikko (Strand,
1988) in Kainuu, Kuntijrvi (Silvennoinen,
3.2. 2440-Ma layered intrusions 1972, Fig. 4) in Kuusamo, and Runkausvaara
(Perttunen, 1991) in Perpohja.
In Chapter 3 Iljina and Hanski examine the In each case, a few meter thick zone of
geology and petrogenesis of the layered mac weathered/fractured basement granitoid is
intrusions, and Alapieti and Lahtinen (2002) overlain by in situ granitoid breccia (Figure
described platinum-group element mineraliza- 7.7A), which passes into immature Sariola
tion. In the area reviewed (Figure 7.1), mac basal conglomerates (Figure 7.7B). Pekka-
layered intrusions are found in three main rinen (1979) and Sturt et al. (1994) favored
localities: within the Archean basement in the arid or semiarid climatic conditions, whereas
northern parts of the Kuhmo (Kuusijrvi in Kohonen and Marmo (1992) attributed the
Figure 7.5) and Pudasjrvi (Suhanko in Figure origin of the Ilvesvaara regolith to mechanical
7.6) complexes, and between the Karelian for- disintegration by continental ice sheet. The
mations and the Archean basement along the Hetehongikko regolith is attributed to physical
northwestern margin of the Pudasjrvi com- in situ weathering (Laajoki et al., 1989). The
plex (KemiPenikat and Narkaus in Figure uvial deposits overlying the Pasvik regolith
7.6). It is important to notice that they reect preserve unweathered pyrite-magnetite clasts
the sub-Sariola erosion related to rift inversion and terrigenous pyrite grains, which support
(next Section), that relics of Sariola cover an arid or semi-arid paleoenvironment, pos-
rocks have been preserved upon two of them sibly with some deciency of oxygen in the
(Section 5.5), and that their ~2440 Ma age atmospherehydrosphere system during the
has been well established by several diverse beginning of the deposition of the Paleopro-
methods (Hanski et al., 2001; Perttunen and terozoic formations on the Fennoscandian
Huhma, 2001, and references therein). Shield (Sturt et al., 1994). The unconformity
below the Hepokngs Formation is excep-
tional as it does not contain regolith, but the
4. Sub-Sariola unconformity polymictic Sariola conglomerate lies directly
on the Archean basement (Figure 7.7C). It may
There are two types of unconformities below represent a washed paleosurface.
the Sariola rocks: an in situ brecciasatrolite The unconformity between the layered
zone upon the late Archean basement rocks intrusions and the Sariola rocks is exposed
and the one developed upon the 2440-Ma above the Kemi intrusion (Perttunen, 1991)
layered mac intrusions. and has been penetrated by several drill holes.
The Archean basement/Sariola contact It differs from the one developed on Archean
is marked by a weathering crust or regolith. granitoids, being sharp with only a thin, if any,
Probably the best-exposed example is found weathering crust (Figure 7.7D). The petrologic
in the PasvikPechenga area, northern Norway studies of the layered mac intrusions prove
and Kola Peninsula, where its age is estimated that all the hanging wall rocks and signicant
to be between 2450 and 2350 Ma (Sturt et parts of the layered mac intrusions them-
al., 1994). In eastern Finland, it has been selves were eroded to varying depths before
described from Speri (Pekkarinen, 1979, deposition of the basal Sariola conglomerates.
This has been most convincingly reported

A B
C D
Fig. 7.7. Photographs of primary features of the sub-Sariola unconformity. (A) In situ weathering brec-
cia zone upon Late Archean granitoid of the Kuhmo complex. Laanhongikko, Kurkikyl, Kainuu belt.
Slide 2-145. (B) Basal conglomerate above the in situ breccia. All the clasts are basement orthogneiss
in scanty muscovite-rich matrix. Kainuu belt. Slide 2-49. (C) Unconformity between the Kuhmo com-
plex (lower part) and polymictic matrix-supported boulder conglomerate. Hepokngs, Kainuu belt.
Slide 3-18. (D) Unconformity between the Kemi layered mac intrusion (lower part) and the Sariola
conglomerate. Clasts are mostly basement granitoids. Near Kemi airport, Perpohja belt. Slide 31-108.
Photos: Kari Strand (A, B) and Kauko Laajoki (C, D).
from the Penikat intrusion (Figure 7.8) and the pre-Sariola fragmentation of most of the
Narkaus intrusion (Huhtelin et al., 1989). As intrusions into several blocks indicates that
the crystallization depths of the intrusions are the erosion was related to post-Sumi block
not known, no exact numbers can be given to movements. Melezhik and Sturt (1994) at-
the thickness of the hanging-wall Sumi cover tributed the likely coeval erosion in Russia
and the total rock column eroded. It can be to rift inversion. This is supported by the fact
estimated, however, that it was at least a few that the block movements in northern Finland
kilometer thick. The amount of erosion var- seem to have occurred only in the areas of the
ies signicantly from one structural block to layered mac intrusions.
another (Figure 7.8). Sumian volcanic rocks The sharpness and lack of regolith on this
are preserved above the Koillismaa intrusion unconformity type poses an open question.
(Lauri et al., 2003) and they are separated One possible explanation is that the eroded
from the Sariola basal conglomerate by a parts of the layered mac intrusions repre-
knife-sharp contact (cf. Karinen, 1998). The sented topographically higher levels than the

550
4
N
Suomujrvi
block
4 13
5
13
4
Sub-Sariola
unconformity
4 13
13
4
7370 7370
13
Paleoproterozoic
Keski- rocks of the Kemi belt
Penikat 4 Sub-Sariola unconformity
block 13 5 Megacyclic unit 5
Penikat Layered
Intrusion
4 Megacyclic unit 4
Ala-
Penikat AP reef
block 5 4 13
13 Megacyclic units 13
& Marginal series
5 km Late Archean basement
SSW NNE
Eroded part Sub-Sariola
unconformity
5 5
4
3 km
13
5 km
Fig. 7.8. Generalized geological map and reconstructed cross-section of the Penikat layered mac
intrusion between the late Archean basement rocks of the Pudasjrvi complex and the Paleoprote-
rozoic supracrustal rocks of the Perpohja belt (simplied from Halkoaho, 1994, Figs. 2 and 4). For
location see Figure 7.6. Note that if the Keski-Penikat block is excluded, the sub-Sariola unconfor-
mity erodes progressively deeper levels of the layered intrusions from the Ala-Penikat block to the
Sompujrvi block and that the intrusion was faulted into several blocks before or during this erosion
period. The Keski-Penikat block has been lifted onto higher paleotopographic levels than the nearby
blocks and has been eroded down to the AP reef of the Megacyclic unit 4.

enclosing Archean basement, and were thus texturally immature uvial conglomerates and
more apt to be worn away. arkosic sandstones, which have received their
detritus from the late Archean basement. Good
5. Sariola tectofacies sedimentological descriptions are available in
Pekkarinen (1979), Marmo et al. (1988), and
The type locality of Sariola rocks is in Rus- Kohonen and Marmo (1992). In the follow-
sian Karelia where Eskola (1919) described ing, only the glaciogenic Sariola rocks will
tillite-like conglomerates and arkosites on the be discussed in more detail.
gneiss granite basement. The most important
Sariola occurrences in eastern Finland are Glaciogenic rocks of the Urkkavaara
those in North Karelia and Kainuu where these Formation
rocks were deposited nonconformably on the Marmo and Ojakangas (1983, 1984) were
Archean basement of the Kuhmo block. They the rst to convincingly describe glaciogenic
comprise mainly immature conglomerates, rocks within the Sariola tectofacies. The best
with abundant basement granitoid and gneiss evidence (see discussion by Ojakangas, 1985)
clasts and arkosites, but basicintermediate reported was the presence of dropstones
lavas are also common in Kainuu. Glaciogenic in thinly laminated units associated with
rocks give a special importance to these oc- diamictites in the Urkkavaara Formation,
currences. which occupies the middle part of the Kyykk
The tectofacies classification used in Group on the northern margin of the Sotkuma
this review has not been generally applied dome (Figure 7.4). The Urkkavaara Formation
to the Karelian formations in the Kuusamo overlies the gravelly Ilvesvaara Formation,
and Perpohja areas. However, the Sariola which was deposited nonconformably on the
tectofacies is well presented above the layered basement, whereas the Hokkalampi paleosol
mac intrusions and as the lowermost units of forms the erosional upper contact. The Urk-
the Kuusamo and Perpohja belts. Also the kavaara Formation (maximum thickness 265
Karkuvaara and Ahola Formations as well m) is subdivided into seven members (Koho-
as the latters correlative, the Puolankajrvi nen and Marmo, 1992) whose deposition was
Formation, are included in this tectofacies. associated with a grounded or oating glacier
If the opinion of Sturt et al. (1994) that (Marmo and Ojakangas, 1983, 1984). The rst
the physical weathering crust encountered in member, lower siltstone-argillite (>15 m) with
the lower part of the Finnish Karelian forma- dropstones/lonestones in laminated and graded
tions represents the same crust as the Pasvik siltstone, is interpreted to have been deposited
regolith in Norway is correct, the maximum in front of the glacier as a silt-clay rythmite
age limit of Sariola can be set at 2440 to 2330 sequence. The lower graded sandstone mem-
Ma. This is also indicated by the occurrence of ber (15 m) with oversized clasts/lonestones
2340 Ma (Mustalampi type) detrital quartz in (Figure 7.9A) was deposited closest to the
the lowest Sariola arkosites at Kiihtelysvaara glacier by turbidity currents during glacial
(Pekkarinen, 1979). advances. Glacial retreat revived siltstone-
argillite deposition (member 3; 240 m) and
5.1. North Karelia this was followed by diamictites (member 4;
010 m, Figure 7.9B) in a more distal aque-
The Sariola formations rim the southwestern ous environment. The second advance of the
margin of the Kuhmo block and the northern glacier deposited the upper graded sandstone
margin of the Sotkuma dome (Figure 7.4). member (50 to 70 m) on top of the diamictites.
They are characterized by mineralogically and The overlying but transitional parallel-bed-

A B
C D
E F
G H

ded conglomerates (member 6; 50 m) are (Gehr and Havola, 1988) as well as the feld-
interpreted as products of sedimentation from spar-bearing quartzites and arkosites of the
subaqueous melt-water tunnels during the Syvjoki Formation of the Hyrynsalmi Group
same stage. These are overlain by proglacial (Kontinen, 1986) may be part of it. The latter
sandur and/or esker conglomerates and pebbly group is underlain by a ~50-m-thick regolith of
sandstones (member 7; >50 m). in situ weathered Archean basement in several
Kohonen and Marmo (1992) correlated places (op. cit.), but it is not known whether it
the Plkkylampi and Srkilampi Formations in represents a physically (sub-Sariola) or chemi-
the Kiihtelysvaara area (Pekkarinen and Luk- cally (sub-Kainuu) weathered zone.
karinen, 1991) with the Urkkavaara Formation
and showed that the basement here is overlain Glaciogenic rocks of the Honkajrvi
by diamictites and siltstones containing drop- Group
stones. The diamictites seem to correlate with Small patches of the Sariola sedimentary
the basal pre-Jatuli breccias of Pekkarinen and volcanic rocks nonconformably cover
(1979). the western margin of the tectonic wedge
of Vyrylnkyl nappe (Figure 7.10). The
5.2. Eastern part of the Kainuu belt sequence (at least 190 m thick) begins either
with lavas and pyroclastic rocks or arkosic
The Sariola rocks are found as larger units in conglomerates and arkosites. The latter are
Kurkikyl, where they lie upon the Kuhmo overlain by a deformed, epidote-amphibolite
complex, and as small erosional relics on facies association of granitoid-clast diamic-
the small allochthonous Vyrylnkyl base- tites and laminated schists with dropstones
ment wedge within the belt. These have been (Figure 7.9C). Thin, massive, faintly graded
mapped as the Kurkikyl and Honkajrvi sandy turbidite beds are also found (Figure
Groups, respectively (Laajoki, 1991). Both 7.9D). The association is interpreted to have
groups contain signicant volcanic units and been deposited in a glaciomarine rift basin
resemble in this respect more the Sariola rocks extending towards the interior of the Archean
in the KuusamoPaanajrvi belt than those in basement (Strand and Laajoki, 1993).
North Karelia. Glaciogenic rocks have been
described from the Honkajrvi Group. Kurkikyl Group
There is no unequivocal evidence for The Kurkikyl Group forms a narrow, almost
Sariola in the southeastern margin of the EW-striking belt in the southeastern corner of
Kainuu belt, although the Ohravaara Group the region (Strand, 1988). There is a several
Fig. 7.9. (facing page) Photographs of Sariola rock types. (A) Thinly-bedded psammitic metaturbidites
of the Urkkavaara Formation with a lonestone overlain by a thicker massive turbidite bed. Urk-
kavaara, North Karelia belt. Slide 18-177. (B) Diamictite of the Urkkavaara Formation. Urkkavaara,
North Karelia belt. Slide 18-110. (C) Diamictite association of the Honkala Formation. Dmmmas-
sive diamictite, Fldlaminated siltstone with dropstones (arrows). Nurmela, Kainuu belt. Slide 2-424.
(D) Massive sandstone (Sm) in the Honkala Formation. Nurmela, Kainuu belt. Slide 2-422. (E) Me-
dium-bedded massive metaturbidites of the Puolankajrvi Formation. Hakasuo, Paltamo, Kainuu belt.
Slide 12-517. (F) Thin and graded-bedded staurolite-mica schist (metaturbidites) of the Puolankajrvi
Formation. Kainuu belt. Slide 7-322. (G) Hummocky cross-stratied metapsammite of the upper part
of the Puolankajrvi Formation. Kainuu belt. Slide 7-184. (H) Polyphase-folded turbiditic paragneiss
within the Karkuvaara Formation. Posio, Kuusamo belt. Pegmatite veins on the left. Slide 30-92. Pho-
tos: Kauko Laajoki.

5 km 9
540
3 8
18
12
N 17
4
8
4
1 14
2 5 9
13 8
12 8 7
16
6
3 13
1
8
7190 17 7190
Jalka-aho syn- IN
I BAS
4 8
cline 20
16 3 19
IJRV
3 12
9 18
3
1 11 8
SALM
17
4 14
2 17 12 9 7
??
10 16 13
3 9 15 12
15 9 8 ??
13
7 11
6 10
2 2 16
9 8
18 VBW ?? 7
17 11 5
4 11 6
4
7 3
1 3 15 9 12 8
3 2
2 16 9
13 8 1
Fig. 7.10. Detailed map of the central part of the Puolanka area showing tight folding and faulting
(simplied from Laajoki, 1991). Legend: 1Paragneisses and granitoids of the Oulujrvi shear zone;
2Puolankajrvi Formation; 3Akanvaara Formation; 4Prekangas Formation; 5lapilli tuff of the
Central Puolanka Group; 6Archean basement of the Kuhmo complex; 7Sariola metasediments and
metavolcanic rocks; 8East Puolanka Group; 9Somerjrvi Group; 10Jatuli tuftes; 11Jatuli dolo-
mites; 12Black schists and iron-formations of the Lower Kaleva; 13Nonmagnetic mica schists of the
Lower Kaleva; 14Pyssykulju Formation; 15Mntykangas Formation (Vihajrvi Group); 16Jalka-aho
Formation (Vihajrvi Group); 17Ultramac rocks; 18Metadiabase and metagabbro; 19Fault (mostly
inferred); 20Top direction.VBWVyrylnkyl tectonic basement wedge.

meters thick physical weathering crust (Figure 200 Ma. The newest eld observations indi-
7.7A) between it and the Archean basement, cate, however, that the contact is more likely
characterized by a cracked zone in the Ar- an intra-Karelian unconformity (Section 5.6;
chean granitoid and an in situ breccia zone Laajoki and Wanke, 2002) and, accordingly,
beginning with angular granitoid fragments the Central Puolanka Group is considered
that are hardly distinguishable from their Proterozoic. In the terms of tectofacies, the
surroundings. Upwards in the sequence, the Puolankajrvi Formation and the two overly-
fragments become smaller and the amount ing formations characterized by immature
of sericite-rich interstitial material increases. arenites and pelites are included in the Sariola
The breccia gradually turns into a breccia (Puolankajrvi) and Kainuu (the other two)
conglomerate (Figure 7.7B), the material of tectofacies.
which has slightly moved from its original
site. The plutonic rocks of the Kuhmo block Puolankajrvi Formation
served as the provenance for this coarse- The Puolankajrvi Formation consists of a
clastic lowermost part, which is overlain by nearly vertical, at least 500-m-thick and 70-
a ning-upwards sequence of uvial arkosic km-long sequence of sandy turbidites and
conglomerates, sands, and clays. overlying tempestites west of the paragneisses
Volcanic activity associated with this of the Oulujrvi shear zone (Figure 7.10). Its
phase produced 300- to 500-m-thick subaerial lower part (500 to 1000 m) consists of alternat-
basaltic lavas (the Matinvaara Formation) that ing members of massive or graded-bedded ar-
were locally deposited directly on the Archean kosites (Ta, Tab, Tabc turbidites, Figure 7.9E)
basement. The lavas eroded and their clasts, and graded-bedded pelitemuddy sandstones
together with basement granitoid clasts, were (thin-bedded Tae turbidites, Figure 7.9F),
deposited as mixed volcanic-granitoid boulder which were deposited by high-concentration
conglomerates in an alluvial fan. The present and low-concentration turbidite currents, re-
erosional surface forms the top of this group, spectively (Laajoki and Korkiakoski, 1988).
which seems to ll a shallow basin developed The upper part (100 to 200 m), interpreted to
on the Archean basement. have been deposited by storm waves and other
shelf-processes, consists of micaceous sand-
5.3. Western part of the Kainuu belt stones showing hummocky cross-stratication
(Figure 7.9G) and combineow-origin ripple
The western margin of the Kainuu belt north cross-lamination. On the basis of its turbid-
of Oulujrvi is occupied by the Central itic nature and solely Archean provenance
Puolanka Group, which passes into the para- (Kontinen et al., 1996; Huhma et al., 2000),
gneisses of the Oulujrvi shear zone to the the Puolankajrvi Formation is considered a
west (Figure 7.10). The depositional age of more metamorphosed and distal equivalent of
the Central Puolanka Group is still a matter of the Sariola turbidites of the Honkajrvi Group
dispute. Originally, the group was considered (Section 5.2).
Proterozoic and was included in the Kainuu
belt (Laajoki, 1986). However, recent isotope 5.4. SaariKiekki belt
studies indicate that the group could be late
Archean (~2700 Ma) in age (Kontinen et al., A small (3 km by 15 km) fault-bounded vol-
1996; Huhma et al., 2000). If this is correct, canicsedimentary SaariKiekki belt is found
there should be a major tectonic-metamorphic within the Kuhmo block close to the Russian
nonconformity between the group and the border (Figure 7.1; Luukkonen, 1989). The
Kainuu belt, representing a time gap of at least sequence begins with a ~500-m-thick unit of

breccia conglomerate interpreted as a talus chean granitoids at the northern margin of the
deposit whose material was disaggregated Kuhmo complex (Silvennoinen, 1972). The
by mechanical erosion caused by faulting lower part contains only basement granitoid
of the Archean basement. This is overlain clasts, but it passes into matrix-supported
by a ~1000-m-thick volcanic unit of basalts, conglomerate in which also volcanic clasts
basaltic andesites and andesites, which com- are found in a tuftic matrix. This type was re-
positionally correspond to high-Mg tholeiites, ferred to as a volcanic breccia by Silvennoinen
except for the intermediate volcanic rocks (op. cit.) and Piispanen (1972), but the author
that are calc-alkaline. The uppermost unit considers it a matrix-supported conglomerate
consists of immature arenites and polymictic or diamictite that may include glaciogenic
conglomerates with both basement granitoid detritus, as the observed tillite-like features
and volcanic clasts derived from the belt. As imply. The conglomerate contains also quartz
a whole, this sedimentaryvolcanic belt bears porphyry clasts. A composite sample of three
many similarities with the Kurkikyl Group. clasts gives a U-Pb zircon age of 2405 6
Ma (Silvennoinen, 1991) or a slightly higher
5.5. Sariola cover of the layered intru- age (Hanski et al., 2001), indicating that the
sions within the basement complexes porphyry clasts represent Sumi acid volcanic
rocks exposed in the nearby Paanajrvi area.
The sedimentaryvolcanic Sariola sequence The main part of Sariola consists of
above the Kuusijrvi intrusion is ~2000 m the possibly up to 500-m-thick Greenstone
thick (Karinen, 1998; Karinen and Salmirinne, I Formation. It begins with a volcanic brec-
2001). It begins with the 500-m-thick Uni- ciaconglomerate, but is mainly composed
kumpu Formation, which mainly comprises of amygdaloidal or massive, non-magnetic
clast- and matrix-supported polymictic boul- basaltic andesiteandesite metalavas (Veki,
der conglomerates. Most of the clasts repre- 1991). A tuftic schist considered a weath-
sent basement ortho- and paragneisses, vein ering product of the lavas overlies it; in this
quartz and volcanic rocks, but there are also study, it is considered the upper boundary of
granophyre clasts from the hanging wall of the Sariola in Kuusamo.
underlying intrusion and acid volcanic rocks On the basis of similar geochemistry and
likely derived from the eroded Sumi cover. The lithology, Rsnen and Vaasjoki (2001) indi-
conglomerate is overlain by a ~1500-m-thick cated that the Karkuvaara Formation (the Po-
volcanic sequence that consists of a lower sio greenstones, Figure 7.5) can be correlated
150-m-thick unit of pyroclastic rocks and with the Greenstone I, and it is included here
lava breccias and a principal 1400-m-thick in the Sariola tectofacies. It contains sandy
unit of basaltic andesitesandesites; the latter metaturbidite interunits (Figure 7.9H) and thin
are geochemically similar to the Sariola lavas sillimanite mica schist units between lava beds
in the Kuusamo belt. A small occurrence of and is overlain by the poorly exposed turbiditic
polymictic conglomerate similar to those of Ahola Formation (at least 100 m thick). The
the Unikumpu Formation overlies the Suhanko latter correlates with the Puolankajrvi Forma-
layered mac intrusion (Isohanni, 1971). tion (columns 9 and 11 in Figure 7.2).
5.6. Kuusamo belt 5.7. Perpohja belt
The Karelian sequence in Kuusamo begins The volcanicsedimentary lower part of the
with a thin (0 to 20 m) basal conglomerate, Karelian sequence in Perpohja was previ-
which lies directly on the paleoweathered Ar- ously subdivided into the Lower, Middle, and

Upper Jatuli (Perttunen, 1989). Recently it has This is best exemplied by the greenschist
been considered a single group, Kivalo (Pert- facies Hokkalampi paleosol in North Kare-
tunen et al., 1995). However, the tectofacies lia. Marmos (1992) thorough study of this
classication is also readily applicable in this occurrence is based on extensive mapping
area. Of the nine formations of the Kivalo of outcrops, almost 3000 m of drill core and
Group, the two lowermost, the Sompujrvi and over 500 chemical analyses. The original soil
Runkaus Formations, are here included in the developed either on late Archean granitoids
Sariola tectofacies (Figure 7.6). The Sompu- or glaciogenic Sariola rocks. The paleosol
jrvi Formation is known for its typical Sariola consists of quartz-sericite schists up to 80 m
conglomerates lying either on the Archean thick with an increasing proportion of kyanite
basement or on the layered mac intrusions and andalusite toward the top and a gradual
(Figure 7.7D). In addition to conglomerate, increase in the values of the chemical index
this ~50-m-thick unit also contains arkosites in of alteration (CIA). It is subdivided into three
its upper part. Importantly, the conglomerate zones. (1) An upper zone composed of kyanite/
overlying the Narkaus layered mac intrusion andalusite-quartz schist (Figure 7.11A) cor-
contains PGE-bearing clasts from the intrusion responding to a zone of intense kaolinization
(Alapieti et al., 1989). The Runkaus Formation above the water table, characterized by remov-
(40 to 100 m) consists mainly of subalkaline, al of all soluble minerals. The soil weathering
tholeiitic basalts (Perttunen, 1989). The ~2250 residue consisted essentially of kaolinite and
Ma Pb-Pb age of secondary titanite-leucoxene quartz. The present alumina content and CIA
provides a minimum age for the Runkaus value reach 30 and 96%, respectively. (2) An
Formation (Huhma et al., 1990). A ~2200 Ma intermediate zone of quartz-sericite schist,
layered metadiabase sill intrudes the contact corresponding to a mixture of kaolinite and
with the overlying quartzite. These results and quartz. (3) A lower zone of quartz-feldspar-
the age of the layered mac intrusions bracket sericite rock corresponds to a zone of partially
the age of the Sariola tectofacies between 2420 disintegrated parent rock with low CIA values
Ma and 2250 Ma in this area. (60 to 65) and showing a gradual contact with
the underlying parent rock. The Hokkalampi
5.8. Other Sariola occurrences occurrence contains almost 30 million tons of
rock with 3 to 4 million tons of kyanite and
Typical Sariola basal conglomerates with andalusite.
well-rounded basement and quartz cobbles in The chemical maturity and great thickness
arkosic matrix, gradually overlain by arkosites of the Hokkalampi paleosol and associated
and sericite quartzites, are reported from the metasediments are interpreted as recording
Nilsi region. They are best preserved in intense chemical weathering in a warm and
NW-trending Reitti belt within the Iisalmi humid climate, comparable to a modern tropi-
complex (Paavola, 1984). A similar sequence cal climate. Assuming a modern annual rate of
is found in Lippumki, in the Kuopio area kaolinization of 0.1 to 0.01 mm, the formation
(Aumo, 1983). Likely Sariola rocks are also of the Hokkalampi paleosol would have lasted
present in Paltamo (Krki, 1988). several million years.
Pekkarinen (1979) described a zone
above basal arkosites in the Kiihtelysvaara
6. Sub-Kainuu unconformity area where sericite content increases upward.
Pekkarinen and Lukkarinen (1991) attributed
A period of intense chemical weathering this unconformity to chemical weathering.
followed the deposition of the Sariola rocks. Kohonen and Marmo (1992) did not consider

A B
C D
Fig. 7.11. Photographs of primary features of the sub-Kainuu weathered crust. (A) Kyanite quartzite
with quartz and tourmaline (black) clasts. Hokkalampi, North Karelia belt. Slide 13-123. (B) Foliated
kyanite quartzite in Hallakulma, Kainuu belt. Slide 3-152. (C) Sheared, ~60-cm-thick sericite schist
(paleoweathered crust) between the Late Archean granitoids of the Iisalmi complex (on the left) and
the Kainuan quartzite of the Salahmi belt. Lhdemki, Salahmi belt. Slide 14-447. (D) Basal breccia
between the Late Archean granitoids of the Iisalmi complex and the Kainuan quartzite of the Salahmi
belt. Clasts are mostly basement granitoids and vein quartz. Lhdemki. Slide 14-337. Photos: Kauko
Laajoki.
this unconformity as an equivalent of the Hok- The Hallavaara paleosol was developed on
kalampi zone, although the distance between the Sariola sedimentary and volcanic rocks
these two places is only ~50 km, but proposed and probably also on late Archean granitoids.
that the unconformity described by Pekkarinen In comparison to Hokkalampi, it is, however,
(1979) should lie at a lithostratigraphically poorly exposed and less extensive. These two
much higher level. penecontemporaneous occurrences ~300 km
A paleosol similar to Hokkalampi is found apart indicate that deep chemical weathering
in Hallavaara, in the very northeastern tip of covered large areas in the eastern Fenno-
the Kainuu belt (Figure 7.3). Here kyanite scandian Shield. The lateral extension of the
quartzites (Figure 7.11B), andalusite-kyanite unconformity should underlie the Akanvaara
quartzites, chloritoid schists, and sericite Formation of the Central Puolanka Group,
schists with CIA values of 98, 92, 86 and but evidence for it may have been destroyed
7277, respectively, are found (Strand, 1988). by metamorphism.

In Nilsi, Paavola (1984, p. 46) described sion period.
sericite quartzites with quartz pebbles between Within the deeper-water western parts of
the typical Sariola basal formations and the the Kainuu and Kuusamo belts, the unexposed
overlying orthoquartzite. Both the strati- Puolankajrvi/Akanvaara and Ahola/Nilo-
graphic position and rock sequence indicate vaara contacts are supposed to represent the
existence of a sub-Kainuu unconformity in sub-Kainuu unconformity or its correlative
the area. conformity.
The regolith under the Salahmi belt on
the western margin of the Iisalmi block is also
considered sub-Kainuu, because it consists 7. Kainuu tectofacies
of chloritoid schist developed upon Archean
amphibolites. Locally, a thin sericite-schist The chemical weathering period described in
overlies the granitoids of the basement (Figure Section 6 was followed by erosion and sedi-
7.11C). Where the schist is missing, the base- mentation, which apparently eroded much of
ment is overlain by a basal vein quartz and the paleosol and deposited sequences charac-
orthogneiss-clast conglomerate, which passes terized by aluminous alluvial sediments. This
into a rather mature quartzite (Figure 7.11D; tectofacies has its type locality in Kainuu,
Korkiakoski and Laajoki, 1988). where it was first described by Vyrynen
In Kuusamo, Silvennoinen (1972) con- (1928, 1933). It should be noted, however,
sidered the tufte schist above Greenstone that a large part of Vyrynens (op. cit., 1954)
I as the weathering product of the latter and Kainuu facies is nowadays included into the
stated that the contact with the overlying ser- Jatuli tectofacies and, vice versa, a large part
icite quartzite is gradual. The author studied of Vyrynens Jatuli facies is included in the
the same contact at Vitikkovaara where the Kainuu tectofacies (for historical remarks, see
contact is completely exposed at the bottom Laajoki, 1991, p. 37).
of a ditch. Here a well preserved Greenstone
I lava is overlain by an epiclastic schist with 7.1. Kainuu belt
volcanic plagioclase clasts. This passes into
a sericite schist with granules and pebbles of Korvuanjoki Group in Kainuu
quartz, basement feldspar, and orthogneiss. The Korvuanjoki Group (800 to 1200 m) is the
The author considers this a typical sub-Kai- type group of the Kainuu tectofacies. It con-
nuu weathering crust developed on a basic sists almost solely of alluvial fan and braided
substratum (= Sariola metalavas). Juopperi river deposits (Strand, 1988) and begins with
(1976) also considered the chlorite schist over- a typical Kainuan basal pebble conglomerate
lying the Kuusijrvi Formation a sub-Kainuu with vein quartz clasts (Figure 7.12A). This
weathering zone. grades into an almost pure orthoquartzite
In the Perpohja area, the lower contact (>95% quartz), which forms the bulk of the
of the Kainuu tectofacies is placed above the group. The material of the Korvuanjoki Group
Runkaus Formation. This is, however, prob- is mineralogically clearly more mature than
lematic as the Runkaus Formation/Kivalo (re- that of the Kurkikyl Group, which indicates
cently renamed Palokivalo) Formation contact that its source was the sub-Kainuu chemical
is unexposed or is intruded by a metadiabase weathering crust. In its uppermost part, this
sill (Perttunen, 1991). The fact that the Kivalo thick quartz-arenitic succession contains detri-
quartzite overlies both the Archean basement tal potassium feldspar grains indicating a par-
and the Runkaus Formation indicates that tial reworking of the pre-existing weathering
deposition was preceded by a signicant ero- crust and a change in weathering conditions.

A B
C D
E F
G H

Middle and Upper part of the Central lower-middle and upper parts of the Akanvaara
Puolanka Group Formation represent lowstand and transgres-
The turbiditictempestitic Puolankajrvi For- sive systems tracts, respectively, whereas the
mation of the Sariola tectofacies is overlain Prekangas Formation records the highstand
by the Akanvaara Formation, which is a ~800- systems tract.
m-thick, upwards maturing quartzite unit. It
begins with trough cross-bedded feldspathic 7.2. North Karelia
quartzites (Figure 7.12B) overlain by a rather
monotonous parallel laminated quartzite, In North Karelia, on top of the Hokkalampi
which passes to low-angle cross-bedded paleoweathering zone or upon its correla-
micaceous quartzite in its upper part (Figure tive zones, there are sericite quartzites with
7.12C). The lower-middle part of the formation frequent matrix-supported quartz-pebble
is interpreted uvial, whereas the upper part conglomerate interbeds, which pass gradually
is shallow marine. upwards to purer orthoquartzite. In the Koli
The Akanvaara Formation is overlain area, the lower conglomeratic part is inter-
rather sharply, but conformably, by the preted as consisting of mass ow deposits with
Prekangas Formation (at least 500 to 800 m an abundance of detritus from the Hokkalampi
thick). It is poorly exposed, but the outcrops weathering proles and ash ood deposits
available display well preserved primary overlain by proximal braided river or alluvial
structures (Laajoki, 1994). The lower part fan deposits (the ~60-m-thick Vesivaara For-
comprises thin-bedded heterolith units with mation; Kohonen and Marmo, 1992). These
combine-ow ripple cross-bedding and graded are overlain by braidplain bar and channel
bedding interbedded with thicker hummocky conglomerates and diverse uvial gravels and
cross-stratied (Figure 7.12D) and low-angle sands (the ~250-m-thick Koli Formation).
cross-bedded quartzite units. The middle part If the unconformity in Kiihtelysvaara is
of the formation is more pelitic and quartzite considered sub-Kainuu, then the Haukilampi
interbeds are common again in the uppermost Formation (Pekkarinen and Lukkarinen, 1991)
part. The upper part of the formation is vol- belongs to the Kainuu tectofacies. Vyrynen
canicsedimentary, consisting of alternating (1933) and Nyknen (1971) considered this
beds of pelite, quartzite, tuffs (Figure 7.12E), lower Jatulian quartzite formation as Kai-
and lavas. nuu, whereas Ojakangas et al. (2001) included
The AkanvaaraPrekangas couple is it in their Lower Jatuli Group.
interpreted to be a Type 1 sequence. The
Fig. 7.12. (facing page) Photographs of Kainuu rock types. (A) Typical quartz-pebble conglomer-
ate portions in Kainuan basal quartzite. Korvuanjoki Group, Kurkikyl, Kainuu belt. Slide 2-246. (B)
Overturned large-scale cross-bedding in the basal feldspathic part of the Akanvaara Formation.
Huosiuslampi, Kainuu belt. Slide 8-95. (C) Low-angle cross-bedded sericite quartzite. Upper part of
the Akanvaara Formation, Prekangas, Kainuu belt. Photo 10860. (D) Heterolith of the Prekangas
Formation with lens and wavy bedding and hummocky cross-stratication (under the compass).
Lehtomki, Paltamo, Kainuu belt. Slide 12-588. (E) Lapilli tuff of the uppermost part of the Prekan-
gas Formation. Haapala quarry, Kainuu belt. Photo 10552. (F) Folded cross-bedded quartzite sericite
quartzite.Vlivaara, Kuusamo belt. Photo 10924. (G) Tidal heterolith of the Erivaaransuo Formation
with deformed mud cracks. Erivaaransuo, eastern Kuusamo belt. Photo 10621. (H) Combine-ow
ripples in scapolite spotted heterolith, the Kirintkangas Formation. Kirintkangas, western Kuusamo
belt. Slide 30-166. Photos: Kari Strand (A) and Kauko Laajoki (BH).

7.3. Kuusamo and Kuusijrvi tempestitic heterolith units (Figure 7.12H;
Laajoki, 1997) and a yet unnamed poorly
The base of the Kainuu tectofacies is convinc- exposed silty quartzite unit. It seems possible
ingly dened above the Greenstone Formation that the Kirintkangas Formation represents
I, more problematic is the position of the the more distal equivalent of the Erivaaransuo
boundary between Kainuu and Jatuli. In this Formation.
paper, the top of Greenstone II is considered In terms of sequence stratigraphy and in
to represent this boundary. agreement with the Central Puolanka Group,
The Kainuu rocks in the eastern main part the Nilovaara and the KirintkangasErivaa-
of the Kuusamo belt begin with the Sericite ransuo Formations seem to represent low-
Quartzite Formation (100 to 200 m), which stand-transgressive and highstand systems
consists of typical Kainuan uvial sericite- tracts, respectively. The highstand systems
feldspar quartzite with occasional quartz- tract is terminated locally in the east by the ag-
pebble layers (arkose conglomerate) and glomerates and pillow lavas of Silvennoinens
dominant sericite quartzite (Figure 7.12F; (1972) Greenstone II.
Piispanen, 1972; Silvennoinen, 1972, 1991). In the Kuusijrvi area, the Kainuu tecto-
The quartz clasts in the lower part of the for- facies is represented by the 500-m-thick
mation are distinctively blue. They are similar Hautavaara Formation of sericite quartzite
to the quartz xenocrysts/vesicle lls in the with minor mudstones in its upper part (Kari-
Sumi porphyries in the Paanajrvi area, indi- nen, 1998).
cating that they were derived either directly
from this source or from Sariola sediments 7.4. Perpohja
rich in porphyry detritus. The sericite quartzite
is overlain by the heterolithic Erivaaransuo Typical basal Kainuan rock types (quartz-
Formation (>50 m thick) that consists of sev- pebble conglomerate and sericite schist) seem
eral tidal parasequences (Figure 7.12G) and to be missing in the Perpohja area. However,
records a period of transgression (Laajoki, the rather sericite-rich and feldspathic quartz-
2000). Pekkala (1985) described stromatolites ites of the 1000- to 2000-m-thick Palokivalo
from the 30- to 35-m-thick dolomite member (or Kivalo) Formation (Ojakangas, 1965)
in the upper part of this formation. and local quartz-pebble conglomerates in the
In the west, in Posio, the Kainuu tecto- lower part of the Kallinkangas section (Pert-
facies begins with quartzites of the Nilovaara tunen, 1991) indicate that this formation can
Formation, which is intruded by a ~2200 Ma be included in the Kainuu tectofacies. This
metagabbro sill (Evins and Laajoki, 2001). is conrmed by correlative quartzites in the
The dominant rock type is a cross-bedded Rovaniemi (Perttunen et al., 1996) and Vant-
uvial sericite quartzite that is feldspathic in tauskoski (Salonsaari, 1990) areas, which are
the lower part and becomes more mature up- even richer in micas and may contain fuchsite.
wards. It commonly contains fuchsite and can The upper 50 m of the Kallinkangas section
be considered a typical representative of the contains mud-cracked mudstone beds (Mik-
traditional Lapponian quartzite (see Chapter kola, 1960; Ojakangas, 1965).
4). The formation is a likely correlative of
the Sericite Quartzite Formation in the east 7.5. Other occurrences
and the Akanvaara Formation in Kainuu (but
is much thicker, ~2000 m). It is overlain by Outside the main areas of the Karelian for-
the shallow-water Kirintkangas Formation mations in Kainuu and North Karelia there
(>500 m) of alternating tidal sandstone and are several small quartzite occurrences.

Due to their size and incomplete sequences laminated biotite- and chlorite-bearing phyl-
as indicated by several tectonic contacts lites. The basal breccia consists of basement
(Lundqvist et al., 1996), it is hard to identify fragments in a chloritic matrix (Figure 7.13B).
the tectofacies. One occurrence, that might The chloritic matrix, which cannot be an
belong to Kainuu is the Lhdemki Forma- in situ weathering product of the basement
tion (40 to 80 m thick) in the Salahmi belt granitoids, and the sharp upper contact of
(Korkiakoski and Laajoki, 1988). It consists the breccia indicating post-breccia erosion,
of uvial feldspathic quartzites and arkosites support the idea that this contact might not
and is separated from the Archean basement correlate with the sub-Sariola nonconformity
by a thin chemical weathering crust/breccia in Hetehongikko.
(Figures 7.11C and D). It may be possible that the argillitic Kataja-
It is also likely that the lower quartzite se- lampi Member belongs to the Sariola tectofa-
quence of the Nilsi belt (Figure 7.1) belongs cies, but if so, the Nenkangas-type conglom-
to the Kainuu tectofacies as it lies either on the erate of the Jatuli tectofacies was deposited on
Archean basement or the Sariola formations Sariola rocks. In any case, there must be a big
(Paavola, 1984) and is overlain by a conglom- erosional unconformity somewhere under the
erate with quartzite clasts (Section 5.8). This is Nenkangas-type conglomerate also at this
supported by the relatively old U-Pb zircon age locality. The sub-Jatuli unconformity is placed
of the metadiabase sill (1967 24 Ma, op. cit.) here at the base of the basal breccia.
that intrudes this lower part. At the northern Other convincing evidence for a major
end of the Hytiinen basin, the quartzites of period of sub-Jatulian erosion in Kainuu is
eastern Juuanvaarat (Figure 7.4) correspond the polymictic conglomerate of the Pitukansuo
to the Koli belt, but are separated from it by Member (up to 65 m thick), which begins the
faults (Kohonen et al., 1991). Somerjrvi Group (Kangas, 1985; Laajoki
1991). This group is the western equivalent
of the East Puolanka Group, from which it
8. Sub-Jatuli unconformity is separated by the folded and faulted Salmi-
jrvi basin (Figure 7.10). The well-rounded
Evidence for the unconformity under the Jatuli cobbles and boulders in the clast-supported
tectofacies is sparse. The most convincing case conglomerates are mostly orthoquartzite, ser-
is the alluvial Nenkangas conglomerate in icite quartzite, arkosite, and vein quartz with
Kainuu (Laajoki, 1988a). At its type locality, minor siltstone and schist (Kangas, 1985).
this conglomerate lies upon the Kainuu tec- The depositional basement of the Somerjrvi
tofacies quartzite and contains, in addition to Group is not exposed in this area and the
basement orthogneiss and vein quartz clasts, group most likely has tectonic contacts with
also quartzite clasts, which seem to have been the Central Puolanka and Vihajrvi Groups.
derived from the underlying Kainuu tecto- However, the likely southern extension of
facies (Figure 7.13A). Thus, the sediments of the lower contact of the Somerjrvi Group is
the Korvuanjoki Group must have been lith- exposed at the Haapala quarry, ~30 km south
ied to the extent that they could supply rock of Pitukansuo (Figure 7.3). Here a metalava of
fragments. The Nenkangas unconformity the Prekangas Formation is separated from
itself is not exposed. Some 25 km south of the Jatuli orthoquartzite by a 10- to 15-cm-
Nenkangas, a similar conglomerate is found thick biotite-chlorite schist with microcline
close to the Archean basement, from which porphyroblasts and well-rounded quartz and
it is separated by a 20-m-thick member of polycrystalline quartz clasts (Figure 7.13C).
basal breccia and conglomerate as well as The schist is interpreted as a mixture of local

A B
C D
E F
G H

Prekangas lava detritus and quartz-rich sand Paavola (1984, pp. 29, 30) attributed the con-
derived from a more distant source. As there glomerate beds with quartz and orthoquartzite
is no structural or metamorphic evidence pebbles in the middle sericite quartzite part of
for a nonconformity between the Central the Nilsi belt to a short erosional period. The
Puolanka Group and the Jatuli orthoquartzite author is apt to consider this erosion surface
(cf. Section 5.3), this contact is considered as sub-Jatulian.
an intra-Karelian unconformity, which marks It might be questionable to use uncon-
a stratigraphic gap between the Kainuu and formity observations far apart from each
Jatuli tectofacies. other for correlation purposes. However, the
Kohonen and Marmo (1992) correlated sequences under and above the unconformities
the lower contact of the Jero Formation, North are so similar in Kainuu and North Karelia that
Karelia, with the unconformity at Nenkangas the author tends to correlate them with each
and considered it to be the base of a major other and informally calls their basal surface
depositional cycle. The base of the Jero For- the sub-Jatuli unconformity. It is supposed
mation is typically gradational with the under- to mark a signicant period of deep erosion,
lying Koli Formation, but an erosional contact as indicated by the presence of ubiquitous
was also observed. In places, the underlying quartzite clasts from the underlying Karelian
Koli quartzite has been fragmented in situ and sequences in the overlying sequence.
the breccia fragments are matrixed by coarse Satrolites and basal conglomerates are
subarkose. The basal conglomerates of the found between the Archean basement and
Jero Formation are polymictic with basement a thin sequence of epicontinental quartzites
and orthoquartzite clasts. Piirainen (1968) around the basement domes and nappe cores in
considered the corresponding boundary to be the Sotkuma (Gal et al., 1975) and Heinvesi
a bigger hiatus, and Piirainen et al. (1974) areas (Koistinen, 1993). A little higher in the
attributed it to block movements and erosion of stratigraphy, there are local quartzite con-
uplifted blocks. Sorjonen-Ward (1997) attrib- glomerates and polymictic conglomerates, but
uted the Jero Formation to a transient episode these areas are so deformed that no explicit
of basement rejuvenation and rifting associ- correlation with the Sariola and Jatuli rocks
ated with intrusion of 2200-Ma mac sills. in North Karelia has been done.
Ojakangas et al. (2001) correlated the uncon- In the Kuusamo and Perpohja areas, the
formity between their Lower and Upper Jatuli Greenstone III and Jouttiaapa Formation,
groups with the Nenkangas unconformity. respectively, mark the Kainuu/Jatuli bound-
Fig. 7.13. (facing page) Photographs of the sub-Jatuli unconformity and Jatuli rock types. (A) Matrix-
supported Nenkangas conglomerate of the basal part of the East Puolanka Group. Nenkangas,
Kainuu belt. Slide 18-75. (B) In situ breccia above the granitoid of the Kuhmo complex (on the left)
overlain by chloritic schist. Kolkonkangas, Kainuu belt. Slide 3-2. (C) Contact between the foliated
metalava of the Prekangas Formation (on the left) and Jatuli quartzite. Top to the right. Mixed detri-
tus zone above the metalava is indicated by the white line. Photo 10456. (D) Cross-bedded quartzite.
Sl = low-angle cross-bedded quartzite. Paleocurrents by Kari Strand. Siikavaara, Kainuu belt. Slide
4-184. (E) Alternating tidal mudstone and quartzite beds. Lower part of the Rukatunturi Formation.
Ronkonriutta, western Kuusamo belt. Photo 10637. (F) Stromatolites in the Kvartsimaa Formation.
Kvartsimaa, Perpohja belt. Slide 31-69. (G) Laminated turbiditic tufte with one thick bed of the
Tikanmaa Formation. Ossaus, Perpohja belt. Slide 31-231. (H) Stromatolitic and laminated dolomite
of the Rantamaa Formation. Rantamaa quarry, Perpohja belt. Photo 11229. Photos: Kauko Laajoki and
Pekka Hrm (D).

ary. It is possible that the base of the Himmer- (Kohonen and Marmo, 1992). The overlying
kinlahti Member (Laajoki, 2000) and the homogeneous uvial arkosite member seems
Kolmiloukkonen Formation in Posio marks to have a gradational contact with the overly-
this unconformity, but as depositional ages ing subarkosic to quartz arenitic Puso Forma-
of these occurrences are not known, they are tion (<1200 m) of nearshore/shelf deposits
problematic (Section 14.4). with minor uvial input.
If the correlation between the Koli and
Kiihtelysvaara areas suggested by Kohonen
9. Jatuli tectofacies and Marmo (1992) is used, the Jatuli tecto-
facies in Kiihtelysvaara would consist of two
The Jatuli tectofacies consists of quartz- quartzite formations separated by a thin (30 to
ite-dominated sequences which, especially 80 m) metalava unit, the Koljola Formation.
in the north, contain volcanic units in the The lower quartzite formation, Haukilampi
middle parts and carbonate rocks, tuftes, (<550 m; Pekkarinen, 1979; Pekkarinen and
and schist units in the upper parts. Type areas Lukkarinen, 1991), consists of a gradual
are North Karelia and Kainuu, where various sequence from sericite quartzite with quartz-
lithostratigraphic classications have been pebble conglomerates to orthoquartzite. Based
established. As systematical sequence stra- on conventional U-Pb zircon dating of the as-
tigraphy has so far only been applied to the sociated metadiabases, the age of the Koljola
East Puolanka Group, interbasinal correlations Formation is ~2120 to 2100 Ma (op. cit.). The
are arbitrary. Carbon isotope studies by Karhu extrusion of this lava unit was followed by a
(1993; Chapter 16) indicate that the Jatuli period of erosion as veried by volcanic clasts
may be subdivided into two stages, of which in the overlying upper quartzite formation
the older one is distinguished by the carbon (Pekkarinen, 1979). This surface may be the
isotope stage III (CIS III) carbonates enriched counterpart of the ~2080-Ma sub-Ludicovian
in 13C (13C values from about 8 to12.5). unconformity in Russian Karelia (Ojakangas
These rocks were deposited at ~2200 to 2100 et al., 2001). The Kalkunmki Formation
Ma. The carbonates of the second Jatuli stage (Pekkarinen and Lukkarinen, 1991) is over-
were deposited between ~2100 to 2060 Ma lain by the Viistola CIS III dolomites, minor
during the carbon isotope stage IV (CIS IV), volcanic lavas and tuftes, hematite rock,
which records an approximately 10% drop in and the Petikk CIS IV dolomites and black
the 13C values of sedimentary carbonates. In schists, which Vyrynen (1933) included in his
the following, all references to CIS III and CIS Marine-Jatuli facies. It is signicant that the
IV carbonates are taken from Karhu (1993). Koljola Formation and the overlying Kalkun-
mki Formation (<250 m) and Marine Jatuli
9.1. Koli and Kiihtelysvaara areas in sequence (? >400 m) are missing in the Koli
North Karelia area; this may be due to erosion or tectonic
removal of these units.
After deposition of the quartz sandstone of As the 2200-Ma low-Al tholeiite sills
the Koli Formation, a new sedimentary cycle (karjalites) have intruded up to the middle
commenced with deposition of the immature part of the Jero Formation (Vuollo, 1994;
Jero Formation (~1000 m). This formation Chapter 5), the age of the formation is at least
begins with a braidplain and alluvial plain 2200 Ma.
conglomerate member whose material was
derived from the underlying formations and
also probably from the Archean basement

9.2. East Puolanka Group and corre- transgressive series, which are separated from
sponding groups in Kainuu each other by a thin (~50 m) paleoweathered
metalava unit. The uppermost units consist
The East Puolanka Group comprises the of low-angle, cross-bedded shoreface ortho-
northeastern margin of the Kainuu belt. It quartzite, dolomite, and phyllite with thin
was deposited unconformably on top of the tufte interbeds, thus demonstrating that this
Korvuanjoki Group or the Archean basement. sedimentation phase ended also here in a con-
As discussed above, this is demonstrated by the tinental shelf environment (Marine Jatuli)
basal Nenkangas conglomerates. The at least with CIS III dolomites accompanied by some
2300- to 2600-m-thick East Puolanka Group volcanic activity.
consists mainly of mature quartzites (Figure
7.13D) with minor mudstones and heteroliths 9.3. Kuusamo
and one thin metalava unit. Their depositional
systems (uvial, high wave-energy shoreline, In the west, Greenstone II is overlain by the
tidally inuenced shoreline, and inner shelf) Siltstone Formation (200 m), Greenstone For-
dene four transgressive systems followed by mation III (200 m), the Rukatunturi Quartzite
highstand periods (Figure 7.14; Strand, 1993; Formation (600 to 800 m), the Dolomite
Strand and Laajoki, 1999). The upper contact Formation (50 to 100 m), and the Amphibole
of the group is tectonic, which has resulted in Schist Formation (>250 m, Silvennoinen,
the absence of Marine Jatuli rocks. 1972). Pekkala (1985) added the Limestone-
Although poorly exposed, the Somerjrvi dolomite Formation (100 to 200 m) on top of
Group (>1000 m) offers a good section of the the Amphibole Schist Formation, but it has a
Jatuli formations on the western margin of tectonic contact with the main Kuusamo belt.
the Kainuu belt (Figure 7.10). It begins with Greenstone II and part of the Rukatunturi
the polymictic quartzite clast-dominated con- Formation are cut by 2209 9 Ma and 2078
glomerates of the Pitukansuo Member (Sec- 4 Ma metadiabases. Hanski et al. (2001)
tion 7.8) overlain by mostly uvial quartzites were doubtful of the latter age and suspect that
of the Eskosenvaara Formation (Kangas, 1986; this diabase could also belong to the 2200 Ma
Laajoki, 1991). In its upper part, this forma- group. Strand and Laajoki (1999) correlated
tion contains dark homogeneous hematite-ma- the lower tidal part of the Rukatunturi For-
trixed orthoquartzite indicating a gradation to mation (Figure 7.13E) with the transgressive
the Marine Jatuli. The latter is represented system that begins the second sequence in the
by a volcanic unit of several discontinuous East Puolanka Group (Figure 7.14). In Karhus
tufte bodies and the overlying thick (<200 (1993) classication, the Dolomite Forma-
m) CIS IV dolomite-marl formation. The tion and the Limestone-dolomite Formation
southern extension of this group in Paltamo belong to carbon isotope stages III and IV,
is known as the Melalahti Group, the upper respectively.
part of which contains CIS IV dolomites, mica Most of the Jatuli seems to be missing in
schists, and black schists (Krki, 1988). Posio, where only thin layers of conglomerates
The quartzites of the East Puolanka Group and overlying siltstones are found. The poorly
can be traced to Paltamo, where they turn to- exposed Himmerkinlahti Member (>8 m) is
wards the northeast to Ristijrvi as the thick interpreted as a minor coarse-grained alluvial
(up to 3500 m) Hyrynsalmi Group (Kontinen, braid/braidplain delta. It is considered to indi-
1986) and continue to Sotkamo as the Vuo- cate a Type 1 sequence boundary, which is ten-
katti Group (Gehr and Havola, 1988). The tatively correlated with the one represented by
Hyrynsalmi Group can be divided into two the Greenstone II in the west (Laajoki, 2000).

Lithostrati- Dominant Relative Depositional Sequence
graphic unit depositional water systems tract
environment depth
Tidal channels
Sand shoals of
inner self
TST 4
Siikavaara Fm.
Foreshore &
upper shoreface
First signicant
ooding
50 m surface
HST
Alluvial plain
3
Inuence of shore-
line processes
Tidal channels
Hallakulma Fm. Foreshore &
upper shoreface TST
tidal at
Gradational
Inuence of shore- change
face processes
+ 500 m HST
Deltaic braided
Kometto Fm. alluvial plain
Inuence of shore- 2
face processes
Subtidal channel
Kovasin- & delta
vaara Fm. Microtidal lagoon TST
Barrier beach Hiatus
Alakyl Fm.
Backbeach lagoon HST
Vuorivaara Fm. stacked foreshore
& upper shoreface 1
Condensed
Kiskonkoski & Incised valley section
Naulaper Fms. TST
Alluvial plain (LST)
Fig. 7.14. Sequence stratigraphy of the East Puolanka Group (modied from Strand and Laajoki,
1999). LST, TST, and HST lowstand, transgressive, and highstand system tracts, respectively.

This is, however, tentative, as the conglomer- basis of Perttunens (1991) lithostratigraphic
ate contains a lot of albitite clasts, whose age and Karhus (1993) and Kortelainens (1998)
is not known and which were most likely isotope studies, the Jatuli in Perpohja can be
derived from the albitite dikes cross-cutting considered as the type area of CIS III and CIS
nearby quartzite formations (see Section 14.4.) IV in the Fennoscandian Shield.
Another problematic unit is the polymictic
Pstispuro conglomerate, which seems 9.5. Other occurrences
to overlie the Kirintkangas Formation and
contains diverse quartzite, metabasite, schist, There are several smaller quartzite and dolo-
and granitoid clasts in epidotized gneissic mite occurrences, which might be included
quartz-feldspar matrix (Section 14.4). in the Jatuli (see Kousa et al., 2000). In the
southern end of the Hytiinen basin is the
9.4. Perpohja Tohmajrvi volcanic complex (Nyknen et
al., 1994), which contains both pillow lavas
The Jatuli tectofacies is best represented in and pyroclastic ashes and with which the
the southern part of the belt, north of the Hammaslahti copper ore is closely associ-
city of Kemi. It consists of the metavolcanic ated. The complex is ~2100 Ma old (Huhma,
2090 70 Ma (Sm-Nd age; Huhma et al., 1986) and thus belongs to Jatuli not to Kaleva,
1990) Jouttiaapa Formation (300 to 1000 m), within which it is exposed in an anticline. In
the Kvartsimaa Formation (50 to 200 m) of the Kuopio area, a thin (<200 m) quartzite
tidal orthoquartzites, CIS III stromatolitic formation is overlain by a CIS IV dolomite-
dolomites (Figure 7.13F), and one polymic- skarn unit (<200 m) (Aumo, 1983). Also
tic conglomerate interbed (Ukonkngs), the Nilsi, Ala-Siikajrvi, and Juuanvaarat
the turbiditic tuftes (Figure 7.13G) of the quartzite belts contain in their upper parts
Tikanmaa Formation (200 to 300 m), and the dolomites (both CIS III and CIS IV are present
tidal Rantamaa Formation (100 to 300 m) of in Ala-Siikajrvi) and other rocks typical of
CIS IV stromatolitic dolomites (Figure 7.13H) the Marine Jatuli (Paavola, 1984; Kousa et
with thin orthoquartzite interbeds (Perttunen, al., 2000). Ekdahl (1993) included part of the
1989, 1991). The Jouttiaapa Formation, which volcanic rocks, mica schists, and migmatites
consists of tens of subareal lava ows (Pert- of the Pielavesi area in Jatuli.
tunen, 1989), may mark the change from the
Kainuu tectofacies to the Jatuli tectofacies.
The stromatolites have been described 10. Sub-Lower Kaleva
by Hrme and Perttunen (1963), Krylov and unconformity
Perttunen (1978), and Kortelainen (1998).
According to Kortelainen (op. cit.), who The traditional Kaleva includes all the Kare-
carried out a detailed sedimentological and lian metagraywackes, mica schists, mica
isotope geochemical study of the lower green- gneisses, and associated rocks that overlie the
schist facies CIS IV Rantamaa Formation, the Jatuli tectofacies or, in places, the Archean
dominant stromatolites are domes or columnar basement. They ll the cores of the Nuasjrvi
and indicate a supra intertidal depositional and Hytiinen basins in Kainuu and North
environment for the formation. She also de- Karelia, form the bulk of the Outokumpu
scribed subtidal carbonate turbidites. As a nappe complex, and form a faulted belt from
whole, the basin into which the Rantamaa Kuopio via Salahmi to the Kiiminki belt
carbonates deposited was a moderately low (Figure 7.1). These formations are vaguely
energy epeiric platform and/or ramp. On the subdivided into Lower and Upper Kaleva.

No unconformity between them has been rocks lie nonconformably upon the Archean
described, and the subdivision is based on basement (Figure 7.15B; Honkamo, 1985). A
lithological and geochemical correlations and similar relationship is obviously also present
the the 1953 2 Ma Jormua ophiolite (Kon- in the Salahmi belt (Korkiakoski and Laajoki,
tinen, 1986; Peltonen et al., 1996; Chapter 6). 1988).
Conventional detrital zircon isotope studies It is noteworthy that no coarse-clastic
demonstrate that the Lower Kaleva had mainly rocks indicative of sub-Lower Kaleva uncon-
an Archean provenance, whereas in the Upper formity have been described from the Kuopio
Kaleva a Proterozoic provenance is dominant and Perpohja area. In the latter, however, the
(Huhma, 1990). Kainuu/Jatuli rocks pass into the schists/turbi-
The marked unconformity between the dites of the (Lower) Kaleva (Ojakangas, 1965;
Jatuli and lowermost Kaleva formations Salonsaari, 1990; Perttunen et al., 1996). In
was shown rst by Vyrynen (1933), who these cases, the Lower Kaleva contact is placed
described several basal Kaleva formations above the carbonate-bearing units that belong
in North Karelia and Kainuu. These are con- to Karhus (1993) CIS IV.
glomeratessedimentary breccias with Jatuli
quartzite and other clasts in micaceous or
arenitic matrix. Kohonen (1995) questioned 11. Lower Kaleva tectofacies
this interpretation stating that the traditional
basal Kaleva conglomerates in North Karelia 11.1. Kainuu belt
are found at several different stratigraphic
levels. As it may be, their occurrence implies The Lower Kaleva consists of a rather hetero-
a signicant erosional unconformity between geneous autochthonousparautochthonous
Jatuli and Kaleva. sequence of basal turbiditic conglomerates
Conglomerates (Figure 7.15A) indicating and breccias, quartz wackes, graywackes and
the presence of a sub-Lower Kaleva uncon- shales as well as banded iron-formations.
formity have been described in North Karelia Kontinen (1986, 1998) attributed these rocks
by Piirainen et al. (1974), Pekkarinen (1979), to a 2100-1950 Ma rift phase.
and Kohonen (1995). In Kainuu, the classical In the Vuokatti area, this tectofacies be-
basal Kaleva unit within the Nuasjrvi basin gins with the heterogenic Torikyl Formation
is the Rieskavaara breccia (Vyrynen, 1933; of diverse sedimentary breccias, e.g., the
Gehr and Havola, 1988). At Juurikka, Hy- Rieskavaara breccia, and conglomerates, of
rynsalmi, a thin basal breccia that lies directly which a part may be attributed to submarine
on top of the Jatulian quartzite is overlain by canyons/channels and turbiditic sandstones
a polymictic conglomerate with poorly to (Gehr and Havola, 1988). These are overlain
well-rounded clasts of quartzite, granite and by the mixed chemicalclastic Tuomivaara
mica schist (Kontinen, 1986). According to Formation (5 to 50 m) containing quartz
Kontinen (1986) the lowermost Kaleva unit, (chert)-banded iron-formation units with
the Kotila Formation, rests unconformably on abundant mica schist and banded amphibolite
the various units of the underlying Jatuli rocks units and a few turbidite sandstone interbeds.
and, in places, on the Archean basement, indi- The amphibolite units most likely represent
cating strong block movements and deep local volcanoclastic rocks. Two uppermost units are
erosion before the deposition of the Kotila the 50- to 100-m-thick Ruokonen Formation
Formation. This unconformity has also been of turbiditic conglomerate and sandstone, and
located in Puolanka (Laajoki, 1991). the Naapurinvaara Formation of monotonous
In the Kiiminki belt, the Lower Kaleva massive quartz arenite and subarkosite.

In the Hyrynsalmi area, the Lower Kal- 11.2. Hytiinen basin, North Karelia
eva consists of local basal breccias and con-
glomerates with minor quartzites overlain by The Hytiinen basin is a narrow structure
sandstones with black schist and iron-forma- formed by faulting and mainly contains mica
tion interbeds (Kontinen, 1986). Their origin schists and turbiditic, mica-bearing meta-
is associated with rifting of the continental sandstones (Figure 7.4). The contact between
crust after the Jatuli, which formed steep the basin and the eastern quartzite belt is
fault ridges and escarpments in submarine unconformable so that on top of the Kiihtelys-
basins of the half graben type. The breccia vaara CIS III dolomitic series is a ~50-m-thick
conglomerates represent submarine rockslides turbiditic metaconglomerate with clasts of
and the metasandstones are turbidite deposits. Jatulian quartzites and lavas (Pekkarinen,
Similar rocks are also found in Melalahti 1979). The metaconglomerate is overlain by a
(Krki, 1988). graded turbiditic quartzite and the metapelites
In Puolanka, Kaleva lls the Salmijrvi and graywackes of the Hytiinen basin (Ward
basin (Figure 7.10) and begins with sedi- 1987, 1988; Kohonen, 1995). This sharp
mentary breccias and turbidites deposited lithologic contact is apparently tectonic, at
unconformably on the CIS IV dolomites. They least locally. Kohonen (1995) interpreted it
are followed by quartz-rich turbidites (Figure as a step-like, faulted rim of an ancient sedi-
7.15C), black schists, mica schists, and iron- mentary basin, where the metaconglomerates
formations. represent several different stratigraphic levels
Quartz (chert) banded iron-formations with the oldest conglomerates lying farther
(BIFs, Figure 7.15D) are a peculiar feature towards the center of the basin.
of the Lower Kaleva in Kainuu. They are ex- Ward (1987, 1988) interpreted the Hytii-
ceptionally rich in C and P and include up to nen basin as an en echelon transtensional,
2-cm-thick phosphorite bands (Figure 7.15E). intracratonic rift basin. The volcanic activity at
These have negative Ce anomalies and are Tohmajrvi was apparently associated with the
commonly rich in Mn (Laajoki, 1975; Laajoki initial phase of rifting. Kohonen (1995) subdi-
and Saikkonen, 1977; Gehr and Laajoki, vided the Hytiinen basin ll into ve litho-
1987; Gehr, 1994). They were previously logic assemblages, which were interpreted to
considered Lake Superior-type and were in- represent various shelf and basinal sediments
cluded in the Marine Jatuli. As they are now ascribed to the development of the basin a
known to belong to Kaleva (Kontinen, 1986) Wilson cycle between 2110 and 1880 Ma. A
they seem to represent a unique phosphorous Sm-Nd isotope study indicates that the Lower
BIF type. Kaleva basins may have been dominated by a
The BIFs are interbedded with and over- Jatuli/Archean source (Huhma, 1987).
lain by sulde-bearing black schists. A Ni-Cu-
Zn deposit hosted by the Lower Kaleva black 11.3. Kuopio area
schists is found in Talvivaara. The precursors
of the black schists (sapropelitic muds) with The CIS IV Petonen Formation is overlain by
average Cgraf and S contents of 7% to 8% and a signicant volcanogenic unit, the Vaivanen
8 to 9%, respectively, were deposited in anoxic Formation (at its thickest ~200 m), which
conditions (Loukola-Ruskeeniemi and Heino, mainly consists of mac, pillow metalavas (Au-
1996). mo, 1983). The correlative Koivusaari Forma-
tion contains a 2062 2 Ma felsic tuff (Pekkari-
nen and Lukkarinen, 1991). These formations
have been included in Jatuli (e.g., Kousa et al.,

A B
C D
E FF
G H

2000). Here they are included in Lower Kaleva Late Archean Iisalmi basement (Figure 7.15F).
because the age of the Koivusaari Formation This passes into the basinal Rotimojoki For-
is close to that of the Keinokangas porphyry, mation (~1000 m) which has exceptionally
which is found within the Lower Kaleva in well-preserved primary structures including
Perpohja (Section 11.6). In addition, the CIS diverse Bouma sequences (Figure 7.15G) and
IV dolomites in other areas are not known to inverse- to normally graded conglomerates
be overlain by volcanic rocks but their upper (Korkiakoski and Laajoki, 1988). The forma-
contact is considered to represent the sub- tion consists of three members: (1) the lower
Lower Kaleva unconformity. The Koivukangas member of arkosic Ta(b)e turbidites of smooth
and Keinokangas volcanic assemblages seem mid/lower fan, (2) the middle member mainly
to represent bimodal volcanism associated composed of massive Ta(ab)e turbidites of
with the initial Kaleva rifting. channeled mid-fan, (3) the Ilkonaho member
The thick mica schistmica gneiss unit mainly composed of arenite-clasted turbiditic
containing intercalated beds of carbonate and conglomeratesgraded arkosites of upper/mid
black schist overlies the Vaivanen metalava fan channels and laminatedthinly bedded and
and is generally included in the Lower Kaleva graded pelitessiltstones of levees and inter-
(Aumo, 1983). Ekdahl (1993) described from channel deposits of upper/mid fan. The small
Pielavesi, northwest of Kuopio, dolomites, Itmki belt, consisting of Kalevian staurolite-
black schist, and associated rocks and included mica schists and metapsammites, lies north of
them into the Marine Jatuli. According to Salahmi. A similar small occurrence of turbid-
the classication used in this paper, however, itic rocks is found in Otanmki (Puumalainen,
at least part of them may belong to Upper 1986). Nd isotope data on the schists from the
Kaleva. Itmki and Otanmki belts imply Proterozoic
provenance (Finnil, 2000).
11.4. Salahmi belt
11.5. Kiiminki belt
The part of the Salahmi belt (Laajoki and
Luukas, 1988) included in the Lower Kaleva The relatively large Kiiminki belt is excep-
begins with the coarse-clastic Haajainen For- tional among the Lower Kaleva belts as it con-
mation composed of basal debris ow turbid- tains thick volcanic units between two thick
itic conglomerates with diverse granitoid and turbidite (graywacke) units. In the southeast,
gneiss clasts, most likely derived from the the lowermost formation is the quartz- and
Fig. 7.15. (facing page) Photographs of primary features of the sub-Lower Kaleva unconformity and
Lower Kaleva rock types. (A) Polymictic Lower Kaleva conglomerate with Jatuli quartzite clasts.
Kortevaara, North Karelia belt. Slide 18-20. (B) Lower Kaleva metagraywacke deposited nonconform-
ably on the granitoid of the Pudasjrvi complex. Mkipalo, Kiiminki belt. (C) Medium-bedded quartz
arenite metaturbidite. Roninkangas, Kainuu belt. Slide 4-318. (D) Quartz-banded mixed silicate-oxide
facies iron-formation. Tuomivaara, Kainuu belt. Slide 12-278. (E) Three phosphorite bands (23 mm,
black) in the Tuomivaara chert and iron-mineral banded iron-formation. Kainuu belt. (F) Basal con-
glomerate of the Haajainen Formation with mostly basement granitoid and gneiss clasts. Haajainen,
Salahmi belt. Slide 14-362. (G) Upwards thinning Tae turbidite in the Rotimojoki Formation. Top to
the left. Rotimojoki, Salahmi belt. Slide 14-152. (H) Clast-supported quartzite-clast conglomerate beds
separated by a thin laminated sandstone cap. Top to the left. Taivalkoski, Perpohja belt. Slide 31-132.
Photos: Mikko Honkamo (B), Seppo Gehr (E), and Kauko Laajoki.

granitoid-clasted Kalliomaa conglomerate normally (Figure 7.15H) or inversely graded,
deposited on the Archean Pudasjrvi com- clast-supported conglomerate, and rippled
plex (Khknen et al., 1986). The overlying quartzite. The quartzite clasts may represent
Utajrvi Formation (Figure 7.1; probably 2 intra-Kaleva material, and the sequence as a
km to 3 km thick), consisting of arkosites whole resembles the Ilkonahonkallio member
and matrix-supported conglomerates similar in Salahmi (see above). It may represent a
to those in the Haajainen Formation, passes channel ll of a submarine fan.
both laterally and vertically into the lower In the north, in Mustamaa, brecciated/thin-
turbidite pile of the Vuotto Formation, which ly banded uranium-bearing phosphorites have
locally has been deposited directly on top of been described from the Rantamaa/Martimo
the Pudasjrvi Archean block (Figure 7.15B; contact zone. Their stratigraphic position and
Honkamo, 1985). This formation is separated origin are not clear and they occur in dolomite,
from the upper turbidite unit of the Ylikiiminki tufte, chlorite schist, and marl (Yrjl, 1982).
Formation by several discontinuous volcanic This sequence is overlain by mica schists and
units of basaltic tholeiites (Honkamo, 1987) metagraywackes (Korkalo, 1971) that, farther
with associated schists, minor carbonate to the north, are overlain by the mac volcanic
rocks with rather low 13CTot values (0.16 rocks of the Vystj Formation (Figure 7.6).
to 1.97; Karhu, 1993), BIF, chert, and local The Vystj Formation contains the 2050
conglomerate and quartzite. 8 Ma Keinokangas porphyry (Perttunen and
Stratigraphic relations within the belt are Vaasjoki, 2001), the only felsic effusive rock
not reliably known. Lundqvist et al. (1996) in the Perpohja area. This porphyry is associ-
considered the upper turbidite sequence to ated with felsic agglomerates/conglomerates
be allochthonous, but Kousa et al. (2000) that contain phosphorite fragments (Eeron-
described the entire UtajrviYlikiiminki se- heimo, 1979). It is not clear whether these
quence continuous. The 2093 35 Ma zircon fragments are from the Mustamaa occurrence
U-Pb age of a felsic porphyry clast from the or from the phosphorite bands in the Lower
polymictic Koiteli conglomerate overlying Kaleva BIFs in Kainuu. Their REE distribution
(or interngering) the metalava unit gives a and low U content point to the latter possibil-
maximum age for the deposition of the con- ity. A turbiditic mica schist of the Martimo
glomerate (Honkamo, 1988). Formation has a Pb-Pb age of about 2575 Ma,
indicating a dominant Archean provenance
11.6. Perpohja (Perttunen and Vaasjoki, 2001).
The Martimo Formation in the southern part

of the belt overlies the Rantamaa Formation. 12. Sub-Upper Kaleva
This is a monotonous sequence of phyllites unconformity
and mica schists with minor black schists
traditionally included in Lower Kaleva. The Upper Kaleva turbidites are supposed to
formation is folded and its total thickness have been deposited upon the Jormua and
is unknown. A signicant quartzite-pebbled Outokumpu ophiolite complexes (Kontinen,
conglomerate is found in Taivalkoski (Hrme, 1987; Peltonen et al., 1996). Ward (1987)
1949; Enkovaara et al., 1953; Perttunen, 1991). and Sorjonen-Ward (1997) considered that,
Unfortunately, this occurrence was not studied although the eastern margin of his Savo prov-
in detail before it was buried under a dam ince lithofacies (Upper Kaleva in this study) is
reservoir. On leftover outcrops, sedimentary allochthonous, evidence for local deposition
facies includes pebbly cross-bedded quartzite, upon Archean basement has been preserved,

including an unconformity within the inlier maximum depositional age of ~1939 Ma for
at Oravisalo. However, Korsman et al. (1997) Upper Kaleva in the Nuasjrvi basin (Claes-
correlated the basal supracrustal rocks rim- son et al., 1993).
ming the Oravisalo basement dome (Figure
7.4) with the Hytiinen basin (Lower Kaleva 13.2. Upper Kaleva within the
in this study) and considered the contact with Outokumpu nappe complex and the
the surrounding mica schists (Upper Kaleva) KuopioPielavesi area
tectonic (Figure 7.16A).
As no direct observations of the sub-Up- The Outokumpu nappe complex comprises
per Kaleva unconformity have been reported, allochthonous Proterozoic rocks between
the depositional basement of Upper Kaleva the Hytiinen basin and the RaaheLadoga
is unknown. If this tectofacies was deposited zone (Figure 7.1). It is structurally complex,
upon the ophiolite complexes, there should consisting of several nappes of both Up-
be at least a 30- to 50-Ma time gap between per Kaleva rocks and basement slices. The
it and the Jormua and Outokumpu ophiolites, lowermost nappes may also contain Lower
as the depositional age of Upper Kaleva is Kaleva rocks.
less than 1920 Ma (Claesson et al., 1993) and The rocks in the eastern, less metamor-
the ophiolites have been dated at 1953 23 phosed part of the complex are monotonous
Ma (Peltonen et al., 1996) and 1972 18 Ma metasandstones, mainly mass-ow deposits
(Huhma, 1986), respectively. and turbidites (Figure 7.16B; Ward, 1988).
Farther to the west, the Outokumpu association
consists of several thrust sheets and contains
13. Upper Kaleva tectofacies a characteristic serpentinite-ophiolite band
with associated volcanic rocks and chemical
13.1. Upper Kaleva in Kainuu sediments as well as Outokumpu-type copper
ores (Koistinen, 1981; Loukola-Ruskeeniemi,
The Upper Kaleva is rather monotonous, con- 1999). Closer to the Svecofennides, the rocks
sisting mainly of medium- to thick-bedded, pass into paragneisses (Figure 7.16C) and
mica-bearing massive or graded metasand- migmatites.
stones or graywackes and thin-bedded mica A Nd isotope study indicates that the Up-
schists. These rocks occupy the main core of per Kaleva rocks consist of sediments derived
the Nuasjrvi basin (Figure 7.3; Lundqvist et from orogenic sources to the west with a
al., 1996; Kontinen and Peltonen, 1998). They signicant potassium feldspar-poor Archean
were deposited by turbidity currents in deep component (Huhma, 1987). Ward (1987,
water, or at least below the level of storm activ- 1988) favored passive margin sedimentation
ity. Kontinen (1986) considered the transition prograding either onto ocean oor or back-
from Lower to Upper Kaleva sedimentary. The arc, which derived its material from both the
latter was subsequently associated with the Archean basement and a primitive Proterozoic
Jormua ophiolite complex in the allochthon substrate. Detrital zircons of the sample col-
that was probably emplaced as a thin thrust lected near the Outokumpu ophiolite indicate
sheet across the foreland to Kainuu during an a maximum depositional age of ~1924 Ma
early stage of the Svecofennian orogeny, and for Upper Kaleva in this area (Claesson et
later imprecated and folded by thick-skinned al., 1993).
deformation (Peltonen et al., 1996; Kontinen Based on extensive geochemical data,
and Peltonen, 1998). Detrital zircons from Kontinen and Sorjonen-Ward (1991) con-
a sample near the Jormua ophiolite give a cluded that the Upper Kaleva sediments of

the Nuasjrvi basin and the Outokumpu nappe but are probably tectonic.
complex are so strikingly similar that they The Vihajrvi Group (>700 m) forms
shared a common provenance and accumu- a unique fluvialstorm-dominated muddy
lated within a single large-scale depositional shelf sequence, which begins with a basal
system. polymictic clast-supported conglomerate with
quartzite, schist, and volcanic clasts, of which
the major part may have been derived from the
14. Problematic younger Karelian Central Puolanka Group (Figure 7.17A; Kan-
formations gas, 1985). This is overlain by braided alluvial
plain arenites, which gradually grade into a
In Puolanka, there are one larger and three pelitic unit at least 420 m thick. The sand-
small sedimentary formations that are con- stones of the transitional part show diverse
sidered younger than the Jatuli, but whose se- storm-generated facies of shorelineinner
quences deviate so much from typical Kaleva shelf, including hummocky cross-stratica-
within the Kainuu belt that their correlation tion (Figure 7.17B), graded bedding, ning-
with this tectofacies is questionable. Due to upwards cycles of parallel laminated muddy
unresolved fault tectonics, the stratigraphy of arenites (Figure 7.17C), and slump-structures
the northern part of the Perpohja belt is also (Figure 7.17D). The uppermost pelitessilt-
problematic. In addition, two unique conglom- stones are thinly-laminated with solitary mas-
erate-quartzite units are found in Kuusamo. sive or graded sandstone interbeds, indicating
Although fragmentary and small, these oc- outer shelf conditions.
currences give signicant information on the A strongly deformed conglomerate is
younger Karelian sedimentation. exposed in a road cut along the OuluKajaani
highway at Haapalanmki, south of Kives-
14.1.Vihajrvi Group and Haapalanmki vaara in Paltamo (Heino, 1983). This strongly
and Jokijyrkk conglomerates deformed conglomerate lies with an angular
unconformity on the Central Puolanka Group
The Vihajrvi Group forms a narrow (0.5 (Figure 7.17E). It must also lie unconformably
km to 1 km by 18 km) and tight syncline be- on Jatuli tectofacies, as the nearby contact
tween the Central Puolanka and Somerjrvi between this group and the Jatuli quartzite
Groups on the western margin of the Kainuu is vertical (Figure 7.13C). This indicates that
belt (Figures 7.3 and 7.10). It was previ- even the Jatuli was tilted or folded before the
ously considered to lie lithostratigraphically deposition of the Haapalanmki conglomerate.
between these groups (Laajoki, 1991). New The quartzite cobbleboulder conglomerates
Nd isotope results of metapelites show Nd are matrix- or clast-supported and may show
values from 4.9 to 0.6 and TDM from 2680 reverse grading, indicating that they represent
to 2226 Ma, which clearly indicate a mixed alluvial deposits derived from the nearby Jatuli
ArcheanProterozoic provenance and cor- quartzites. Similar quartzite-clast conglomer-
relation with the Upper Kaleva, rather than ates seem to lie unconformably on the Central
Jatuli tectofacies (Kontinen et al., 1996). On Puolanka Group at Jokijyrkk (Enkovaara et
the basis of its quite exceptional lithostrati- al., 1953; Laajoki, 1991).
graphy and problematic present position, this Kontinen (1998) included the Vihajrvi
group is not included in the Upper Kaleva in Group in Upper Kaleva, but, as discussed
this study, but its relation to the Kaleva rocks above, the Upper Kaleva of the Nuasjrvi basin
in the Nuasjrvi basin remains unsolved. The likely represents an allochthonous deep water
primary contacts of the group are not exposed, sequence, whereas the Vihajrvi Group rather

A B
C
Fig. 7.16. Photographs of primary features of Upper Kaleva rock types. (A) Deformed contact/uncon-
formity (see the text) between the basement gneisses and Upper Kaleva metaturbidites. Oravisalo,
Outokumpu nappe complex. Slide 18-188. (B) Thick-bedded metaturbidites. Outokumpu nappe com-
plex. Slide 18-187. (C) Gneissic metaturbidites. Humaljrvi, Outokumpu nappe complex. Slide 18-160.
Photos: Kauko Laajoki.
is autochthonous and represents a uvial-shelf is, in turn, overlain by pure orthoquartzite

system. The Haapalanmki conglomerate may (Laajoki, 1988b). According to Nd isotope
represent a debris ow deposits of an alluvial data, at least the material of the mica schist
fan, which derived its clasts from the nearby in the lower part of the formation seems to
quartzites or quartzite-clast conglomerates. have been derived from Archean bedrock
(TDM 3153 Ma; Kontinen et al., 1996). Strong
14.2. Pyssykulju Formation fractionation of rare earth elements in the
analyzed samples indicates, however, that
Pyssykulju at Puolanka is a small hill sur- the presence of younger material cannot be
rounded by poorly exposed Lower Kalevian excluded (Finnil, 2000). The clasts of the
rocks at the northern end of the Salmijrvi overlying conglomerate were most likely
basin (Figure 7.3). In the lower part of the derived from the nearby Jatuli tectofacies
hill, thin-bedded, massive hematite pigmented (Laajoki, 1988b). It might be that the lower,
turbiditic metasandstone and mica schist are turbiditic part belongs to Lower Kaleva, upon
found and are overlain by a thin, cross-bed- which the overlying conglomeratequartzite
ded conglomerate with quartzite clasts in sequence was unconformably deposited. The
orthoquartzitic matrix. The conglomerate contact is not, however, exposed.

A B
C D
E F
G H

14.3. Northern margin of the Perpohja allochthonous in respect to the main southern
belt part of the Perpohja belt. Although the appar-
ent provenance age of the Korkiavaara Forma-
The northern part of the Perpohja belt is cut tion is relatively young, a direct correlation
by an E-trending fault zone, which separates of these formations with the allochthonous
the pelitic Pylijrvi and associated for- Upper Kaleva in Kainuu and North Karelia is
mations from the main southern part. This not necessarily warranted.
tectonic zone is revealed by geological (Fig-
ure 7.6) and aeromagnetic maps and by the 14.4. Himmerkinlahti Member and
Korkiavaara Formation north of the fault zone. Kolmiloukkonen Formation in Posio
Bulk detrital zircons give an apparent age of
1985 Ma for the provenance of an arkosite in The Himmerkinlahti Member (HL in Figure
the Korkiavaara Formation, indicating that 7.5; Laajoki, 2000) is found as small soli-
the Upper Kaleva units may be present in this tary outcrops and, consequently, its relations
northern area (Perttunen and Vaasjoki, 2001). with other parts of the Kuusamo belt are not
The Korkiavaara Formation is said to overlie, reliably known. The main signicance of the
with gradational contacts, the Kalliovaara Himmerkinlahti Member is that it contains
quartzite and underlie the Pylijrvi Forma- conglomerate beds with abundant Karelian
tion. The former seems to be of the Kainuan metabasite, albitite (Figure 7.17G), and other
type and belongs to the southern part of the lithic clasts, which show evidence of post-
Perpohja belt, whereas the latter comprises depositional alteration. The member was in-
mica schists and gneisses. The fact that the terpreted to represent a minor coarse-grained
area consists of D2 antiforms and synforms alluvial braid/braidplain delta and thus yield
and that the rocks are gneisses without clear evidence for a period of signicant subaerial
top indicators, the stratigraphic relationships erosion during deposition of the early Protero-
given should be considered only tentative. On zoic Karelian formations in northern Finland.
the basis of available data (Salonsaari, 1990; Its rocks are probably part of a lowstand pro-
Lappalainen, 1994; Vnnen et al., 1997; grading wedge of the Type 1 sequence of the
Perttunen et al., 1996) it is likely that the Kal- Kuusamo belt. However, as this occurrence
liovaara and Pylivaara Formations may be lies close to the tectonic boundary (the Kitka
Fig. 7.17. (facing page) Photographs of the problematic Karelian rock types. (A) Deformed basal con-
glomerate of the Vihajrvi Group with quartzite and schist clasts. Brownish feldspar quartzite clasts
are derived from the Akanvaara Formation. Mustavaara, Kainuu belt. Slide 4-4. (B) Parallel-laminated
sandstone (below the 16-cm-long scale) overlain by hummocky cross-stratied sandstone, the Jalka-
aho Formation. Jalka-aho, Kainuu belt. Slide 4-208. (C) Thinning upwards tempestite sequences, the
Jalka-aho Formation. Jalka-aho, Kainuu belt. Slide 4-210. (D) Synsedimentation deformation structures
in parallel-laminated sandstone, the Jalka-aho Formation. Jalka-aho, Kainuu belt. Slide 4-215. (E) De-
formed angular unconformity between the siltstone of the vertical Prekangas Formation (on the left
= east) and Haapalanmki quartzite-cobble conglomerate. Haapalanmki road cut, Kainuu belt. Photo
10812. (F) Matrix-supported quartzite-boulder conglomerate. Haapalanmki road cut, Kainuu belt.
Photo 10807. (G) Pebbly and hematite-laminated sandstone of the Himmerkinlahti Member. Note
the angular pink albitite clasts right of the scale. Himmerkinlahti, western Kuusamo belt. Slide 30-559.
(H) Polymictic epidotized and gneissic conglomerate with diverse quartzite, metabasite, and granitoid
clasts. Pstispuro, western Kuusamo belt. Slide 30-24. Photos: Kauko Laajoki.

fault) between the eastern and western parts cut the uppermost Jatuli quartzites. They have
of the Kuusamo belt, its stratigraphic position not been found in Kaleva, indicating that the
needs to be veried by isotope dating. deposition of the latter took place after 1.98
Another exceptional conglomeratic unit Ga.
is found ~30 km northeast of Himmerkinlahti
and forms a tight syncline within the highly The age pattern seems to be a little dif-
deformed Kainuan rocks of the western Kuusa- ferent in the Perpohja and Kuusamo areas,
mo belt (Figure 7.5). This Kolmiloukkonen where only metadiabases of the 2.2-Ga age
Formation seems to lie unconformably upon group have so far been dated with condence
the Kirintkangas Formation. Its base is an (Hanski et al., 2001). Felsic dikes are common
epidotized polymictic conglomerate with within the Perpohja belt, but due to their Ar-
diverse quartzite, metabasite, and granitoid chean xenocrystic zircons, their emplacement
clasts (Figure 7.17H). The rock is highly ages are unknown.
metamorphosed and its matrix is gneissic. The
bulk of the formation is made up of micaceous
quartzite and quartzitic mica schist. 16. Previously proposed basin
It is possible that these units may be models
younger than the bulk of the Kuusamo belt and
could be correlated with the molassic Kumpu Since Hietanen (1975) published her tectonic
Group in Central Lapland (see Chapter 4). model for the Svecofennides, depositional set-
tings of the Karelian basins have been modeled
in the terms of plate tectonics. The various
15. Karelian metadiabases ideas are summarized in Table 7.2.
The late Archean basement and its Sariola 16.1. Continental and pericontinental
KainuuJatuli cover are cut by several genera- Karelia (sensu stricto) basins
tions of metadiabases, which offer a valuable
tool for relative dating of the deposition of the As can be seen from Table 7.2, most authors
Karelian supracrustal rocks. Vuollo (1994) classify the Sumi, Kainuu, and Jatuli tecto-
(see also Chapter 5) classied these dikes in facies, which may be called collectively
eastern Finland into four groups, which are, Karelian basin deposits sensu stricto, as
from the oldest to the youngest, as follows: continental, cratonic or epicontinental se-
quences. However, closer basin analyses and
(1) ~2.45-Ga mostly boninitic (noritic) reconstructions are hard to carry out as only
dikes associated with layered intrusions of the poorly exposed and arbitrary cross-sections of
same age group. deformed basins are visible and paleocurrents
(2) 2.2-Ga low-Al tholeiites (karjalites), are difcult to measure. The available data
intruded into Kainuu and the lower part of (Ojakangas, 1965; Marmo et al., 1988; Strand,
Jatuli, typically found as differentiated (lay- 1993; Kohonen and Marmo, 1993) indicate
ered) sills. that most of the paleocurrents trend towards
(3) ~2.1-Ga Fe-tholeiites; these are termi- the northwest. Data from Russian Karelia
nated by the Koljola lava (Pekkarinen and Luk- (Sokolov and Heiskanen, 1985; Ojakangas et
karinen, 1991), and seem to a give minimum al., 2001) support this general trend, which
age for the overlying CIS III dolomites. indicates that the major source of sediments
(4) 1.98-Ga Fe-tholeiitictholeiitic dike was from the Kuhmo complex.
swarm dated only in North Karelia where they

16.2. Kaleva basins relation to the Lower Kaleva is open. Unfor-
tunately, the sedimentation age of the Lower
Flysch-type Kaleva sequences are closely con- Kaleva in its type areas in North Karelia or
nected to the development of the Svecofennian Kainuu is not known. It is usually bracketed
island arc(s) in the west and both marginal between 1970 Ma and 1920 Ma on the basis
basin/foredeep and deep oceanic basin models that it is not cut by the 1970 Ma metadiabases
have been proposed (Table 7.2). Gal and Gor- that cut the underlying Jatuli rocks (Vuollo,
batschev (1987) suggested that the sequences 1994), and by the maximum sedimentation
should be included in the Svecofennides. The age of the Upper Kaleva turbidites based
Kaleva depositional models depend very much on detrital zircons (Claesson et al., 1993).
on how the origin of Jormua and Outokumpu However, the fact that the sediment material
ophiolites is interpreted. in Lower Kaleva seems to be older than in Up-
Kontinen (1987) originally favored a pas- per Kaleva (Huhma, 1990) cannot be used as
sive margin or intracontinental rift environ- evidence for the relative sedimentation ages of
ment for the Jormua ophiolite. Park (1988) these two units - it only indicates provenance
argued that the Jormua and other Karelian differences.
ophiolites represent a back-arc basin. Lah-
tinen (1994) discussed models in which the
Outokumpu ophiolite had been generated in 17. Paleogeographic
a supra subduction zone environment either reconstructions
near a distant pre-existing island arc or intra-
oceanic island arc. There is little evidence for The evolution of the Karelian belts is not yet
rift sedimentation and magmatism around thoroughly understood and rather different
1950 Ma within the Kainuu belt. Because the opinions on the matter exist. This is because
Jormua ophiolite has been emplaced together the Karelian formations are widely distributed
with <1920 Ma monotonous deep-water in Finland, northeastern Russia, Norway, and
turbidites, Peltonen et al. (1996, Figure 15) Sweden where they have been studied sepa-
considered the Jormua ophiolite an allochtho- rately and utilizing different approaches. The
nous unit formed during continental breakup sequence stratigraphic approach has only been
somewhere along the western margin of the applied in rare cases and dating of sedimenta-
IisalmiPudasjrvi complex, and upon which tion of different units has been rather arbitrary
the Upper Kaleva slope-rise turbidites with and sporadic. Most of the signicant fault and
unknown distant (non-Archean) provenance thrust zones are unexposed and, consequently,
were deposited immediately after post-rift their bearing on stratigraphy is in most cases
thermal subsidence. Nironen (1997, Figure 3) only arbitrary. This holds especially for the
discussed two models: (1) the pre-Svecofen- Kajaani tectonic zone running from North
nian sea had opened around 2100 to 2000 Ma Karelia via Kainuu to Kuusamo (Figure 7.1),
and at 1950 Ma, and a marginal basin devel- the allochthonous Upper Kaleva units, and the
oped at the attenuated continental margin; northern part of the Perpohja belt.
and (2) the continental breakup occurred at However, the continental Karelian sequenc-
1950 Ma, supporting the latter hypothesis. For es, which are mostly autochthonousparautoch-
more details, see also the article by Peltonen thonous, are so well known that rather reliable
(Chapter 6) in this volume. basin models can be established. In contrast,
The fact that the Karelian ophiolites and the Kaleva sequences are, for the most part,
Upper Kaleva were transported from a distant allochthonous and the tectonic signicance of
unknown root area means that the latters their main tectonic boundaries is unresolved.

17.1. Continentalmarginal Karelian belt with the southern part of the Kuusamo
sequences belt (Strand and Laajoki, 2000). Figure 7.19
also shows correlation within the upper part
The brief paleogeographic model outlined of the Jatuli (Marine Jatuli). This is based
for the continentalmarginal SariolaJatuli on both lithostratigraphy and carbon isotope
sequences in Figure 7.18. was reconstructed data (Karhu, 1993).
on the basis of the following facts and hy-
potheses: 17.2. Kaleva sequences
1. The Karkuvaara Formation (Figure 7.5) As the tectonic history of the Lower and Upper
represents a transposed part of the greenstone Kaleva tectofacies is known only fragmen-
that possibly once connected the correlative tarily, no paleogeographic reconstruction is
greenstones of the Kuusamo and Perpohja presented for them. Most sophisticated models
belts (Greenstone I and Runkaus Forma- of the Kaleva development in North Karelia
tions). and Savo are found in Ward (1987, 1988) and
2. Structural observations in the western Kohonen (1995).
Kuusamo belt indicate that its tectonic trans-
portation along the Hirvaskoski shear zone
was to the northeast. 18. Synopsis
3. The Karkuvaara Formation and the
southeastern margin of the Perpohja basin are The following summary is based on the
located at the southwestern extension of the authors own concepts built on studies carried
present southwestern corner of the Kuusamo out together with several students in Kainuu
belt. and Kuusamo, and the extensive literature
4. The estimated crustal shortening across available (see also Table 7.1).
the Kajaani tectonic zone is at least 50 km
(~1.5 times the length of the Karkuvaara 18.1. Karelia (sensu stricto) basin
Formation). development
5. The northeastern boundary of the Pu-
dasjrviIisalmi complex was approximately (1) Sumi: the rst Karelian basin phase.
parallel to the present-day southwestern The Archean crust started to extend and rift
boundary of the Kuhmo complex before this ~2500 Ma ago (Melezhik and Sturt, 1994).
crustal shortening. At this stage, mainly NW-trending relatively
6. SumiSariola rift valleys controlled the narrow rift basins developed into which the
deposition of uvialmarine deposition of the Sumi sediments were deposited and bimodal
Kainuu tectofacies. lavas erupted at ~2450 Ma. This phase is
7. Distribution of Jatuli stages I and II is very well represented on the Russian side in
based on Karhus (1993) CIS III and CIS IV the Paanajrvi area (Systra, 1996) and also
observations. in the Finnish Lapland (Hanski et al., 2001).
The preliminary sequence stratigraphic In the area reviewed it is represented mainly
reconstruction for the northern part of the by subvolcanic layered mac intrusions and
Kainuu belt and the Kuusamo belt in Figure minor relics of hanging wall acid volcanic
7.19 is based on the correlation of the Central rocks above the Kuusijrvi intrusion (Lauri
Puolanka Group with the Ahola, Nilovaara, et al., 2003). The rift basins of Suhanko and
and Kirintkangas Formations in Posio and Kuusijrvi at least were formed and lled by
correlation the northeastern part of the Kainuu Sumi sediments and lavas (Figure 7.18A).

Table 7.2. Vyrynens concepts and various plate tectonic related tectonosedimentary models proposed for
the Karelian tectofacies in eastern Finland.The nomenclature used in this chapter is in bold.
Traditional Karelian formations
Author Jatuli sensu Vyrynen (1933, 1954) or Karelian sensu Gal and Kaleva
Gorbatschev (1987)
Jatuli sensu stricto Lower Kaleva Upper Kaleva
Sariola Kainuu Jatuli (+ Marine (Eastern Kaleva) (Western Kaleva)
(pre-Jatuli, (Lower Jatuli, Jatuli (autochthonous) (allochthonous &
Pekkarinen, Ojakangas et al., (Upper Jatuli ?autochthonous)
1979) 2001) + Ludikovian,
Ojakangas et al.,
2001)
Vyrynen (1933, Jatuli continent
1954)
Dry Chemical Marine
weathering
Pekkarinen (1979) Cratonic graben- Cratonic shallow-water, partly marine Flysch-type
half-graben
Strand (1988) Intracratonic rift Divergent conti-
nental margin
Luukkonen (1989) Continental rift-

ing and faulting
Laajoki (1988a) Incipient rifting Narrow seain- Open sea

land basins
Strand and Laajoki Rift Half-graben Shelf
(1999)
Gehr and Havola Continental platform Basinal
(1988)
Kontinen (1986) Stable cratonic setting Half-graben rift Deep marine basin
basins
Kontinen and Cratonic to epicratonic Rift-phase related Deep allochtho-
Peltonen (1988) nous marine basin
Gal and Gor- Anorogenigic craton cover (preorogenic) Developed on rifted passive continental
batchev (1987) (Karelian sensu stricto) margin. Orogenic (Svecofennian)
Karhu (1993) Cratonic versus marginal sequencies
Ekdahl (1993) Continental-epicontinental Back arc
Park et al. (1984) Shelf Flysch from the arc in the SW
Park (1986, 1991) Shelf Back arc basin (shallow water Outo-
kumpu association) and Kaleva ysch
Ward (1987, Intracratonic rift Marginal sea (al-
1988) lochthonous)
Sorjonen-Ward Stable platform Rifting and subsi- Transition from
(1997) dence leading to divergent to con-
passive margin vergent tectonics
formation
Kohonen (1996) From syn-rift to (Foredeep)
post-rift passive
margin/foredeep
Korkiakoski and Foredeep
Laajoki (1988)
Laajoki (1988b) Rift-phase Basinal
Gal (1990) Rift-bound tur-
bidite basin on
continental margin
Gal (1982) Back arc basin
Peltonen et al. Slope-rise of pas-
(1996) sive margin W of
Iisalmi block
Honkamo (1987) Marginal basin or
intracontinental
rift
Korsman et al. Passive margin
(1999) sedimentation
28 00 28 00
PKTS
Puolankajrvi fan ??? Kuusamo Puolankajrvi fan KuS Kuusamo
KR R R
U U
S KS S
KuR
Kuus
S S
Kuus
SR I SuS I
a
A A
mo c
65 45 SuR a mo c 65 45 AS
Pud
Pud
omp
Kemi Kemi
omp
asj
asj
lex
lex
rvi-
rvi-
Iisa
Legend
Iisa
lmi
lmi
JS
Ter
Ter
com
com
r
a in
r
Kainuu uvial
a in
plex
plex
cog
marine systems RS
cog
RR
nita
?
nita
Kuopio Kuopio
100 km 100 km
ASumiSariola BKainuu
28 00 28 00
PKTS PKTS
Puolankajrvi fan Puolankajrvi fan
KuS Kuusamo KuS Kuusamo

CIS III CIS III
R R
U CIS IV U
KS S KS S
S S
Kuus
Kuus
SuS I SuS I
A A
amo
a
mo c
65 45 AS 65 45 AS
Kemi
c
Pud
Kemi
omp
omp
Pud
asj
lex
lex
a
sjr
rvi-
vi-I
Iisa
Legend Legend
isal
JS JS
lmi
Ter
Ter
mi
com
r
r
co
a in
a in
Kainuu uvial Kainuu uvial

plex
mp
marine systems RS RS
cog
marine systems
cog
lex
nita
nita
Kuopio Kuopio
100 km 100 km CIS IV
CJatuli stage 1 (=CIS III) DJatuli stage 2 (=CIS IV)

Most likely, the structural development of the glaciomarine sediments were deposited. This
Kurkikyl, SaariKiekki, and Reitti rifts also stage may represent the global Huronian gla-
started at this stage, but they were lled later ciation. It is possible that during the lowstand
during the Sariola stage. How the Kuhmo and caused by the glaciation, immature detritus
IisalmiPudasjrvi basement complexes were was carried by gravity ows into deeper water
related at this stage is not known. along the valleys incised into the SumiSariola
(2) The phase of pre-Sariola physical rift basins. The turbiditic lower part of the
weathering and erosion. The Sumi sedimen- Puolankajrvi Formation could represent these
tation was followed by a signicant period of sediments, but this is rather speculative, as no
physical weathering in aridsemiarid condi- bounding surface of this hypothetical lowstand
tions at ~2350 Ma (Sturt et al., 1994). The fan has been found (Figure 7.18A).
deeply penetrating erosion, caused by rift (4) Period of chemical weathering. After
inversion, removed almost completely all the the Sariola phase, Karelian areas lay in a
Sumi supracrustal rocks and upper parts of subtropicaltropical climate, probably close
the faulted layered mac intrusions associated to the equator. The previously formed rocks
with them. were subjected to strong chemical weathering
(3) Sariola: the second Karelian basin (Marmo, 1992). The intensity of the weather-
phase. Strand and Laajoki (1993, Figure 2) ing was accentuated by the relatively low oxy-
suggested, that a fault-bounded rift basin was gen and correspondingly high carbon dioxide
developed between the Kuhmo and Pudas- contents of the atmosphere (Karhu, 1993). The
jrviIisalmi complexes before the Sariola weathering produced kaolin-bearing deposits,
glaciation; in this paper the basin is considered later metamorphosed into kyanite-bearing
to be a narrow seaway or depression. The quartzites (e.g., Hokkalampi) during the Sve-
Sariola uvial polymictic conglomerates and cofennian orogeny.
arkoses were deposited on top of the ~2350 (5) Kainuu: the third Karelian basin
Ma weathering crust and reactivated Sumi rift phase. The exposure of the Sumi rocks to ero-
basins. Basicintermediate volcanic activity sion indicates fall of relative sea level. After
was signicant in the northeastern part of the the period of chemical weathering and coeval
Kainuu belt (e.g., the Kurkikyl Group), in the lowstand, an ocean started to spread from the
SaariKiekki rift, and in PosioKuusamo and northwest along the SumiSariola rift basins,
Perpohja. The location of sedimentation and which also acted as the deposition areas of
volcanism was controlled by rift structures that uvial sediments derived from the Archean
started to develop at the Sumi stage (Figure continent. As a result, localized transgres-
7.18A). Locally, the basins subsided under sea sive uvial, delta and paralic sediments were
level or were transgressed by a sea into which formed at the margins of the Kuhmo block and
Fig. 7.18. (facing page) Schematic paleogeographic reconstruction of the SariolaJatuli sequences.
Volcanism is excluded. Fixed pointthe Kuhmo complex (see Figure 7.1). (A) SumiSariola tectofa-
cies: Rift basins (KRKuusijrvi; KuRKurkikyl; RRReitti; SRSaariKiekki; SuRSuhanko). The
existence of the Puolankajrvi fan is questionable at this stage (see the text). (B) Kainuu tectofacies:
Kainuu uvialmarine systems (KuSKuusijrvi; KSKorvuanjoki; ASAkanvaara; JSJero; RSReitti;
SuSSuhanko), and the PrekangasKirintkangas tempestitic system (PKTS) are supposed to form
one Type 1 sequence. (C) First stage of the Jatuli tectofacies, only the approximate known distribution
area of the CIS III carbonate platform (green color) is shown. (D) Second stage of the Jatuli tectofa-
cies, only the approximate known distribution area of the CIS IV carbonate platform (yellow color) is
shown. CIS III and CIS IV refer to Karhus (1993) carbon isotope stages III and IV, respectively.

Perpohja
RM
TM Kuusamo
KM CIS IV Posio
LD
CIS III AF
SF East Puolanka DF
TU
TST 4 RF
HST 3
li
West Puolanka
EPG TST Jatu
HST GIII
CPG 2
TST EV SQ
HST 1 u G1
TST (LST) inu
PK KK Ka iola
HST KG Sar
NV KuG
AV LST-TST
AH Archean basement Sumi
PJ LST-HST
Fig. 7.19. Schematic sequence stratigraphic diagram of the Karelian sequences in northern part
of the Kainuu belt and their approximate correlation with some of the units in Kuusamo, Posio,
and Perpohja (not to scale). The sequence subdivision and relative water depth curve of the East
Puolanka Group (EPG) are simplied from Figure 7.14. The relative water-depth curve (blue) of
the Central Puolanka Group (CPG) is tentative only. Abbreviations of the groups: KGKorvuanjoki;
KuGKurkikyl. Abbreviations for the formations: AFAmphibole schist; AVAkanvaara; DFDolomite
Formation; G I and G IIIGreenstone I and III, respectively; KKKirintkangas; KMKvartsimaa;
LDLimestonedolomite; NVNilovaara; PJPuolankajrvi; PKPrekangas; RFRukatunturi;
RMRantamaa; SFSalmijrvi; SQSericite quartzite; TMTikanmaa. TUTufte units in Puolanka.
Other: HST, LST, and TSThighstand, lowstand, and transgressive system tracs, respectively; CIS III and
CIS IVcarbon isotope stages III and IV, respectively.
also partly on the PudasjrviIisalmi block. lithied parts of the Kainuu (Lapponi) and
Marine sands, clays, and carbonates were older tectofacies (possibly even the Archean
deposited farther away from the continent, basement) for erosion.
perhaps somewhere within and north of the (7) Jatuli stages I and II: basin phase. The
area of the present Gulf of Bothnia. During Jatuli marks transition from rift topography
the highstand, the tempestitic heteroliths of the controlled uvial-dominated system to open
Kirintkangas and Prekangas Formations and sea conditions. Mainly uvial sediments were
probably also the tidalites of the Erivaaransuo deposited in the beginning, but later the sea
Formation were deposited. Some volcanic advanced onto the continent and a continental
activity occurred towards the end of the high- shelf was formed, with characteristic changes
stand phase. As an entity, the Kainuu series in relative sea level, deposition of carbonates
seems to represent a Type 1 sequence. and minor sands, and volcanic activity. This
(6) Period of pre-Jatuli erosion and fault- series may be considered a continental prism,
ing. During this period, at least some block which formed on the top of the Kainuu basins.
movements took place and exposed deeper It is probable that, at this stage, the sea was

large and opened towards the northwest, but cal (BIF) and euxinic carbon-rich sediments.
shallow bays extended onto the continent. The lower part of the KuopioKiiminki basin
The transgressions during this phase were was deposited in a marginal basin or in a rise-
probably directed from the northwest towards slope environment of the newly formed Kaleva
the southeast. continental margin. The upper part including
The rifting of the continental crust also volcanic rocks may represent an allochthonous
continued during the Jatulian. This is dem- basin from farther southwest.
onstrated by the volcanic rocks within the
Jatulian and especially by the abundant vol- 18.3. Upper Kaleva development
canic activity towards the end of the period,
the products of which are best observed in the As the Upper Kaleva is likely allochthonous,
KemiKalix area. its relation with Lower Kaleva and the Sveco-
The Jatuli deposits in East Puolanka can fennides is unknown. It may represent a major
be subdivided into four Type 1 sequences submarine fan system prograding over the
(Figures 7.14 and 7.19). Their correlation subsiding passive margin, just prior to colli-
with other areas, the western margin of the sion, with sediments being derived from the
Kainuu belt included, is not possible at this craton or more distant sources (Kontinen and
stage. With the aid of carbon isotope studies Sorjonen-Ward, 1991).
and carbonate lithostratigraphy, the Jatuli The Kaleva and the underlying rocks
can be, however, subdivided into two major were folded by the Svecofennian orogeny.
stages. The rst stage comprises the bulk of It is apparent that sedimentation occurred
siliciclastic sedimentation ending with the also during this orogeny, but their potential
formation of the CIS III carbonate platform to survive the subsequent erosion was small,
(Figure 7.18C). The second stage started with as they were located in the uppermost parts
widespread volcanism and associated epiclas- of the sedimentary sequences. It is also dif-
tic sedimentation and was followed by the CIS cult to separate basinal rift-stage turbiditic
IV carbonate platform; the topmost part of the sediments from orogenic ysch because of
Karelian formations (sensu stricto) preserved strong metamorphism.
in the area reviewed (Figure 7.18D).
18.4. Closing comments
18.2. Lower Kaleva development
This chapter treats only a small part of the
After Jatuli, in the course of the develop- Paleoproterozoic supracrustal rocks deposited
ment of the Svecofennian sea and island arc on or marginal to the late Archean basement
systems and 1.97 to 1.95 Ga juvenile oceanic blocks of the Fennoscandian Shield and the
crust southwest of the Karelian continent, the depositional models should be considered
Karelian continent was split into the North only tentative. As to the evolution of the coeval
KareliaKainuu and KuopioKiiminki basins and in many respects similar rocks in Finnish
(cf. Ward, 1987; Kohonen,1995). Their con- Lapland, the reader is referred to Chapter 4.
gurations were not controlled by the previous
SumiSariola rifts and the basins developed
independently. The North Karelia basin may Acknowledgments
represent a rather open basin on rifted conti-
nental margin, whereas the Kainuu basin was I thank the editors, Richard Ojakangas, and
probably a narrow restricted intracratonic Jarmo Kohonen for useful comments on the
basin characterized by deposition of chemi- contents and linguistic formulation of the

manuscript and Kristiina Karjalainen for the Eeronheimo, J., 1979. Metavulkaniitit ja -sedi-
line drawings. Seppo Gehr, Paavo Hrm, mentit Vystjn-Kivilompolon alueella,
Mikko Honkamo, and Kari Strand are thanked Perpohjan liuskealueen pohjoisosassa.
for slides. Special thanks go to the former M.Sc. Thesis, University of Helsinki, Fin-
students of the University of Oulu with whom land. 162. (in Finnish)
the author has worked and whose studies Enkovaara, A., Hrme, M., Vyrynen, H., 1953.
are referred to in this paper. They are: Paul Kivilajikartan selitys (with an English sum-
Evins, Jarmo Finnil, Seppo Gehr, Pekka mary). Sheets C5B5 OuluTornio. The
Hrm, Tuomo Karinen, Aulis Krki, Esko general geological map of Finland. Geol.
Tutkimuslaitos, Helsinki, 1153.
Korkiakoski, Jouni Luukas, Kari Strand, and
Eskola, P., 1919. Hufvuddragen av Onega-Karelens
Pekka Tuisku.
geologi. Helsingin geol. yhd. tiedonantoja
1917 ja 1918, 1318. Teknikern, 3739.
Evins, P.M., Laajoki, K., 2001. Age of the Tok-
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Finland. In: K. Laajoki, J. Paakkola (Eds.), bearing on the timing of Precambrian vol-
Sedimentology of the Precambrian forma- cano-sedimentary sequences. Geol. Surv.
tions in eastern and northern Finland. Pro- Finland, Spec. Pap. 33, 1279.
ceedings of IGCP 160 symposium at Oulu, Vaasjoki, M., Krki, A., Laajoki, K., 2001. Timing
January 2122, 1986. Geol. Surv. Finland, of Paleoproterozoic crustal shearing in the
Spec. Pap. 5, 7590. central Fennoscandian Shield according to
Strand, K., 1993. Sedimentation in a Palaeopro- U-Pb data from associated granitoids, Fin-
terozoic (Karelian) rift to cratonic margin land. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland 73, 87-101
transition, Finland. Acta Univ. Ouluensis, Vyrynen, H., 1928. Geologische und petrograp-
Ser. A, 242, 135. hische Untersuchungen im Kainuugebiete.
Strand, K.O., Laajoki, K., 1993. Palaeoprotero- Bull. Comm. gol. Finlande 78, 1127.
zoic glaciomarine sedimentation in an Vyrynen, H., 1933. ber die Stratigraphie der
extensional tectonic setting: the Honkala karelischen Formationen. Bull. Comm.
Formation, Finland. Precambrian Res. 64, gol. Finlande101, 5478.
253271. Vyrynen, H., 1954. Suomen kallioper, sen synty
Strand, K., Laajoki, K., 1999. Application of the ja geologinen kehitys. Otava. Helsinki.
parasequence concept to the Paleoprote- 1260.
rozoic record of the northern Fennoscan- Veki, J., 1991. Kuusamon liuskealueen varhais-
dian Shield. In: P. Eriksson, P. Bose, W. proterotsooisista vulkaanisista ja sediment-
Altermann (Eds.), Variation in sea level tisist muodostumista. Phil.Lic. Thesis,
and continental freeboard: evidence from University of Helsinki, Finland. 181. (in

Finnish) Ward, P., 1988. Early Proterozoic Kalevian litho-
Vuollo, J., 1994. Palaeoproterozoic basic igneous facies and their interpretation in the Ham-
events in Eastern Fennoscandian Shield maslahtiRkkyl area, eastern Finland.
between 2.45 Ga and 1.97 Ga, studied by In: K. Laajoki, J. Paakkola (Eds.), Sedimen-
means of mac dyke swarms and ophiolites tology of the Precambrian formations in
in Finland. Acta Univ. Ouluensis, Ser. A, eastern and northern Finland. Proceedings
250, 147. of IGCP 160 symposium at Oulu, January
Ward, P., 1987. Early Proterozoic deposition 2122, 1986. Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec.
and deformation at the Karelian craton Pap. 5, 2948.
margin in southeastern Finland. In: G. Yrjl, M., 1982. Tervolan Mustamaan uraani-
Gal, R. Gorbatschev (Eds.), Precambrian fosforiesiintym Perpohjan liuskealueella.
geology and evolution of the central Baltic M.Sc. Thesis, University of Turku, Finland.
Shield. Special Issue. Precambrian Res. 187. (in Finnish)
35, 7193.

342 CHAPTER 7 KARELIAN S U P R AC RU S TA L RO C K S
Chapter 8
SVECOFENNIAN
SUPRACRUSTAL ROCKS
Y. Khknen
Cover page: Mafic volcanogenic graywacke. PulesjrviKolunkyl complex, eastern shore of Lake
Nsijrvi. The vertical dimension corresponds to ~0.5 m in nature.
Photo:Yrj Khknen.
Khknen, Y., 2005. Svecofennian supracrustal rocks. In:
A substantial part of the Paleoproterozoic crust of southern and central Finland

is characterized by ~1.92 Ga turbiditic sedimentary and ~1.901.88 Ga arc-type
volcanic rocks. Fluvial to shallow-water sedimentary rocks, felsic schists, sedi-
mentary carbonates, black shales, and MORB- and WPL-like basalts are locally
also common. The rocks were metamorphosed predominantly at high-T, low-P
amphibolite facies and they record two major orogenic periods: ~1.891.86 Ga
and ~1.831.81 Ga; a poorly constrained ~1.911.90 Ga event is also inferred.
Three major terranes are identified: Savo belt, central Svecofennia, and southern
Svecofennia.
The Savo belt, adjacent to the Archean craton, is characterized by ~1.93
1.92 Ga bimodal volcanic rocks (Nd ~ +3) emplaced in a relatively immature
arc. In central Svecofennia, arc-type ~1.905 to 1.89 Ga volcanic and related
fluvial to turbiditic sedimentary rocks of the Tampere belt (Nd ~0) belong to an
evolved arc system presumably associated with a ~2.12.0 Ga microcontinent.
The Pirkanmaa belt to the south represents the associated subduction zone
complex. The same arc system is observed in Pohjanmaa, western Finland. The
subduction zone complex and stratigraphically low parts of the Tampere belt are
dominated by turbidites, but there are also black shales, NMORB- to WPL-like
pillow basalts (Nd ~ 0 to +3), and minor cherts. The turbidites include an Archean
component as well abundant 2.01.92 Ga detritus presumably derived from the
Savo belt and the inferred microcontinent. In southern Svecofennia, metamor-
phism and migmatization at 1.831.81 Ga largely obliterated primary features
but the sedimentary rocks tend to be more pelitic than in central Svecofennia.
The Hme belt is characterized by ~1.891.88 Ga arc basalts to rhyolites and
overlying mafic lavas with rift affinity. The Hme belt represents a less mature
setting than the bulk of the Tampere and Uusimaa belts. The Saimaa area is
dominated by sedimentary rocks with diverse sources and deposition ages.
The supracrustal rocks of the Uusimaa belt include mudrocks, graywackes,
as well as EMORB-, WPL-like, and arc-type (1.901.88 Ga) volcanic rocks;
felsic volcanic and sedimentary rocks and sedimentary carbonates are abun-
dant in the western part of the belt. The volcanic and related plutonic rocks
have Nd values of 1 to +3. Most of the supracrustal rocks of the Uusimaa belt
(and related Bergslagen field in Sweden) were presumably deposited close to
or within a ~2.12.0 Ga microcontinent. In southern Svecofennia, ~1.86 Ga
detrital zircons in sporadic quartz arenites indicate deposition after or during
an orogenic peak at 1.871.86 Ga.
CHAPTER 8 SVECOFENNIAN S U P R AC RU S TA L ROCKS 345

1. Introduction also Chapter 11).
The ideas of crustal growth build essen-
The Precambrian of Finland saw the advent tially on isotope studies, and the concept of
of plate tectonics when Hietanen (1975) sug- presumed subduction-related settings has been
gested that the Svecofennian fold belt (Figure derived from studies of supracrustal rocks.
8.1) formed in an island arc environment. This This article presents a review of Svecofennian
was followed by an idea of two diachronous supracrustal rocks in Finland and discusses
subduction zones, ~1.92 Ga and ~1.88 Ga their role in crustal evolution. Major emphasis
(Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987). At about the is placed on the primary character, tectonic
same time, Park (1985) explained the bulk setting, and geochemical (including isotope)
of the Svecofennian domain as a collage of composition of the metavolcanic rocks. Sev-
exotic volcanic arcs, with arcs in the south eral important issues, however, arise from the
being 100150 Ma younger than those in the metasedimentary rocks as well.
north. Windley (1992) considered the domain
a type example of accretionary orogens char-
acterized by growth and amalgamation of 2. Geologic setting
juvenile island arcs, slices of oceanic crust,
oceanic plateaus, and microcontinental blocks, 2.1. General aspects
and their accretion to a continent. This idea is
still plausible, but the age zonation of Sveco- The Svecofennian domain covers an 800 km
fennian arcs (Park, 1985) is not supported by 800 km area of Finland and Sweden. In the
by the age distribution of the metavolcanic east and northeast, the domain is bounded by
rocks (Table 8.1; Billstrm and Weihed, 1996; the Archean craton and its supracrustal cover
Lundstrm et al., 1998). Anyhow, the Sveco- (Karelian deposits), in the west by the Cale-
fennian domain registers significant growth donides, and in the southwest by the 1.751.50
of continental crust ~2.01.8 Ga ago (Patchett Ga Southwest Scandinavian domain. The
and Kouvo, 1986; Huhma, 1986; Lahtinen southern boundary of the Svecofennian
and Huhma, 1997; Rm et al., 2001). The domain has conventionally been positioned
growth does not, however, seem to have been under the Baltic Sea, but Gorbatschev and
as rapid as thought two decades ago, because Bogdanova (1993) included the Precambrian
increasing isotope evidence indicates that the bedrock covered by Paleozoic sedimentary
Svecofennian domain may include extensive rocks in the Baltic States, Poland, and western
yet concealed ~2.12.0 Ga components (see Russia in the Svecofennian realm.
Fig. 8.1. (facing page) Generalized geological map of southern and central Finland based on Koistinen
(1994), Lundqvist et al. (1996), Korsman et al. (1997), Khknen (1999), and data therein. The continu-
ous and hatched lines show the boundaries of the supracrustal belts, areas and fields mainly according
to Nironen et al. (2002). The continuous line delineating the eastern margin of the Savo belt is the
northeastern boundary of the Svecofennian domain. In the Pohjanmaa belt, the hatched line sepa-
rates the Evijrvi and Ylivieska fields. The southern hatched line separates the Tampere and Pirkanmaa
belts. The continuous line between the Pirkanmaa belt and the Hme belt marks the suture between
central Svecofennia and southern Svecofennia. The inferred ~2.0 Ga Keitele microcontinent roughly
equates to the Central Finland granitoid complex by area, and the Uusimaa belt represents part of
the presumed ~2.12.0 Ga Bergslagen microcontinent (Chapter 11). Abbreviated localities: H-linna
Hmeenlinna, HaHaukivuori, IkIkaalinen, KaKankaanp, KiKiikoinen, LaLavia, SuSuodenniemi,
VaVammala.
346 CHAPTER 8 SVECOFENNIAN S U P R AC RU S TA L ROCKS

Oulu
Raahe
nia
th
Pohjanmaa
Bo
Vihanti
belt
of
ulf
Jormua
G
Ylivieska Kuusaa
Pyh-
Svecofennian salmi
domain Savo
Evijrvi
belt
Karelian domain
Perho
Pihti- Piela-
pudas vesi
Vimpeli
Seinjoki Alajrvi Rauta-
Saarijrvi lampi
Central Finland Outokumpu

Haapamki
granitoid complex
Parkano
Siipyy Joroinen
Kuru HaVirta-
Ka Ik salmi
Ranta-
Tampere belt Hirsil Juva salmi
La Luhanka
Su Ristiina
Saimaa area
Ki Pirkanmaa belt Punkaharju-
Va Parikkala
Urjala H-linna
Lahti 61N
Hme belt
Forssa 30E
Hyvink
Turku Jrvenp 100 km

Kisko
NauvoKorp-
Uusimaa belt Pellinki
poo Helsinki
Kemi
Archean rocks Gabbros and diorites
Karelian and Svecofennian quartz 18901870 Ma granitoids

arenites
Svecofennian and Karelian mica schists, 18401820 Ma granitoids
mica gneisses, and migmatites
Svecofennian and Karelian mafic to inter- 16501540 Ma rapakivi granites
mediate metavolcanic rocks
Svecofennian felsic to intermediate schists 14001200 Ma Jotnian sedimen-
tary rocks and diabases

Table 8.1.
Ages of Svecofennian volcanic and related rocks in Finland.
Belt/Locality Rock type Age 2 (Ma) Reference Comments

Savo belt
Pyhsalmi region
Kettuper gneissic tonalite 1930 15 Ma Lahtinen and Huhma (1997) subvolcanic
Riitavuori rhyolite 1921 2 Ma Kousa et al. (1994)
Pyhsalmi plagioclase porphyry 1875 Ma Helovuori (1979) minimum age from a
total zircon fraction
Pielavesi region
Kotajrvi diorite/lava 1882 2 Ma Salli (1983)
Vihanti plagioclase porphyry 1978 17 Ma Vaasjoki and Sakko (1988) hypabyssal
Virtasalmi region
Joroinen rhyolite 1906 4 Ma Vaasjoki and Sakko (1988)
gneissic tonalite 1903 10 Ma Huhma (1986)
Pohjanmaa belt
Seinjoki plagioclase porphyry 1886 3 Ma Mkitie and Lahti (1991)
Belts within the Central Finland granitoid complex
Pihtipudas granites, porphyries,
and a dacite 1883 20 Ma Aho (1979) pooled age
Saarijrvi quartz-feldspar porphyry 1887 2 Ma Nironen (2003) hypabyssal
Parkano rhyolite 1907 13 Ma Vaasjoki and Lahti (1991)
rhyolitic dyke 1872 12 Ma Vaasjoki and Lahti (1991)
Kuru felsic tuff 1897 2 Ma Tiainen and Khknen (1994)
Tampere belt
Koskuenjrvi rhyolite 1904 4 Ma Khknen et al. (1989)
Sammatinjrvi dacite 1898 4 Ma Khknen et al. (1989)
Pirttiniemi felsic tuff 1898 8 Ma Khknen et al. (2004) analysis by SIMS
Pukala subvolcanic porphyry 1896 4 Ma Talikka (2003)
Tervakivi high-K rhyolite 1892 3 Ma Khknen et al. (2004)
Tesoma felsic tuff 1892 2 Ma Khknen et al. (2004)
Kalkku feldspar porphyry 1889 19 Ma Khknen et al. (1989)
Takamaa dacite 1889 5 Ma Khknen et al. (1989)
Lempinniemi plagioclase porphyry 1880 7 Ma Khknen et al. (1989)
Varissaari gabbro 1885 5 Ma Patchett and Kouvo (1986)
Hme belt
Valijrvi lava-like andesite 1888 11 Ma Vaasjoki (1994)
Aulanko granodiorite 1886 14 Ma Patchett and Kouvo (1986)
Hyvink plagioclase porphyry 1880 3 Ma Suominen (1988)
gabbro 1880 5 Ma Patchett and Kouvo (1986)
Uusimaa belt
KemiJrvenp field
Norrlammala felsic tuffite 1888 11 Ma Reinikainen (2001)
Kuovila felsic tuff or tuffite 1891 4 Ma Kpyaho (2001)
Orijrvi area
Orijrvi Fm. rhyolitic flow 1895 2 Ma Visnen and Mnttri (2002)
Kisko Fm. dacite 1878 3 Ma Visnen and Mnttri (2002)
Iilijrvi altered subvolcanic dyke 1870 10 Ma U. Mkel (1989)
Orijrvi granodiorite 1891 13 Ma Huhma (1986) pooled age
Orijrvi granodiorite 1898 9 Ma Visnen and Mnttri (2002) analysis by SIMS
Pellinki field andesite 1887 14 Ma Patchett and Kouvo (1986) pooled age
The Svecofennian domain is mainly 1980; Korsman et al., 1997; Koistinen et al.,
composed of granitoids but also contains a 2001). The supracrustal rocks are typically
significant proportion of schists and gneisses; turbiditic mica gneisses that include metamor-
approximately one third of the Svecofennian phosed black shales and mafic metavolcanic
bedrock is of supracrustal origin (Simonen, rocks of MORB to WPL affinity. However,

more typically Svecofennian volcanic rocks1) tion mainly took place within shear zones.
are ~1.911.88 Ga arc-type basalts to rhyo- Nevertheless, large-scale metamorphism and
lites, having fluvial to turbiditic sedimentary deformation still characterized the 1.831.81
rocks with volcanic provenance as essential Ga late Svecofennian granite-migmatite zone
related components. In addition, quartz-feld- of southern Finland.
spar schists and gneisses, mainly volcanic According to Nironen (1997), the tectono-
and volcanogenic sedimentary rocks, as well metamorphic evolution of the Finnish Sveco-
as sedimentary carbonates are abundant in fennian domain can be ascribed to accretional
certain areas. Quartz arenites are rare. or collisional events at 1.911.90 Ga (in the
The Svecofennian supracrustal rocks were northeast) and 1.891.87 Ga (effective over
metamorphosed in greenschist/amphibolite fa- the entire area). Due to continued conver-
cies to granulite facies conditions with high-T gence, an intracratonic transpressional zone
amphibolite-facies rocks being most common. developed in the south and was followed by
In general, the regional metamorphism was extensional collapse along the tranpressional
of high-T, low-P type and culminated at two zone and formation of the late Svecofennian
major stages. Indications of 1.891.86 Ga granite-migmatite zone of southern Finland
metamorphism can be found in the entire Sve- at 1.831.81 Ga.
cofennian domain in Finland and it produced
trondhjemite migmatites at peak conditions 2.2. Proterozoic cover deposits of the
(Korja et al., 1994; Korsman et al., 1999; Archean craton
Visnen, 2002). A subsequent 1.831.81
Ga stage only affected the late Svecofennian The Archean Karelian craton underwent
granitemigmatite zone of southern Finland several phases of Proterozoic rifting, result-
(Ehlers et al., 1993) and was characterized ing in 2.45 Ga layered mafic intrusions in
by potassic granite leucosomes. This stage north-central Finland (Alapieti, 1982; Chapter
also resulted in granulite-facies rocks sur- 3) and 2.52.4 Ga and 2.21.97 Ga rift-re-
rounding thermal domes. It is possible that lated volcanic and dike rocks in Lapland and
metamorphism started during a collision in eastern Finland (Vuollo, 1994; Chapters 4
the northeast at 1.911.90 Ga (see Nironen, and 5). These events also led to the 2.0 Ga
1997; Chapter 11) although this event is not and 1.971.95 Ga ophiolites of northern and
particularly well constrained. eastern Finland (Koistinen, 1981; Kontinen,
Different parts of the Svecofennian domain 1987; Peltonen et al., 1996; Chapters 4 and
show broadly similar structural sequences with 6). Proterozoic sedimentary rocks, known as
the two earliest deformation phases character- Karelian formations, were deposited in con-
ized by overthrusts and recumbent folds with tinental to epicontinental and rift to marginal
north to northeast vergence (Korsman et al., basin settings. These include, from the bottom,
1999). S1 schistosity has only been found (1) Sariolian deposits such as regolithic basal
as inclusion trails in porphyroblasts and S2 conglomerates and breccias as well as glacio-
schistosity is the dominant tectonometamor- genic diamictites and siltstoneargillites; (2)
phic feature. Early structures and schistosities a paleosol; (3) Kainuan and Jatulian quartz
were generally turned subvertical during D3 arenites, conglomerates, tuffs, sedimentary
at 1.891.86 Ga, and subsequent deforma- carbonates, and black shales; and (4) Kal-
evian graywackes and mudrocks with minor
1)
In this article, primary volcanic and sedimentary termi- conglomerates and banded iron-formations
nology is preferred over metamorphic names, and rock (Marmo and Ojakangas, 1984; Kohonen and
types are mostly referred to without the prefix meta. Marmo, 1992; Kohonen, 1995; Chapter 7).

The Kalevian deposits are divided into diate to felsic volcanic rocks, and the central
two groups (cf. Chapter 7). The Lower Ka- Svecofennian province (the Bothnian basin of
leva is mainly autochthonous and consists Hietanen, 1975) that has supracrustal rocks
of turbiditic conglomerates, breccias, quartz dominated by graywackes and mudrocks.
wackes, graywackes, mudrocks, and banded The presence of MORB-like volcanic rocks
iron-formations, whereas the younger group, close to the boundary between the central and
the Upper Kaleva (known also as Western southern Svecofennian provinces in southern
Kaleva), is allochthonous and dominated by Finland led Lahtinen (1994, 1996) to suggest
monotonous graywackes. The provenance of a suture between these provinces.
the Upper Kaleva graywackes was predomi- Korsman et al. (1997) divided the Sveco-
nantly relatively immature 2.01.92 Ga volca- fennian domain into (1) the Primitive arc
nic arc(s) and Archean crust (Lahtinen, 2000). complex of central Finland (1.931.87 Ga), (2)
The youngest, 1.931.92 Ga detrital zircons the Accretionary arc complex of central and
in the Upper Kaleva graywackes (Claesson et western Finland (1.901.87 Ga), and (3) the
al., 1993) indicate deposition more than 500 Accretionary arc complex of southern Finland
Ma after the earliest (2.45 Ga) rift events. (1.901.82 Ga). The boundary between the
Probably, the Upper Kaleva graywackes were latter two approximately coincides with the
deposited in a major submarine fan system boundary between the Central and Southern
largely on 1.95 Ga oceanic crust but locally on Svecofennian provinces, whereas the boundary
Archean crust (Ward, 1987; Chapter 7). This between the Primitive arc complex of central
was evidently associated with early phases Finland and the Accretionary arc complex of
of collision of a collage of 2.101.92 Ga arc central and western Finland deviates from the
systems and microcontinents with the Archean division of Gal and Gorbatschev (1987). In
continent (Lahtinen, 2000). this article, I will mainly apply the division of
Carbon isotope studies (Karhu, 1993; Korsman et al. (1997) but the term Savo belt
Chapter 16) indicate that the Jatulian sedi- (see below) is used instead of Primitive arc
mentary carbonates show an excursion to high complex of central Finland, whereas the other
13C (~10 at ~2.22.1 Ga). This is not shown two terranes are called central Svecofennia and
by the older or younger Karelian and Sveco- southern Svecofennia.
fennian sedimentary carbonates and provides Supracrustal rocks of the Svecofennian
constraints for discussion regarding the age of domain can be divided into belts, areas, re-
deposition of some sedimentary units in the gions, and fields, which are in many cases
Svecofennian domain. separated by faults and intrusions. The supra-
crustal rocks of southern Svecofennia are
2.3. Division of the Svecofennian divided into the Uusimaa belt in the south, the
domain Hme belt in the north, and the Saimaa area
in the northeast (Figure 8.1). The supracrustal
Division of the Svecofennian domain includes rocks of central Svecofennia are divided into
a plethora of terms. Hietanen (1975) suggested the Pirkanmaa and Tampere belts in the south
that the area consists of a single, Svionian and the Pohjanmaa belt in the west and north.
island arc and that an inter-arc (Bothnian) The Pohjanmaa belt is further divided into the
basin existed between the arc and the Archean Evijrvi and Ylivieska fields. In addition to
continent. Gal and Gorbatschev (1987) di- these, the Central Finland granitoid complex
vided the Svecofennian domain into three includes numerous minor supracrustal belts.
parts: the northern and southern Svecofennian The Pirkanmaa and Tampere belts are
provinces rich in subduction-related interme- interpreted to be coupled and to comprise rem-

nants of an arc system. Accordingly, the bulk these dikes, have yielded ages in the 1.881.87
of the Tampere belt represents a volcanic arc, Ga range.
whereas the gneiss- and migmatite-dominated The Svecofennian plutonic rocks in Fin-
Pirkanmaa belt mainly belongs to the associ- land show a largely similar age distribution.
ated subduction zone complex (accretionary The oldest of these are gneissose 1.931.92
prism). Analogously, the Ylivieska field is Ga granitoids in the Savo belt, and this belt
a part of the volcanic arc in the Pohjanmaa also includes 1.901.88 Ga granitoid rocks
belt, and the Evijrvi field represents the (Helovuori, 1979; Lahtinen and Huhma, 1997;
subduction zone complex. Geophysically, the Chapter 10). In central Svecofennia, 1.891.88
Pirkanmaa belt and Evijrvi field delineate a Ga synkinematic granitoids and associated
zone of high crustal conductivity that curves mafic rocks represent the most abundant type
from southern Finland via western Finland and are only slightly older than 1.8851.87 Ga
to northern Sweden (Korja, 1993; Korja and undeformed high-K granites of within-plate
Hjelt, 1993; Chapter 11). affinity (Rm et al., 2001). In southern Sve-
As discussed by Lahtinen and Huhma cofennia, the ages of orogenic plutonic rocks
(1997) and Rm et al. (2001), relatively low range from 1.901.89 Ga to ~1.81 Ga (Huhma,
Nd values in the Central Finland granitoid 1986; Visnen et al., 2002; Chapter 10).
complex, which forms the bulk of central The initial Nd values of the Svecofennian
Svecofennia, may indicate the presence of plutonic rocks in Finland show some varia-
~2.12.0 Ga protocrust. Lahtinen et al. (Chap- tion from area to area but rocks derived from
ter 11) coin this pre-1.92 Ga component the Archean crust are absent. The plutonic rocks
Keitele microcontinent and roughly associate of the Savo belt have mostly Nd (at 1.875 Ga)
it with the Central Finland granitoid complex. values of +2 to +3 (Lahtinen and Huhma,
A relatively old (~2.12.0 Ga) Proterozoic 1997; see also Rm et al., 2001). In central
block or nucleus may also be present in the Svecofennia, the bulk of the plutonic rocks
southernmost part of southern Svecofennia. It show Nd values of 1 to +1, whereas those in
extends to Bergslagen in south-central Swe- the northwest are more juvenile with Nd of
den and is coined by Lahtinen et al. (Chapter ~ +3. Most of the plutonic rocks of southern
11) the Bergslagen microcontinent. These Svecofennia have Nd values of +1 to +3; those
authors also suggest a ~1.95 Ga arc crust to in the far southwest have, however, somewhat
have formed in the Savo belt and a pre-1.92 lower values (Rm et al., 2001; see also
Ga crust in the Hme belt. Chapters 9 and 10).
Nd isotope studies on Svecofennian
2.4. U-Pb zircon ages and volcanic rocks are relatively scarce but in
Nd isotopes general they have yielded results compatible
with those of the the plutonic rocks (Figure
Practically all U-Pb zircon ages from the 8.2). The bulk of the volcanic rocks of the
Svecofennian volcanic rocks in Finland come Savo belt have high Nd (at 1.931.92 Ga)
from arc-type sequences. The volcanic rocks values of ~ +3. In central Svecofennia, the
of the Savo belt are typically 1.931.92 Ga, Nd (at 1.90 Ga) values range from ~ 1 to +4,
older than the volcanic rocks of the other Finn- and a similar variation is shown by those of
ish Svecofennian belts; the latter range from southern Svecofennia. In the former terrane,
~1.905 Ga to 1.88 Ga (Table 8.1). The Savo the highest values come from the northwest
belt also includes 1.901.88 Ga volcanic rocks (Evijrvi), whereas in the latter the lowest
(Korsman et al., 1997). Several Svecofennian and highest values are found in the southwest
plagioclase and quartz porphyries, most of (near Orijrvi).

+3
+1
Nd
1
2.0 1.95 1.9 1.85

Age (Ga)
Savo belt Pohjanmaa belt

+ Felsic gneisses and tonalites E Evijrvi basalts
X Basalts/amphibolites Tampere belt
P Pyhsalmi rhyolite
Sammatinjrvi dacite
K Kotajrvi diorite/lava, Pielavesi H Haveri basalts
V Joroinen rhyolite
Uusimaa belt
Saimaa area
R Rantasalmi picrites, average Pellinki lavas
O Orijrvi granodiorite
J Ultramafic sill, Juva S Salittu picrite
Fig. 8.2. Nd vs. age diagram for Svecofennian metavolcanic rocks in Finland. Data from Huhma (1986,
1987), Patchett and Kouvo (1986), Makkonen (1996), Lahtinen and Huhma (1997), and Vaasjoki and
Huhma (1999). The Chondritic Uniform Reservoir (CHUR) and depleted mantle (DM) evolution lines
after DePaolo and Wasserburg (1976) and DePaolo (1981), respectively.
Interpretation of the U-Pb age distribution explanation.

of detrital zircons in Svecofennian sedimen- In spite of these problems, the U-Pb ages
tary rocks (Figure 8.3) must be made with of detrital zircons and Nd isotope studies show
caution. Lahtinen et al. (2002), based on that the Svecofennian sedimentary rocks were
duplicate concordant analyses, estimated that mainly derived from ~ 2.1 Ga to 1.9 Ga sourc-
true precision for reliable analytical data is es; a prominent Archean component is present
15 Ma. Further, a sample from the Tiirismaa in most cases, however (Figures 8.3 and 8.4).
quartz arenite contains two grains with in- Some of the sedimentary rocks are relatively
terpreted ages of 1.77 Ga, one of them with poor in or devoid of Archean detritus (see also
a relatively low discordance of 6% and 2 Table 8.2). These include, in particular, arc-
error of 18 Ma. These ages are not geologi- related sedimentary rocks from the Tampere
cally realistic. Therefore, when considering and Pohjanmaa belts, which represent the up-
maximum depositional ages using individual per sedimentary group of central Svecofennia
anomalously young grains, the possibility ex- in the generalized division of Lahtinen et al.
ists that an inferred age has no clear geological (2002). In southern Svecofennia, two quartz

A1 & A57 Tampere belt A934 Orijrvi
Frequency
Frequency
6 youngest: 1907 30 4 youngest: 1926 26
next: 1915 26 next: 1959 26
4 1915 60
2 1990 40
2 1920 72 1999 34
A F
1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0< 1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0<
1899 20 A1556 Himanka 1889 14 A15 Joroinen

Frequency
Frequency
4 6
1925 14 1917 10
1933 8 4 1927 6
2 1944 10 1954 6
2 1999 28
B G
1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0< 1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0<
1879 10 A1555 Kannus 1911 16 A1558 Ristiina

Frequency
Frequency
6
4 1895 10 1942 10
1994 10 4 1972 20
2 1995 22 1982 30
2
C H
1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0< 1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0<
1882 14 A1554 Sievi 1879 10 A1557 Rantasalmi

Frequency
Frequency
6 1895 10 4
1896 10 1892 8
4 1921 14 1905 8
2 1939 12
2
D I
1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0< 1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0<
1906 16 A1199 Pielavesi 1858 8 A696 Tiirismaa and

8
Frequency
Frequency
6 A 361 Hyvink
6 1913 36
1914 10 4 1859 10
4 1869 13
1934 34
2 2 1877 12
E J
1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0< 1.81 1.90 1.99 2.08 2.17 2.26 2.35 2.44 2.5 2.7 2.9 3.0<
Age (Ga) Age (Ga)
Fig. 8.3. Detrital zircon ages of Svecofennian metamorphosed sandstones. The data comprise 207Pb/
206
Pb ages from Huhma et al. (1991), Claesson et al. (1993), and Lahtinen et al. (2002). From the data
of Lahtinen et al. (2002), analyses with >30% discordance were rejected, as were two unrealistically
young ages in sample A696 Tiirismaa. Class interval is 0.03 Ga except 0.1 Ga for the 2.53.0 Ga in-
terval. Grains older than 3.0 Ga are grouped as a single class. The vertical line with number gives the
youngest interpreted concordant age (in Ma, discordance < 5%) and 2 error for each sample; the
interpreted ages (Lahtinen et al., 2002) use a lower intercept value of 250 Ma. The additional three
to four numbers give the next to youngest concordant ages. Underlined numbers indicate two ages
from one grain. (A) and (B) show graywackes representing the lower sedimentary group of central
Svecofennia (Lahtinen et al., 2002). (C) is a cross-bedded arkose from the Pohjanmaa belt. Its strati-
graphic position is unknown, but Lahtinen et al. (2002) interpreted it as a molasse deposit. (D) is from
the Pohjanmaa belt and represents the sandstones of the upper sedimentary group of central Sveco-
fennia (Lahtinen et al., 2002). A maximum deposition age ~1.86 Ga implied by a slightly discordant
(7%) grain with an interpreted age of 1852 8 Ma is not geologically realistic. (E) is a paragneiss in-
clusion in a ~1.925 Ga tonalite at Pielavesi, Savo belt. (F) through (J) are from southern Svecofennia.
(F) is an immature graywacke from Orijrvi, Uusimaa belt. (G) and (H) are immature graywackes from
the Saimaa area. (I) is a mature graywacke from the Saimaa area. (J) includes two quartz arenites.

A Savo belt
DM
2
Paragneiss inclusion in tonalite, Pielavesi
CHUR
Pohjanmaa belt
0 Sandstone, upper sedimentary group of CS, Sievi
Nd Possibly a molasse arkose, Kannus
-2 Lower sedimentary group of CS
Graywackes and mudrock, Himanka
-4 Graywacke and mudrock,Vimpeli
Mica schist, Alajrvi
2.3 2.0 1.7

Age Ga
B
DM
2 Tampere belt
CHUR Two arenites (from Mauri) and a mudrock (from
0 Yljrvi),upper sedimentary group of CS
Nd
Graywacke-slate with unknown stratigraphic
-2
position, data from Miller et al. (1986)
-4 Lower sedimentary group of CS
Graywackes from Siivikkala
Graywackes from Nokia and Ahvenlammi
2.3 2.0 1.7
Age Ga
C
DM
2
Hme and Uusimaa belts and Saimaa area
0 Quartz arenites, Tiirismaa and Hyvink
Nd CHUR Immature graywacke, Orijrvi
-2 Immature graywacke, Haukivuori
Immature graywacke and mudrock, Ristiina
-4
Immature graywacke, Joroinen
Mature graywacke and mudrock, Rantasalmi
2.3 2.0 1.7
Age Ga
Fig. 8.4. Nd isotope evolution diagrams for Svecofennian metasedimentary rocks. Data from Miller et
al. (1986), Huhma (1987), and Lahtinen et al. (2002). The CHUR and DM evolution lines as in Figure
8.2. CScentral Svecofennia.
arenites are characterized by 1.931.86 Ga 3. Geochemical and

grains and deviate from the other Svecofen- tectonomagmatic characterization
nian sedimentary rocks in having a maximum of the volcanic rocks
deposition age of ~1.871.86 Ga.
In this paper, the classification of volcanic
rocks is largely based on silica and alkali

Table 8.2.
Ages of plutonic clasts in Svecofennian conglomerates.
Sample/Locality Rock type Age 2 (Ma) Reference Comments

Pohjanmaa belt
Haapajrvi granodiorite 1888 7 Ma Marttila (1987) ref. in Vaasjoki
and Sakko (1988)
Tampere belt
207
A1203 Ahvenlammi tonalite 2556 and 2536 Ma Khknen and Huhma (1993) Pb/206Pb ages,
Nd(at 1.90 Ga) 11.7
A26 Vh-Lima, Tampere granitoid 1884 3 Ma Nironen (1989)
A90 Iso-Kartano, Tampere granitoid 1890 3 Ma Nironen (1989)
A144 Vlimki, Lavia tonalite 1888 3 Ma Nironen (1989)
Khknen and Huhma (1993): Nd(at 1.90 Ga) +0.1
Saimaa area
Haukivuori granitoid 1885 6 Ma Korsman et al. (1988)
contents. This approach can be problematic 4. Savo belt

because of the possible mobility of alkalies.
Because P is significantly less mobile than 4.1. General
K, P contents are in some cases discussed
to further assess the character of the rocks The Savo belt (Figures 8.1 and 8.5) is bounded
(low-K, medium-K, high-K, and shoshonitic and penetrated by numerous faults and shear
types). According to Ewart (1982) and Pearce zones. In general, the belt consists of migma-
(1982), low-K basalts have in general lower tized mica gneisses (Figure 8.6A) that are
P2O5 contents (~0.10.15 wt.%) than medium- mainly of graywacke and mudrock origin.
K basalts (~0.20.3 wt.%). Similarly, P2O5 Quartz-feldspar schists and amphibolites
contents in high-K and shoshonitic basalts (both of volcanic and volcaniclastic origin)
tend to be higher (~0.30.7 wt.%) than those as well as graphite schists (black shales) are
in medium-K basalts. locally abundant. The volcanic rocks have
Interpretations on the tectonomagmatic a limited areal extent but are economically
affinities of the Svecofennian volcanic rocks important due to massive sulfide deposits.
are largely based on proportions of mafic, Locally preserved pillow structures (Figure
intermediate, and felsic rocks, Ti vs. Zr varia- 8.6B) indicate that the eruptions were at least
tion, and Ti contents of mafic rocks. Where in part subaqueous. The Savo belt differs from
analyses made by the INAA or ICP-MS the other Finnish Svecofennian belts in includ-
methods are available, the relatively immobile ing ~1.931.92 Ga arc-type volcanic rocks and
trace elements Th, Ta, Nb, and REE can be tonalitic gneisses with Nd (T) typically on the
used for tectonomagmatic discrimination (see order of ~ +2 to +4 (Table 8.1; Figure 8.2). The
Pearce, 1982, 1983). In these cases the data are Pb isotope composition of the sulfide deposits
shown on chondrite- and NMORB-normalized is also relatively primitive (Vaasjoki, 1981).
diagrams. Note, however, that mafic volcanic The eastern parts of the Savo belt in par-
rocks of some parts of continental flood basalt ticular, are characterized by fault-bounded
provinces and oceanic plateaus tend to have blocks with variable metamorphic and struc-
relatively low Ti contents and thus fall in the tural histories. Metamorphic grade varies from
arc field in the classic Ti vs. Zr diagram of medium-T amphibolite facies (550600 oC) to
Pearce (1982), rather the field of within-plate granulite facies (800880 oC) at pressures of 5
lavas (e.g., Marsh, 1987; Neal et al., 1997; 1 kb (Hltt, 1988, 1995). The metamorphic
Tejada et al., 2002). evolution culminated close to a main phase of

granitoid magmatism at ~1885 Ma. consists of volcanic rocks and rare graphite-
Bedding planes, gneissose banding, and and sulfide-bearing, calcareous, and tuffaceous
a dominant schistosity in the Savo belt have rocks (see also Kousa and Lundqvist, 2000).
northwesterly or northerly strikes, but vary The EVS volcanic rocks comprise a bimodal
somewhat due to polyphase deformation. association of low-K basalts, basaltic andes-
There is some variation in the characterization ites, and rhyolites with arc affinity (Figure 8.7;
of the earliest deformation phases (Ekdahl, Kousa et al., 1994). They show a slight LREE
1993; Krki et al., 1993; Luukas, 1997; Kors- enrichment (Figure 8.8), and a 1.92 Ga rhyolite
man et al., 1999) but the following generaliza- and 1.93 Ga tonalitic gneisses have a juvenile
tion seems plausible. The two earliest folding Nd isotope signature (Table 8.1; Figure 8.2;
phases produced isoclinal to tight recumbent Lahtinen, 1994). The LREE enrichment and
folds with east to northeast vergence; a region- the abundance of felsic rocks indicate that the
ally pervasive foliation or gneissose banding 1.931.92 Ga arc, although relatively imma-
also developed during these phases. A third ture, was not as primitive as true primitive arcs
folding phase turned the flat-lying structures characterized by LREE-depleted mafic rocks
subvertical and resulted in approximately N- of island arc tholeiitic series (Jake and Gill,
orientated elongate antiforms and synforms, 1970). The felsic EVS rocks were possibly
which govern the structure of the Savo belt. formed by melting of newly formed, evidently
Open curving of the axial planes of these folds ~1.95 Ga Paleoproterozoic crust (Lahtinen and
is largely due to a fourth phase. N-striking Huhma, 1997).
dextral shear zones were related to the third The WVS represents the volcanic rocks
phase, whereas a system of NE-striking sinis- of the Ylivieska field (Pohjanmaa belt) and
tral and S-striking dextral zones characterize consists of medium- to high-K calc-alkaline
the fourth deformation phase. basalts to dacites. These are rich in andesites,
The 1.931.92 Ga arc magmatism in the have arc affinities, and show pronounced en-
Savo belt was possibly related to SW-directed richments in the LREE (Kousa et al., 1994;
subduction (Ward, 1987; Lahtinen, 1994) Figures 8.7, 8.8). The rocks probably represent
towards the Keitele microcontinent. The age extensions of the Kuusaa Formation ~35 km
of the earliest tectonothermal events in the northwest of Pyhsalmi (Figure 8.5) and were
Savo belt is not well constrained. However, emplaced in an evolved arc milieu.
the newly formed KeiteleSavo entity possibly The supracrustal sequence at Pielavesi
collided with the Archean craton at 1.911.90 (Figure 8.1) was divided by Ekdahl (1993) into
Ga (Lahtinen, 1994; Nironen, 1997; Chapter four major units, of which the oldest has mafic
11), and this event may have involved exten- volcanic rocks at the base but is otherwise char-
sive deformation and metamorphism. acterized by migmatitized mica gneisses (gray-
wackes) with graphitic and volcanic intercala-
4.2. PielavesiPyhsalmi region tions. The second stratigraphic unit consists of
sedimentary carbonates, calc-silicate rocks,
The PielavesiPyhsalmi region (Figures 8.1 felsic volcanic rocks, cherts, minor iron forma-
and 8.5) is relatively rich in volcanic rocks and tions and black shales, a uranium-phosphorus
massive sulfide deposits. Kousa et al. (1994) horizon, and a conglomerate (in the uppermost
divided the volcanic rocks at Pyhsalmi into part). This shelf-type unit was deposited in a
two major units: the (older) Eastern volcanic relatively shallow sea. In the third unit, known
sequence (EVS), the host of the Pyhsalmi as the Svi suite, intermediate tuffites and
massive sulfide deposit, and the (younger) tuffs prevail but its uppermost volcanic rocks
Western volcanic sequence (WVS). The EVS have a bimodal mafic-felsic character and host

Raahe
39 53 75
nia
Vihanti
th
Bo
of 33
ulf
N
G
Oulujrvi
16
20 km 35 50
Himanka Ylivieska 26
32
Sievi 76
Kannus Nivala
Kokkola Kuusaa
28
25 46
Haapajrvi
36
Pyhsalmi 41
58
30 38
Evijrvi 15
Pihtipudas 33
Svecofennian domain
15 = granodiorites, tonalites, quartz 38 = gneissic tonalites and granodiorites
diorites, granites (~1.891.87 Ga) (~1.931.91 Ga)(Savo belt)
16 = gabbros, diorites, peridotites Karelian domain
(~1.891.87 Ga)
39 = granites and granodiorites
25 = mica schists with intercalated are- (~1.80 Ga)
nites and conglomerates (Ylivieska field)
41 = granites and granodiorites
26 = mafic, intermediate and felsic vol- (~1.891.86 Ga)
canic rocks with sedimentary intercala- 46 = gabbros
tions (1.901.88 Ga) (Ylivieska field)
28 = mica schists and mica gneisses with 50 = gneissic alkaline granite
black schist intercalations (Evijrvi field) (~1.951.96 Ga)
30 = mafic volcanic rocks (Evijrvi field) 53 = Karelian mica schists, black schists,
conglomerates, and arenites
32 = pyroxene granitoids (~1.885 Ga) 58 = Karelian quartz arenites
33 = mafic, intermediate, and felsic vol-
canic rocks with sedimentary intercala- Archean rocks
tions (~1.901.88 Ga) (Savo belt)
75 = paragneisses
35 = mica gneisses and mica schists with
intercalated carbonate rocks (Savo belt) 76 = tonalitetrondhjemitegranodio-
36 = felsic, intermediate, and mafic rite gneisses and migmatites
volcanic rocks (~1.92 Ga)(Savo belt)
Fig. 8.5. Geologic map of the northern and central parts of the Savo and Pohjanmaa belts. Simplified
from Korsman et al. (1997).

A B
Fig. 8.6. Structures of supracrustal rocks of the Savo belt. (A) Migmatitic mica gneiss, Ruukki, close to
Raahe. The label is 10 cm long. (B) Pillow lava, Eastern volcanic sequence, Tetrinmki, Pyhsalmi. The
pen is 13 cm long. Photos: Jukka Kousa (A),Yrj Khknen (B).
base metal mineralizations. The youngest unit oldest units are mostly medium-K, whereas
consists predominantly of graywackes with those of the Svi suite are of low-K type.
mafic volcanic intercalations. The bulk of the rocks of the youngest unit,
The Svi suite is probably an equivalent especially those of the Kotajrvi unit, have
of the 1.931.92 Ga volcanic rocks that host high-K, high-P trachyandesitic compositions
the Pyhsalmi sulfide deposit, whereas the and represent arc-type magmatism at a late
age of the deposition of the two lowermost stage of evolution of the Savo belt.
Pielavesi units is not well constrained. How-
ever, 13C values of ~ 0.3 to 3 from sedimen- 4.3. Rautalampi region
tary carbonates in the shelf-type second unit
show that these rocks were not deposited con- The supracrustal rocks at Rautalampi include
temporaneously with the 2.22.1 Ga Jatulian volcanic and sedimentary rocks also formed
carbonates (cf. Ekdahl, 1993; see also Karhu, in a Paleoproterozoic immature arc (Lahtinen,
1993, and Chapter 16). The volcanic rocks of 1994). In general, they are correlated with the
the uppermost unit are probably 1.901.88 Ga three earliest units at Pielavesi but primary
(Korsman et al., 1997); the massive Kotajrvi features have not been preserved as well as at
lava or diorite within this unit is ~1882 Ma Pielavesi and Pyhsalmi. The volcanic rocks
(Salli, 1983; Ekdahl, 1993; Lahtinen, 1994; at Rautalampi are mainly mafic to felsic gneis-
Table 8.1). ses; however, andesitic rocks are fairly com-
Geochemical characterization of the Piela- mon, too. In general, the mafic volcanic rocks
vesi volcanic rocks is problematic because up are of low-K type with arc affinity and show
to 40% of them may have been hydrothermally slight enrichments in the LREE (Figures 8.7,
altered (Ekdahl, 1993). However, the rocks 8.8; Lahtinen, 1994).
point to a volcanic arc rather than intraplate
or ocean floor environments; some rocks 4.4.Volcanic rocks of the Virtasalmi
with fairly high Ti might indicate episodes region
of rift-related volcanism (Figure 8.7; see also
Lahtinen, 1994). The arc-type signatures are The Virtasalmi region (Figure 8.1) resembles
supported by Ti/Zr/Y and Ti/Mn/P variations structurally the Savo belt as planar structural
(Ekdahl, 1993). The volcanic rocks of the two elements dominantly strike northwesterly to

A B
Oldest unit
Eastern volcanic
Second to oldest sequence
Svi suite Western volcanic
10000 Youngest unit 10000 sequence
Ti Ti
ppm ppm
Pielavesi Pyhsalmi
1000 1000
10 Zr ppm 100 500 10 Zr ppm 100 500
C D
Virtasalmi field
Haukivuori field
Joroinen field
RB
O WITHIN Lawrie averages
10000 M 10000
PLATE
LAVAS
Ti Ti
ppm ppm
ARC LAVAS
Rautalampi Virtasalmi region

1000 1000
10 Zr ppm 100 500 10 Zr ppm 100 500
Fig. 8.7. Ti vs. Zr diagrams of volcanic rocks of the Savo belt: (A) Pielavesi, (B) Pyhsalmi, (C) Rau-
talampi, (D) Virtasalmi region. Data from Lawrie (1992), Ekdahl (1993), Kousa et al. (1994), Lahtinen
(1994), and Pekkarinen (2002). The fields of MORB (mid-ocean ridge basalts), within-plate lavas, and
arc lavas according to Pearce (1982). The cross in (C) shows the average of Malaitan type C-G basalts
from the Ontong Java Plateau (Neal et al., 1997).
northerly, opposite to the mainly easterly to with well-preserved primary features) of the
northeasterly trends in the Saimaa area and Saimaa area; and (3) the Joroinen field, east
Pirkanmaa belt. Korsman et al. (1997) in- of Virtasalmi, characterized by mica gneisses
cluded large parts of the region into southern and mica schists but also containing relatively
Svecofennia (their Accretionary arc complex abundant felsic to mafic volcanic rocks. The
of southern Finland) and considered only the boundary between the Virtasalmi and Joroinen
volcanic-dominated part (Virtasalmi field, see fields is not clear, and Pekkarinen (2002) sug-
below) to belong to the Savo belt (their Primi- gested that the volcanogenic rocks of these
tive arc complex of central Finland). areas are closely related. In the following, I
In this chapter, the Virtasalmi region is will mainly discuss the volcanic rocks, the
divided into three fields: (1) the Virtasalmi sedimentary rocks will be treated below in
field dominated by amphibolitic mafic volca- Section 8.4.
nic rocks; (2) the Haukivuori field dominated The Virtasalmi field consists of amphibo-
by mica gneisses and migmatites (but locally lites, mica gneisses and mica schists, graphite-

A B
Pyhsalmi eastern volcanic sequence Pyhsalmi eastern volcanic sequence
Mafic rocks Felsic rocks
ROCK / CHONDRITE
ROCK / CHONDRITE
100 100
10 10
1 1
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb Lu La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb Lu
C D
Pyhsalmi western volcanic sequence Rautalampi volcanic rocks
Intermediate rocks Mafic
ROCK / CHONDRITE
ROCK / CHONDRITE
Mafic rocks Felsic
100 100
10 10
1 1
Fig. 8.8. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns of volcanic rocks of the Savo belt.
(A) Pyhsalmi EVS mafic (SiO2 <57%) volcanic rocks; (B) Pyhsalmi EVS felsic (SiO2 >67%) volcanic
rocks; (C) Pyhsalmi WVS mafic (SiO2 <57%) and intermediate (SiO2>57%) volcanic rocks; (D) Rau-
talampi mafic and felsic volcanic rocks. Data from Kousa et al. (1994) and Lahtinen (1994). Chondrite
values from Boynton (1984).
bearing and black schists, sedimentary carbon- supported by the relatively high Nb values
ates, calc-silicate rocks, cherts, Fe-rich strata, (Lawrie, 1992). The contents of P2O5 and
U-P-bearing horizons, minor felsic volcanic K2O (~0.30.6 wt.% and 0.41.0 wt.%, re-
rocks, and Cu and Zn deposits (Lawrie, 1992; spectively) and La/Y ratios are higher than in
Reinikainen, 2001; Pekkarinen, 2002). Re- typical NMORB. Overall, the rocks resemble
crystallization and deformation have largely EMORB, WPL or oceanic plateau lavas rather
destroyed primary structures, but such fea- than NMORB or arc basalts.
tures as massive and pillow lavas, tuffs, flow The mafic volcanic rocks of the Virtasalmi
top breccias, lava tubes, and amygdules have field are probably ~1.921.905 Ga in age
been preserved in low-strain zones. Highly (Korsman et al., 1997; Pekkarinen, 2002). A
vesicular pillow structures indicate that the rhyolite close to the boundary of the Virtasalmi
mafic volcanic rocks of the Virtasalmi field and Joroinen fields has an age of 1906 Ma (Pek-
were erupted in relatively shallow water. karinen, 2002; Table 8.1). The rhyolite and a
The volcanic rocks of the Virtasalmi field nearby 1903 Ma gneissic tonalite have Nd (T)
are subalkaline, mainly medium-K tholeiitic values typical of the tonalitic and volcanic
basalts and andesites (Lawrie, 1992; Pekka- rocks of the Savo belt (Huhma, 1986; Lahtinen
rinen, 2002), and disperse into the three and Huhma, 1997; Figure 8.2) although they
fields in Figure 8.7. Non-arc affinities are are slightly younger than the latter rocks.

Geographically, the Virtasalmi field is sedimentary group of central Svecofennia,
an offshoot from the bulk of the Savo belt. It whereas those of the Ylivieska field represent
also differs geologically, because sedimentary the upper sedimentary group of this terrane.
carbonates are relatively abundant and the Lehtonen et al. (2003) reported a similar sys-
mafic volcanic rocks are not of arc type. The tem of arc-type volcanic rocks in the east and
mafic rocks were possibly emplaced in a rift- MORB- to WPL-like rocks in the west, both
related or marginal basin setting, but an origin enveloped by mica gneisses of turbidite origin
as part of an oceanic plateau is also feasible. near Siipyy, southernmost Pohjanmaa. Here,
The Virtasalmi field would then represent an however, sedimentary carbonates are relatively
exotic terrane within the Savo belt. common in the east.
The volcanic rocks of the Haukivuori Regional metamorphism in the Pohjanmaa
field occur as thin and short lenses but show belt peaked at 1.891.88 Ga (Mkitie, 1999,
relatively well-preserved pillow and lava 2000). The supracrustal rocks of the Evijrvi
breccia structures. Pekkarinen (2002) sug- field were metamorphosed to schists, gneisses,
gested them to be considerably younger than and locally migmatites, but they occasion-
the mafic lavas of the Virtasalmi field. The ally show well-preserved primary structures
Haukivuori volcanic rocks are mainly low-K (Figure 8.9). In general, the metamorphic
mafic or ultramafic and tend to have lower K2O conditions in the Evijrvi field increased, from
and P2O5 contents (typically 0.070.13 wt.% medium-T amphibolite facies in the northeast
and 0.120.14 wt.%, respectively) than the to lower-T granulite facies in the southwest
mafic lavas of the Virtasalmi field (Pekkarinen, (Vaarma, 1990; Mkitie and Lahti, 1991;
2002). This and the fact that they are in part Vaarma and Pipping, 1997; Mkitie, 1999).
high in Ti and Zr (Figure 8.7D) suggest that, as The rocks of the Ylivieska field were meta-
a group, they resemble N- or transitional (T-) morphosed at low-T to medium-T amphibolite
MORB rather than EMORB, WPL or island facies, and well-preserved primary structures
arc tholeiites. are abundant.
At Evijrvi, an early phase of deforma-
tion created tight to isoclinal recumbent folds
5. Pohjanmaa belt and thrusts with east to northeast vergence
(Vaarma and Pipping, 1997). Subsequent
5.1. General deformation included open folds with E-trend-
ing subvertical axial planes and open to tight
Supracrustal rocks in the Pohjanmaa belt are folds with axial planes striking northwest. In
divided into two fields (Figures 8.1, 8.5). The the Seinjoki area (Figure 8.1), Mkitie (1999,
rocks of the Evijrvi field are dominated by 2000) presented a similar sequence of defor-
turbiditic graywackes and mudrocks but also mation but distinguished a weak schistosity
contain units of mafic lavas with MORB to formed before the early isoclinal recumbent
WPL affinities as well as associated black folding. Lahtinen et al. (Chapter 11) suggest
shales, carbonate and calc-silicate rocks, and that the early thrusts with east to northeast
cherts (Figures 8.9 through 8.11). The rocks vergence in the Evijrvi field were related to
of the Ylivieska field are probably younger the ~1.90 Ga collision of an inferred Bothnia
than these and are composed of ~1.901.88 microcontinent with the Keitele microconti-
Ga arc-type volcanic and related clastic sedi- nent in the southwest.
mentary rocks. In the generalised division of Deformation in the Ylivieska field seems
Lahtinen et al. (2002), the sedimentary rocks less prominent than in the Evijrvi field.
of the Evijrvi field belong to the lower Around Ylivieska, Salli (1964) indentified

several, mostly isoclinal early-stage synclines vi field and have only been found near Kokko-
and anticlines with NW-trending subvertical la (Figure 8.5). These rocks host U-bearing
axial planes and subhorizontal fold axes. In phosphorite layers and are stratigraphically
the study area of Strand (2002), supracrustal below skarn and carbonate rocks, black shales,
rocks form a wide, relatively tight, northwest- and graywackes (Kousa and Lundqvist, 2000).
plunging syncline. Near Seinjoki, plagioclase and uralite-plagio-
The ~1.89 Ga arc magmatism of the Yli- clase porphyritic sills or dikes, 1886 Ma in age
vieska field was probably related to subduc- (Table 8.1), are possibly related to the arc-type
tion directed approximately to the northeast volcanic rocks of the Ylivieska field.
(Nironen, 1997). This idea is in part based on The age distribution of detrital zircon in
a N-dipping mantle reflector under the Gulf a graywacke from the Evijrvi field (Figure
of Bothnia (BABEL Working Group, 1990), 8.3B) is like those in the two graywackes from
i.e., beneath the western extensions of the Poh- the stratigraphically low levels of the Tampere
janmaa belt. The change from the N-directed belt; together these samples represent the low-
subduction at Tampere (see Section 6.1) to the er sedimentary group of central Svecofennia.
NE-directed subduction beneath the Pohjan- Based on the youngest concordant grains, the
maa belt might have been caused by pinning maximum deposition age of these graywackes
of the subduction zone in the Tampere area is ~1.92 Ga. Mixing of Archean and 2.01.92
(Nironen, 1997). Ga Proterozoic components is also supported
by the strongly to slightly negative Nd (at 1.9
5.2. Evijrvi field Ga) values (Figure 8.4). The 2.01.92 Ga de-
tritus was possibly derived from the 1.931.92
The mafic volcanic rocks of the Evijrvi field Ga Savo arc and the inferred Keitele micro-
mainly occur as relatively thin, less than 1- continent (Lahtinen et al., 2002).
km-wide formations and are mostly lavas fre- The relations of the mafic lavas of the
quently showing pillow structures (Figure 8.9). Evijrvi field to the enveloping graywackes
The carbonate rocks, black shales, and cherts and mudrocks are not known well because
of the Evijrvi field are associated with these of poor exposure and lack of isotope ages. In
volcanic formations (Vaarma and Pipping, general, however, thrusts with east to northeast
1997). On a Ti vs. Zr diagram (Figure 8.10), vergence are evident (see above) and, probably,
the volcanic rocks fall into the MORB, WPL, the Evijrvi field consists of allochthonous
and arc fields but, in general, do not have slices. Based on the scatter from NMORB-like
arc affinity. Besides this, Ti, Zr, Cr, V, and Sr to WPL-like basalts, the mafic lava units of
variations (figures not shown) indicate MORB the slices represent variable non-arc tectonic
and WPL affinities rather than an arc setting settings.
(Vaarma and Khknen, 1994). Chondrite-
normalized REE patterns vary from LREE 5.3.Ylivieska field
depleted to LREE enriched (Figure 8.11).
The LREE-depleted, NMORB-like Evijrvi Rocks of the Ylivieska field occur as scattered
basalts have Nd (at 1.9 Ga) values of ~ +3 to +4 complexes of volcanic and sedimentary rocks
(Figure 8.2) and were derived from depleted (Figure 8.5). The former are of both pyroclastic
mantle sources. Based on Ti and Zr contents, to volcaniclastic and lava origin, and a signifi-
the partly pillowed basalts at Nurmo and Vit- cant part of them were emplaced in shallow-
tinki close to Seinjoki (Figure 8.1) resemble water or subaerial environments (Figure 8.9;
those at Evijrvi (Figure 8.10). Kousa and Lundqvist, 2000; Strand, 2002).
Felsic volcanic rocks are rare in the Evijr- They range from basalts to K-rhyolites and

A B
C D
E F
Fig. 8.9. Structural features of supracrustal rocks of the Pohjanmaa belt. (A) Pillow lava, Evijrvi field;
(B) Pillow breccia, Evijrvi field; (C) Pelite and graywacke strata with concretions and porphyroblasts
of sillimanite, Evijrvi field; (D) Volcaniclastic conglomerate, Antinneva Formation, Pyhjoki (~20 km
south of Raahe), Ylivieska field; (E) Cross-stratified volcaniclastic sedimentary rock with few felsic
pebbles, Antinneva Formation, Pyhjoki (~20 km south of Raahe), Ylivieska field; (F) Synsedimentary
deformation in felsic sedimentary rock, Alavieska (~20 km northwest of Ylivieska),Ylivieska field.The
pen is ~13 cm and the compass ~12 cm long. Photos: Yrj Khknen (A, F), Markus Vaarma (B, C),
and Jukka Kousa (D, E).

Evijrvi field mafic volcanic rocks
ROCK / CHONDRITE
RBX 100
10000 O
M WITHIN
PLATE
X LAVAS
Ti
ppm 10
ARC LAVAS
1
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb
1000
10 Zr ppm 100 500 Fig. 8.11. Chondrite-normalized rare earth
element (REE) patterns of mafic volcanic rocks
Fig. 8.10. Ti vs. Zr diagrams of mafic volcanic from the Evijrvi field. Colors of the patterns
rocks from the Evijrvi field. The symbols with indicate the same formations as those in Figure
different colors indicate separate formations; 8.10. Data from Vaarma and Khknen (1994).
crosses are averages from the NurmoVittin- Chondrite values from Boynton (1984).
ki area near Seinjoki. Data from Mkitie and
Lahti (1991),Vaarma and Khknen (1994), and
Vaarma and Pipping (1997). The fields of MORB
(mid-ocean ridge basalts), within-plate lavas, and
arc lavas are according to Pearce (1982).
have calc-alkaline, mature island-arc affinity sample A1554 (Figure 8.3D) fall in the range
(Figures 8.7, 8.8). The sedimentary rocks are of 1882 14 Ma to 1896 10 Ma. Because
characterized by sandstones, conglomerates, the provenance of the sample was dominated
and silty mudrocks with volcanic provenance by local arc-derived material, it can be as-
(see also Kousa, 1997); they represent the up- sumed that the ages of arc-related volcanic
per sedimentary group of central Svecofennia. and plutonic rocks of the Ylivieska field vary
These sedimentary rocks were mainly depos- from ~1.88 Ga to ~1.90 Ga, rather than from
ited in fluvial or shallow-water environments ~1.88 Ga to ~1.89 Ga.
and the fact that the volcanicsedimentary Based on the interpreted ages of concor-
complexes enveloped by turbidites suggest dant grains, the sedimentary rocks of the Yli-
that related deep-water deposits are probably vieska field have a maximum deposition age
also present. The supracrustal successions of of ~1.89 Ga (Figure 8.3D; see also Lahtinen
the Ylivieska field evidently represent separate et al., 2002). This is supported by a 1888 Ma
volcanoes and intervening basins. The volca- granitoid cobble in a related conglomerate
noes were partly exposed above sea level, and (Table 8.2). The scarcity of Archean grains in
their erosion resulted in fluvial and shallow- sample A1554 and the mixture of Archean and
water deposits on and close to the flanks of Proterozoic detritus in sample A1555 agree
the volcanic aprons as well as in deep-water with the Nd evolution lines (Figure 8.4). The
turbidites more distal to the volcanic centers. detailed stratigraphic position of the latter
There are no published ages on the vol- sample is not quite clear, but Lahtinen et al.
canic rocks of the Ylivieska field, but Korsman (2002) tentatively suggested it to be a molasse
et al. (1997) and Kousa and Lundqvist (2000) deposit related to a ~1.89 Ga collision.
considered these to be 1.891.88 Ga old. The
three youngest concordant grains in sediment

6. Tampere and Pirkanmaa belts a folded early thrust as a probable explana-
tion. The earliest folding produced a major
6.1. General E-trending synform with subvertical axial
planes, subhorizontal fold axes, and subverti-
Since the studies of Sederholm (1897), Seit- cal stretching lineations. The folds are mainly
saari (1951), Simonen and Kouvo (1951), isoclinal but in a few places open. Folding
and Simonen (1953), the well-preserved me- after this phase was concentrated in subvertical
dium-grade Tampere belt has been a key area zones with variously trending axial surfaces
of the Svecofennian supracrustal successions (Nironen, 1989a). Kilpelinen (1998) sug-
in Finland. The belt is primarily composed of gested that the tectonic and metamorphic
turbiditic graywackes and mudrocks as well evolution started earlier in the Pirkanmaa belt
as ~1.9051.89 Ga arc-type volcanic and than in the Tampere belt. In the Pirkanmaa
related sedimentary rocks (Ojakangas, 1986; belt, an early recumbent folding produced
Khknen, 1987, 1989, 1994, 1999; Table 8.1; subhorizontal schistosity parallel with bed-
Figures 8.12 through 8.17), and it serves as ding and compositional banding (Kilpelinen
a good example of a Proterozoic greenstone et al., 1994; Kilpelinen, 1998). The F2 folds
belt. In the north, the belt is bounded by the had E-trending subvertical axial planes and
~1.88 Ga Central Finland granitoid complex subhorizontal fold axes. Overall, deformation
and in the south by the high-grade Pirkanmaa resulted in complex fold interference patterns
belt. The belt is dominated by migmatites and (Figure 8.13L; Arkimaa et al., 2000). Recently,
gneisses of turbiditic origin, but is also rela- Kilpelinen and Nironen (2002) described
tively rich in black shales and includes mafic relics of foliation that preceded the D1 event.
and ultramafic volcanic rocks with MORB to Evidently, the earliest deformation in the Pir-
WPL affinities. The boundary between the two kanmaa belt involved more than one phase of
belts is in places gradual, in other places a fault recumbent folding.
zone. The bulk of the Tampere belt belongs Based on a N-dipping mantle reflector,
to a volcanic arc, whereas the Pirkanmaa belt the 19051890 Ma arc-type volcanism in the
mainly represents the subduction zone com- Tampere belt was probably related to sub-
plex of this arc system; the latter might also duction to the north under the Keitele micro-
contain Paleoproterozoic rocks considerably continent (e.g., Chapter 11). The interpretation
older than 1.9 Ga (Khknen, 1999). of the Tampere belt as a volcanic arc and the
Metamorphism in the Tampere and Pirkan- Pirkanmaa belt as the associated subduction
maa belts was of low-P type and took place at zone complex is in line with this idea. The bulk
low-T amphibolite to greenschist/amphibolite of metamorphic and deformational events in
facies (Tampere belt) and at high-T amphibo- these belts were probably related to accretion
lite facies (Pirkanmaa belt) (Kilpelinen et or collision of southern Svecofennia with
al., 1994; Kilpelinen, 1998). Metamorphism central Svecofennia at 1.881.87 Ga.
in the latter culminated at 1.88 Ga (Mouri et
al., 1999). 6.2. Central Tampere belt
The structure of the central part of the
Tampere belt has been regarded as a syncline According to the generalized stratigraphic
(e.g., Khknen, 1989; Nironen, 1989a), but scheme, the Haveri Formation is probably the
a U-Pb zircon age of ~1892 Ma from Tesoma oldest supracrustal unit in the central Tampere
in the southernmost part of the belt (Figure belt (Figures 8.12, 8.14). It is characterized by
8.12) is not compatible with this (Table 8.1). basaltic lavas that are commonly pillowed and
Instead, Khknen et al. (2004) considered have EMORB affinity (Figures 8.13A, 8.15

Haveri 470 500
Viljakkala Lake Nsi- Central Finland granitoid complex
Osara jrvi Koskuenjrvi
Harhala Pohtola
Sammatinjrvi Valkjrvi Orivesi
Oksijrvi
PSZ
Takamaa Pulesjrvi
Kolunkyl Ahvenlammi
Hmeenkyr Lempinniemi
Vrml Viinarnninnotko
batholith Tervakivi
stock
6830 Veittijrvi
Pylsynlahti
Pirttiniemi
Yljrvi
Myllyniemi
Siivikkala
Nokia
Mauri batholith Tesoma
Kalkku TAMPERE
6820 ESZ 10 km
Nokia
Metagraywackes Metavolcanic rocks in Granitoids with minor Fault,

and metapelites general diorites and gabbros interpreted
Metaconglomerates Felsic metavolcanic and Hinge zone of major
metasedimentary rocks synform Viljakkala,
Gneisses and mig- Shear zones; Yljrvi,
matites Pukala porphyry PSZ = Paarlahti shear Nsijrvi E,
zone and Pulesjrvi
ESZ = Epil shear zone sections
Fig. 8.12. Lithological map of the central Tampere belt with a simplified structural interpretation.
Based on Khknen (1999) and references therein. The dotted lines indicate approximate positions of
the Viljakkala,Yljrvi, Nsijrvi E, and Pulesjrvi sections.
through 8.17; see also Mkel, 1980; Kh- of central Svecofennia. At Yljrvi, a mainly
knen and Nironen, 1994). The Haveri for- mafic volcanic unit with transitional arc to
mation is overlain by the turbidite-dominated WPL affinity (Takamaa Formation) overlies
Osara and Myllyniemi Formations, which are the arc-related sedimentary rocks.
probably lateral counterparts and represent The EMORB-like basaltic lavas of the
the lower sedimentary group of central Sve- Haveri Formation are occasionally amygdaloi-
cofennia. These are succeeded by units rich dal. They have interlayers of and are overlain
in arc-type volcanic and related sedimentary by tuffs, cherts, sedimentary carbonates, and
rocks, of which the PulesjrviKolunkyl skarns. The lava-dominated part further grades
complex is the most prominent. The arc-type into tuffs, sulfide-rich fine-grained tuffaceous
volcanic rocks include both pyroclastic units rocks, and black shales. The Nd (at 1.9 Ga)
and lavas and were formed in a highly evolved values of the Haveri basalts are slightly posi-
arc (Khknen, 1987, 1989, 1994; Lahtinen, tive (Figure 8.2), probably indicating mantle
1996). The related sedimentary rocks have source enrichment relative to depleted mantle
an overwhelmingly volcanic provenance and some time before the emplacement of the
include turbiditic graywackes, mudrocks, and lavas. Pb isotopes in the Haveri sulfides are
conglomerates as well as fluvial or shallow- consistent with mantle sources (Vaasjoki and
water sandstones and conglomerates (Rautio, Huhma, 1999). Pb isotope compositions in
1986; Leveinen, 1990; Khknen, 1999); the other sulfide deposits of the Tampere belt,
they belong to the upper sedimentary group and in central Svecofennia in general, are less

primitive than at Haveri and in the Savo belt tends to be less pronounced than in the arc-
(Vaasjoki, 1981). type volcanic rocks and may, together with
The turbidites of the Myllyniemi For- the transitional character of this unit (Figure
mation show westerly paleocurrents and 8.15A), indicate incipient rifting at ~1.89
are largely mid-fan deposits of submarine Ga.
fans (Ojakangas, 1986), but also contain The 1904 4 Ma Koskuenjrvi Forma-
conglomerates deposited in submarine fan tion (Table 8.1) in the northern limb of the
channels (Leveinen, 1990; Figures 8.13B synform at Orivesi (Figure 8.12) is the oldest
through 8.13D). Black shales and mudrocks dated unit of the Tampere belt but, based on
relatively rich in C and S are not common but regional correlation, it is younger than the
occur at Nokia, at Ahvenlammi (Myllyniemi Haveri Formation. It seems to have deposited
Formation), and in low horizons in the Osara after the Myllyniemi and Nokia graywackes
Formation (Figures 8.12 and 8.14), i.e., in the that have detrital zircons of ~1.92 Ga as the
lowermost parts of the thick turbidite unit of youngest population. The 1889 5 Ma Taka-
the central Tampere belt. maa Formation is the youngest dated unit and
The PulesjrviKolunkyl complex is is, within error limits, coeval with the 1892
characterized by intermediate to mafic lava 3 Ma Tervakivi rhyolite (Figure 8.14). A pla-
or lava-like and pyroclastic rocks as well as gioclase porphyry has an even younger age of
sedimentary rocks with a volcanic provenance 1880 7 Ma (Table 8.1), but it may be related
(Figures 8.13FI). The sandstones and con- to the enveloping granitoids.
glomerates are largely fluvial or shallow-wa- Granitoid cobbles in the conglomerates of
ter deposits, but the sedimentary rocks also the PulesjrviKolunkyl complex have ages
include mudrocks, graded graywackes (see of ~18901885 Ma (Table 8.2) and suggest a
the cover picture of this chapter), and con- maximum deposition age of ~1.89 Ga. Within
glomerates probably deposited from turbidity error limits these rocks are coeval with the
currents in relatively deep water. The complex Takamaa Formation and some plutonic rocks
possibly comprises emergent volcano(es) with that intrude the belt. Evidently, the orogenic
subaerial to submarine sedimentary aprons. evolution was rapid.
The arc-type volcanic rocks of the central Zircon in the Mauri arenites, ~2040 km
Tampere belt range from basalts to rhyolites westsouthwest of Tampere (Figure 8.12) is
and are most commonly dacites and andes- ~1.90 Ga (Matisto, 1977). Thus these arenites
ites (Khknen, 1987, 1989, 1994). They are were deposited at ~1.901.89 Ga at the earli-
mainly of high-K and medium-K character but est and were mainly derived from ~1.901.89
shoshonitic and trachytic or high-K rhyolitic Ga sources. They are possibly coeval with the
types are also relatively abundant. Low-K PulesjrviKolunkyl complex (Khknen,
arc tholeiitic rocks have not been identified. 1999) and represent the upper sedimentary
The chondrite-normalized REE patterns of group of central Svecofennia.
the arc-type volcanic rocks show moderate to The 1898 4 Ma Sammatinjrvi dacite
pronounced LREE enrichment (Figure 8.15; from Yljrvi has an Nd (at 1.9 Ga) value of
see also Khknen, 1994; Lahtinen, 1996). 0.7 (Figures 8.3, 8.12; Table 8.1). Similar
In general, the rocks have pronounced Nb near-zero values are registered by a mudrock
depletions and positive anomalies of La, P, and from Yljrvi and the Mauri arenites (Figure
Sm (Figure 8.17) indicating enriched mantle 8.4) that represent the upper sedimentary
sources with a subduction component. These group of central Svecofennia with a major vol-
features point to an evolved arc setting. The canic provenance. These values are similar to
LREE enrichment in the Takamaa Formation those of the Central Finland granitoid complex

A B
C D
E F
Fig. 8.13. Structures of supracrustal rocks of the Tampere (A to J) and Pirkanmaa (K to L) belts. (A)
Pillow lava, Haveri Formation,Viljakkala. (B) Conglomerate, Ahvenlammi Member, Myllyniemi Forma-
tion, Kangasala. (C) Graded bedding in turbidite, Myllyniemi Formation, Siivikkala,Yljrvi. The pen is
~15 cm long. (D) Load casts in turbidite, Myllyniemi Formation, Alasenlahti, Tampere. The pen is 17
cm long. (E) Small-scale cross lamination in the Tuuliniemi Formation, Tampere. The vertical dimen-
sion corresponds 8 cm in nature. (F) Dark fiamme in the Silekallio ignimbrite, PulesjrviKolunkyl
complex, Tampere. (G) Reverse to normal grading in a mafic volcaniclastic stratum, PulesjrviKolun-
kyl complex, Tampere. (H) Trough-type cross bedding in fluvial sandstone with volcanic provenance,
PulesjrviKolunkyl complex, Tampere. (I) Volcanic conglomerate with an interbed of sandstone in
the center, PulesjrviKolunkyl complex, Tampere. (J) Pillow lava, Hoivasvuori, Suodenniemi. (K) Pil-
low lava,Vh-Kassari, Kylmkoski (commune just north of Urjala). (L) Polyphase folding,Vammala. In
(F) through (L) the pen is 13 cm long. Photos:Yrj Khknen (A, B, E through L), Maunu Hrme (C),
and Ragnar Trnroos (D).

G H
I J
K L
and they probably indicate derivation from a suggest that the proportion of Archean de-
mafic source separated from the mantle during tritus is more significant in the lowermost
the Paleoproterozoic (Lahtinen and Huhma, graywackes (Nokia and Ahvenlammi in Figure
1997; Rm et al., 2001). 8.4B) than in the Siivikkala graywackes in
The Myllyniemi and Nokia turbidites the stratigraphically middle parts of the Myl-
received detrital material mainly from ~2.05 lyniemi Formation.
1.92 Ga sources but also have a marked
Archean component (Figures 8.3, 8.12, 8.14; 6.3. Western and eastern Tampere belt
Table 8.2). The Nd isotope evolution lines
agree with the idea of a mixture of Archean In the western Tampere belt, the volcanic rocks
and Proterozoic source material and further at Suodenniemi (Figures 8.1, 8.13J) are domi-

Yljrvi profile
Takamaa Fm.
1889 5 Ma Nsijrvi E profile
Veittijrvi con-
glomerate PulesjrviKolun-
6 km kyl complex
Pulesjrvi profile
5 Pohtola
2 km W
2 km E PulesjrviKolun-
4 km kyl complex
4 km
Tervakivi Fm.
1892 3 Ma
Pylsynlahti Fm.
3 3
Tuuliniemi Fm.
Tervakivi Fm.
2 Pirttiniemi Fm. 2
1898 8 Ma
Multivuori
1 Myllyniemi Fm. 1
Viljakkala profile
Harhala Fm. Myllyniemi Fm.
Osara Fm. Ahvenlammi Mb.
thrust?
Haveri Fm. Viinarnninotko
1 4 7 10 13
2 5 8 11 14
3 6 9 12 15
Fig. 8.14. Generalized stratigraphic columns of the Tampere belt near Lake Nsijrvi based on Kh-
knen (1999) and references therein. The illustration schematically shows variation in bed thickness,
grain size, and sand to mud ratios; individual bed thicknesses for example in the Myllyniemi Formation
are not to true scale. Legend: 1mudrocks; 2graywackes; 3conglomerates; 4felsic to intermediate
volcanic and sedimentary rocks, variations in grain size are preliminary estimates; 5trachytes and
high-K rhyolites; 6intermediate to felsic crystal and lithic tuffs and lapilli tuffs; 7mainly andesitic lavas
and lava-like rocks, in part pyro- or volcaniclastic; 8basaltic to andesitic tuff breccias, agglomerates
and lapilli tuffs, in part lava-like rocks; 9mafic tuffs; 10basaltic to andesitic matrix-supported tuff
breccias or debris flow deposits; 11Silekallio ignimbrite; 12plagioclase phenocrysts; 13clinopyrox-
ene phenocrysts and clasts (presently hornblende/uralite); 14sills and subvolcanic intrusions; 15my-
lonite. The ages are from Table 8.1.

A B
Takamaa Fm. Suodenniemi
Other units Vihteljrvi,
Kankaanp
10000 Haveri Fm. 10000
Ti Ti
ppm ppm
Central Tampere belt Western Tampere belt

1000 1000
10 Zr ppm 100 500 10 Zr ppm 100 500
C D
Kiikoinen
10000 10000 WITHIN
RB PLATE
O
M
Ti Ti
ppm ppm
ARC LAVAS
Pirkanmaa belt Pirkanmaa belt

1000 1000
10 Zr ppm 100 500 10 Zr ppm 100 500
Fig. 8.15. Ti vs. Zr diagram for volcanic rocks of the Tampere (A, B) and Pirkanmaa (C, D) belts. Data
from Khknen (1989, 1994), Khknen and Nironen (1994), Lahtinen (1996), and from unpublished
files of Markku Tiainen and the author. In (C), the symbols with different colors indicate samples from
separate units. The fields of MORB (mid-ocean ridge basalts), within-plate lavas, and arc lavas are ac-
cording to Pearce (1982).
nated by basaltic andesites and andesites with common as well. The rocks have considerable
a medium-K and high-K character (Khknen, depletions in Ta and Nb relative to Th (figures
1987). At Kankaanp and Ikaalinen, the vol- not shown) and were probably formed in an
canic rocks range from basalts to dacites and evolved arc.
are mostly of medium-K or high-K type (Kh-
knen, 1987; Yli-Kyyny, 1990). The Ti vs. Zr 6.4. Pirkanmaa belt
diagrams and spidergrams mainly indicate an
arc setting (Figures 8.15 and 8.17D) although In addition to turbidites and black shales,
some of the mafic rocks at Kankaanp have the sedimentary rocks of the Pirkanmaa belt
relatively high Ti contents. include arenites and some conglomerates,
At Luhanka, in the eastern part of the Tam- but sedimentary carbonates are rare. Besides
pere belt, the volcanic rocks are dominated by these, Hytnen (1999) reported cherts in gla-
medium-K basalts to andesites and high-K cial boulders. Some of the black shales seem
rhyolites (Ikvalko, 1981; Luukkonen, 1994). to be spatially associated with the mafic vol-
High-K basalts and andesites are relatively canic rocks, and comparison of bedrock and

A B
Orivesi: Koskuenjrvi Fm. Orivesi: Valkjrvi Fm. Subalkaline rocks
dacites and a rhyolite Shoshonitic rocks
ROCK / CHONDRITE
ROCK / CHONDRITE
Trachytic rocks
66
100 65 74 100 63
70
63
10 10
66 62
51
1 1
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb
C D
Yljrvi: Volcanic rocks Yljrvi: Takamaa Fm.
stratigraphically below 62
61 the Takamaa Fm. 58 59
ROCK / CHONDRITE
ROCK / CHONDRITE
68 63
100 100
55
55
10 10 54 53
57 63 57
53 56
1 1
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb
E F
Haveri Fm. Pirkanmaa belt
mafic lavas mafic lavas
ROCK / CHONDRITE
ROCK / CHONDRITE
100 100
10 10
1 1
La Ce Nd Sm Eu Tb Yb La Ce PrNd Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Fig. 8.16. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns of representative volcanic rocks
of the Tampere (A to E) and Pirkanmaa (F) belts. The numbers in (A) to (D) give the SiO2 contents
of the rocks; in (B) just for the subalkaline rocks. The samples in (E) and (F) are mafic. In (F), colors
of the patterns indicate the same units as those in Figure 8.15C. Data from Khknen and Nironen
(1994) and from unpublished files of Markku Tiainen and the author. Chondrite values from Boynton
(1984).
low-altitude geophysical maps suggests the the sedimentary rocks of the Pirkanmaa belt
black shales are more abundant than the mafic resemble those of the Myllyniemi and Osara
volcanic rocks (see Korsman et al., 1997; Formations in the Tampere belt (Lahtinen,
Arkimaa et al., 2000). Whether this is a real 1996); all these rocks belong to the lower sedi-
feature or a biased view due to poor exposure mentary group of central Svecofennia. Fur-
is not known. thermore, black shales are abundant compared
In chemical composition, the bulk of to their rarity among the typical turbidites of

A 100 B 100
55 Yljrvi: Takamaa Fm. mafic
OrivesiTampere volcanic rocks
57 Yljrvi area Mafic volcanic rocks
below the
10
ROCK / MORB
10
ROCK / MORB
Takamaa Fm.
59
58 53
1 1
Orivesi:
Subalkaline basalt
0.1 0.1
Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb La P Zr Sm Ti Y Sc Cr Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb La P Zr Sm Ti Y Sc Cr
C 100 D100
Hoivasvuori, Haveri Fm. lavas
Suodenniemi
10
ROCK / MORB
10
ROCK / MORB
1 1
0.1 0.1
Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P ZrHf Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr Sr K Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr
E 100 F 100
Pirkanmaa belt Pirkanmaa belt
10
ROCK / MORB
10
ROCK / MORB
1 1
0.1 0.1
Sr K Rb Ba Th Nb La P Zr Ti Y Sc Cr Sr K Rb Ba NbCe P Zr Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr
Fig. 8.17. Mid-ocean ridge basalt-normalized trace element patterns of representative volcanic rocks
of the Tampere (A to D) and Pirkanmaa (E to F) belts. The numbers in (A) give the SiO2 contents of
the rocks; the rocks in the other figures are mafic. In (F), colors of the patterns indicate the same
units as those in Figure 8.15C. Data from Khknen and Nironen (1994), Lahtinen (1996), and from
unpublished files of Markku Tiainen and the author. Normalizing values mostly from Pearce (1982), La
(3.8 ppm) from Lahtinen (1996).
the Tampere belt. In this respect, a significant volcanic units of the Tampere belt (Lahtinen,
part of the Pirkanmaa belt sedimentary rocks 1996), and they evidently represent fore-arc
resembles the lowest parts of the turbidite- sediments of the Tampere arc system.
dominated units in the Tampere belt, where Compared to the Tampere belt, volcanic
black shales are relatively common. However, rocks in the Pirkanmaa belt are not abundant
a part of the Pirkanmaa belt sedimentary and they are mainly mafic to ultramafic lavas
rocks were probably derived from the arc-type with rare pillow structures (Figure 8.13K).

The basalts resemble MORB or WPL, al- comprise another wide field and are predomi-
though some units are transitional between nantly subvolcanic, in places pyroclastic (Niro-
MORB/WPL and arc-type rocks (Figures 8.15 nen, 2003; observations by the author).
through 8.17). The rocks display both flat and In the southwestern parts of the complex,
slightly LREE-enriched REE patterns. Picrites the supracrustal formation at Parkano consists
with trace element patterns similar to those of of mafic to felsic volcanic rocks intruded by
transitional MORB have also been described dikes and granitoids (Vaasjoki and Lahti,
(Peltonen, 1995). Volcanic rocks of MORB 1991). A felsic, possibly volcanic rock has
affinity are relatively abundant in the south- been dated at 1907 13 Ma (Table 8.1) but,
ern Pirkanmaa belt and may indicate a suture because the zircons seem to be in part inher-
between central and southern Svecofennia ited, the significance of this age is equivocal
(Lahtinen, 1994, 1996). The mafic lava units of (Nironen, 2003). A granite with a U-Pb zircon
the Pirkanmaa belt possibly represent varying age of 1893 6 Ma is cut by a 1883 15 Ma
non-arc settings, and the belt may consist of plagioclase porphyritic dike, which represents
several allochthonous slices. synkinematic magmatism of the Central Fin-
land granitoid complex (Nironen, 2003). A
1872 12 Ma rhyolitic dike cross-cuts the
7. Supracrustal belts within the bedding of the mafic volcanic rocks and is pos-
Central Finland granitoid complex sibly related to the postkinematic granitoids of
the Central Finland granitoid complex.
Several fragmentary arc-type successions oc- Farther to the east, the volcanogenic belt
cur within the Central Finland granitoid com- at Kuru (Figure 8.1) consists of intermediate
plex (Figure 8.1; Korsman et al., 1997). The to felsic rocks (Tiainen and Khknen, 1994).
sedimentary rocks in these belts are mainly The intermediate rocks are, in general, homo-
mudrocks and resemble those related to the geneous; in places stratified and fragmental
arc-type volcanic rocks of the Tampere belt structures indicate fallout and pyroclastic flow
and Ylivieska field. deposits. The felsic rocks are mainly mas-
In the northern parts of the Central Fin- sive and porphyritic, possibly of subvolcanic
land granitoid complex, the volcanic rocks origin, but they also include fine-grained
at Pihtipudas are felsic to intermediate and stratified tuffs; one of the latter has been dated
have been dated at 1883 20 Ma (Table 8.1). at 1897 2 Ma (Table 8.1). The abundance
The significance of this age is questionable, of andesites to rhyolites, Ti vs. Zr variation,
because it is a pooled age from seven granit- and the considerable enrichment in LREE
oids, three felsic porphyries, and a dacite. The [(La/Yb)N ranges from 5 to 11, diagrams not
supracrustal rocks at Perho, 7080 km west of shown] indicate that the volcanic rocks of this
Pihtipudas, resemble those of the Ylivieska belt resemble the arc-type volcanic units of the
field in age and overall character (Korsman Tampere belt and were probably formed in the
et al., 1997). same evolved arc system.
In the central parts of the Central Finland The Hirsil belt north of the Tampere belt
granitoid complex at Saarijrvi quartz-feld- (Figure 8.1) is mainly composed of mica gneis-
spar porphyritic rocks are abundant. They ses, veined gneisses, amphibolites, and felsic
are mainly hypabyssal rocks probably re- gneisses. Blastoclastic textures, amygdules,
lated to the surrounding granitoids and have and pumice have been sporadically preserved
been dated at 1887 2 Ma (Table 8.1). The (Lahtinen, 1996). In general, the Hirsil vol-
plagioclase-porphyritic intermediate rocks at canic rocks show pronounced Nb depletion
Haapamki, ~50 km southwest of Saarijrvi, and clear positive La, P, and Sm anomalies

indicating enriched mantle sources with a fennian granite-migmatite zone of southern
subduction component (figures not shown). Finland was formed. Visnen et al. (2002)
Thus they resemble the volcanic rocks of the found this event to have peaked at 1824 5
Tampere belt and were probably emplaced in Ma.
the same evolved arc setting (Lahtinen, 1996). The youngest detrital zircons in the silli-
The sedimentary rocks at Hirsil differ from manite-bearing Tiirismaa quartz arenite near
the Myllyniemi-type turbidites of the Tampere Lahti (Figures 8.1 and 8.3) indicate deposition
belt and resemble those higher in the strati- at ~1.871.86 Ga at the earliest, i.e., after or
graphic succession; they were derived from during the 1.871.86 Ga metamorphic peak.
~1.9051.89 Ga arc-type sources. The Hirsil Thus these arenites do not belong to the typi-
belt is a close analogue to the Tampere belt in cal supracrustal association of the Hme belt
its original character and tectonic setting. that was deposited before the peak of meta-
morphism. Korsman et al. (1997) showed two
8. Hme belt and Saimaa area other small quartz arenite occurrences in the
Hme belt and Saimaa area. A fourth quartz
8.1. General arenite is found at Hyvink in the northern
Uusimaa belt (Figures 8.1 and 8.3) and it
The Hme belt and the Saimaa area (Figure resembles the Tiirismaa arenite in the age pat-
8.1) are treated together because their mutual tern of detrital zircon (see also Lahtinen et al.,
boundary eastnortheast of Lahti has not been 2002). Muddy counterparts of these relatively
delineated. Bedding planes, banding, and young arenites may be common in southern
dominant schistosity strike eastnortheast to Finland and could provide an explanation for
east, except at and around Virtasalmi where the high relative abundance of pelitic rocks in
strikes are mainly northnorthwesterly. The southern Svecofennia.
sedimentary rocks are characterized by mud- Lahtinen (1994, 1996) and Nironen (1997)
rocks rather than graywackes (Korsman et suggested that the subduction related to the
al., 1997; Nironen et al., 2002). Black shales ~1.89 Ga arc magmatism in the Hme belt
are rare in the Hme belt and in the bulk of was directed to the south (see also Chapter
the Saimaa area, but relatively abundant in 11). Instead, Visnen and Mnttri (2002)
the Virtasalmi region and in places in the considered it probable that the subduction
southeastern Saimaa area (Arkimaa et al., was directed to the north. The concept of S-
2000; Pekkarinen, 2002). Quartz arenites, directed subduction is supported, though not
sedimentary carbonates (relatively common at proven, by a south-dipping mantle reflector
Virtasalmi, see p. 360), as well as Fe-sulfide found beneath the western extensions of the
and Fe-oxide formations are scarce. The Hme Hme belt (Chapter 11). See Section 10.3 for
belt is essentially composed of volcanic rocks further discussion.
emplaced in a volcanic arc (Hakkarainen,
1994; Lahtinen, 1996), whereas in the Saimaa 8.2.Volcanic rocks of the Hme belt
area these are less common and show variable
tectonomagmatic affinities. The Hme belt contains the largest volcanic-
The supracrustal rocks of the Hme belt dominated area in the Svecofennian domain
and Saimaa area were metamorphosed mainly in Finland (Figure 8.1). Hakkarainen (1994)
at amphibolite facies conditions 1.881.86 Ga studied the belt around Hmeenlinna and
ago (Nironen, 1999; Visnen, 2002; Visnen Forssa and identified several early synclines
et al., 2002). At 1.831.81 Ga, they largely and anticlines with approximately ENE- to
experienced a high-T event as the late Sveco- E-trending vertical axial planes and subhori-

A B
Fig. 8.18. Structures of volcanic rocks of the Hme belt. (A) Tuff breccia, Forssa Group, Forssa; (B)
Coherent to autobrecciated lava, Hme Group, Lautaporras, Tammela. The pen is 13 cm long. Photos:
Yrj Khknen.
zontal fold axes. The intensity of subsequent group contain andesitic pillow lavas and mi-
deformation varies, but folds with NE-trend- nor sedimentary carbonates. The bulk of the
ing subvertical axial planes are the most volcanic rocks are related to stratovolcanoes,
prominent feature. The Hme belt includes which fed pyroclastic material and detritus
lavas and pyroclastic rocks (Figure 8.18), into the basins between.
which range from basalts to rhyolites, are The strata between the Forssa and H-
mainly medium-K type, and show arc affinity me Groups include mudrocks, graywackes,
(Figure 8.19). Hakkarainen (1994) divided and minor conglomerates, all with volcanic
the volcanic rocks into two units, the (older) provenance. Thin Fe-oxidechert layers and
Forssa Group of separate stratovolcanoes and Fe-sulfide formations are also present; these
the (younger) Hme Group related to a linear may be associated with the early stages of the
E-trending fissure system. Hme Group fissure eruptions.
An age of 1888 11 Ma has been published The Hme Group is characterized by ura-
on the volcanic rocks of the Hme belt (Table lite and plagioclase porphyritic basaltic lavas,
8.1). A plagioclase porphyry from Hyvink, which occasionally grade into andesites. They
close to the boundary to the Uusimaa belt, has are mainly coherent but locally autoclastic
an age of 1880 3 Ma (Table 8.1). This rock (Figure 8.18B) or pillowed (Hakkarainen,
is probably cogenetic with the nearby 1880 1994). Pyroclastic interbeds are present but
5 Ma (Patchett and Kouvo, 1986) gabbros. mudrocks or other sedimentary rocks have not
The ~1.88 Ga rocks at Hyvink are probably been found. Felsic volcanic rocks are scarce
closer to the Hme Group than to the Forssa according to Hakkarainen (1994). However,
Group in age and setting. based on the data of Aulis Kinnunen and the
The Forssa Group includes both volcanic author (Figure 8.20), they seem to be relatively
(Figure 8.18A) and sedimentary (mainly abundant and might indicate bimodal affinity.
pelitic) rocks. The basement is unkown (Hak- Basaltic feeder dikes are found throughout
karainen, 1994) or may consist of graywackes the Hme Group and provide evidence for
(Lahtinen, 1996). The volcanic rocks range E-trending fissure eruptions reflecting exten-
from basalts to rhyolites with andesite as the sion of the arc.
most common type. The lower parts of the The basalts, andesites, and rhyolites of

A
ROCK / CHONDRITE
RB WITHIN 100 58
10000 O PLATE
M
LAVAS 58
74
Ti 10 74
ppm 72
ARC LAVAS
1
1000
10 Zr ppm 100 500 B
ROCK / CHONDRITE
Fig. 8.19. Ti vs. Zr diagram of the Hme belt
volcanic rocks. Data from Hakkarainen (1994), 100
Lahtinen (1996), and from unpublished files of 55
54 70
Aulis Kinnunen and the author. The fields of
MORB (mid-ocean ridge basalts), within-plate la- 10
vas, and arc lavas are according to Pearce (1982). 64
56 76 71
1
the Forssa Group are medium-K calc-alkaline Fig. 8.20. Chondrite-normalized rare earth
rocks. In general, they have tectonomagmatic element (REE) patterns of volcanic rocks of the
affinities indicating a relatively mature island Hme belt. The samples are from the area of
arc. The pronounced Nb depletion typical of the Hme Group in Hakkarainen (1994). Colors
indicate samples from unnamed individual units.
arc magmas and relatively steep trend from
The numbers give the SiO2 contents of the
Zr to Y (Figure 8.21) indicate an enriched
rocks. Unpublished data of Aulis Kinnunen and
mantle source with a subduction component. the author. Chondrite values from Boynton
Lavas with a less clear Nb depletion are also (1984).
found and they probably represent volcanism
contemporaneous with the Hme Group
(Lahtinen, 1996). The volcanic rocks of the the Tampere belt.
Hme Group are mainly tholeiitic medium-K
basalts. In general, their Nb depletion is less 8.3.Volcanic rocks of the Saimaa area
pronounced than in the Forssa Group (Figure
8.21) and indicates a setting of advanced arc In the Saimaa area, volcanic rocks, in addition
rifting for the Hme Group. to those in the Virtasalmi region, are found
No Nd isotope data are available for the particularly at Rantasalmi, Parikkala, and
Hme belt volcanic rocks. The 1886 14 Ma Punkaharju (Figure 8.1). Relatively wide vol-
granodiorite near Hmeenlinna (Table 8.1) has canic fields are also found in Heinola, ~40 km
an Nd (at 1.89 Ga) value of ~ +2 (Patchett and northeast of Lahti, and in the southern Saimaa
Kouvo, 1986), and the flat and slightly LREE- area. The 1906 Ma rhyolite from Joroinen
depleted patterns in Figure 8.20 might indicate (Table 8.1) is the only dated volcanic rock in
similar, relatively juvenile sources. All in all, or close to the area.
the volcanic rocks of the Hme belt seem to The volcanic rocks at Rantasalmi are
represent a setting less evolved than that of mafic to ultramafic in composition and pillow

A 100 B 100
Andesite
Basalt
10 10
ROCK / MORB
ROCK / MORB
Basaltic
andesite
1 1
Basalt
0.1 0.1
Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Sm Ti Y Sc Cr Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Sm Ti Y Sc Cr
C 100 D 100
10 10
ROCK / MORB
ROCK / MORB
Basalts
1 1
0.1 0.1
Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Sm Ti Y Sc Cr Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Sm Ti Y Sc Cr
Fig. 8.21. Mid-ocean ridge basalt-normalized trace element patterns for representative volcanic rocks
of the Hme belt. (A) Basalt to andesite, Forssa Group; (B) Andesites, Forssa Group; (C) Hme Group
-type basalts and basaltic andesites from the area of the Forssa Group; (D) Basalts, Hme Group. Data
from Lahtinen (1996). Normalizing values are from Pearce (1982).
lavas are common (Kousa, 1985; Viluksela, calc-alkaline rather than tholeiitic. In chon-
1988). The Ti vs. Zr, Ti vs. Cr, Ti vs. V, Ti/Zr/ drite-normalized diagrams, they show fair
Y, and Ti/Cr vs. Ni relations as well as slight LREE enrichments. Relative depletions in Ta
enrichments in LREE indicate similarity with and Nb indicate arc-type affinity (figures not
transitional MORB (Viluksela, 1988). This is shown). Viluksela (1994) suggested that the
supported by the relatively low K2O and P2O5 volcanic rocks at Parikkala and Punkaharju
contents of the mafic rocks (0.25 and 0.12 were emplaced in a mature arc setting similar
wt.% on the average, respectively). Lahtinen to recent active continental margins.
and Huhma (1997) referred to picrites at
Rantasalmi that have average Nd (at 1.9 Ga) 8.4. Sedimentary rocks of the Saimaa
of +3.3 (Figure 8.2), indicating a depleted area
mantle source.
The volcanic rocks at Parikkala and Pun- The sedimentary rocks of the Saimaa area are
kaharju differ drastically from those at Ran- migmatized and mainly represent mudrocks
tasalmi. They range from basalts to rhyolites and graywackes. Some sedimentary rocks in
with dacites as the most common type; minor the HaukivuoriVirtasalmiRantasalmi dis-
trachytic and trachyandesitic rocks also occur trict (Figure 8.1) are relatively well preserved,
(Viluksela, 1988, 1994). The volcanic rocks whereas those in the south have been exten-
are mostly of medium-K or high-K type and sively migmatitized at 1.831.81 Ga (Figure

A B
Fig. 8.22. (A) Migmatitic gneiss from the Saimaa area, Ristiina; (B) Haukivuori conglomerate with a
1885 Ma granitoid clast. The compass is ~12 cm long. Photos: Jukka Kousa.
8.22). The studied sedimentary rocks of the The immature sedimentary rocks at Ristii-
Saimaa area show variable characteristics from na, 6070 km south of Virtasalmi, have a
immature to mature types (Lahtinen, 2000) maximum deposition age of ~1.921.91 Ga
and also vary in the age distribution of detrital and an Nd (at 1.9 Ga) of ~ 2. They resemble
zircon (Figure 8.3). the lower sedimentary group of central Sveco-
Rocks of the immature group envelope fennia in these respects (Figures 8.3, 8.4).
the Virtasalmi volcanic field and, at Hauki- Sedimentary rocks of the mature group
vuori, have thin interbeds of MORB-like are most abundant at Juva but they also occur
pillow lavas. They are mainly graywackes east and southeast of the Virtasalmi volcanic
with chemical index of alteration (CIA; field (Lahtinen, 2000). In spite of pronounced
Nesbitt and Young, 1982) values less than 57 migmatization, graywackes and mudrocks can
(Lahtinen, 2000). The youngest concordant in places be distinguished. The rocks have
zircons at Joroinen and a 1885 Ma granitoid CIA values of 62 to 65 and thus they differ
clast in a conglomerate interbedded with the from the immature group discussed above as
immature graywackes at Haukivuori indicate a well as from the Upper Kaleva psammites and
maximum deposition age of ~1.89 Ga (Figures pelites. They have characteristically high Zn
8.3, 8.22B; Table 8.2). Thus these graywackes and low Co, and Lahtinen (2000) suggested
were deposited after the Upper Kaleva psam- that their sources were dominated by alkaline
mites and lower sedimentary group of central within-plate granitoids. Moreover, high Cr and
Svecofennia. Compared to the Upper Kaleva Cr/Sc in some of the mature rocks indicate sig-
graywackes, they are typically enriched in the nificant ultramafic components. Considering
LREE, Rb, Ba, Th, and U. Some of the rocks the age distribution of detrital zircon and the
have high Cr/Sc ratios indicative of mafic to low proportion of Archean grains in a mature
ultramafic components in the source. Evi- psammite (Figure 8.3I), the bulk of the sources
dently, these sedimentary rocks were largely were probably 2.12.0 Ga old. The psammites
derived from island arc or active continental were deposited at ~1.89 Ga at the earliest.
margin rocks and in part also from ultramafic
rocks (Lahtinen, 2000). The graywacke from
Joroinen has a significant Archean component,
whereas the Haukivuori graywacke is lower in
Archean detritus (Figures 8.3G, 8.4).

9. Uusimaa belt 1.881.86 Ga (Hopgood et al., 1983) indicat-
ing that here the 1.831.81 Ga event did not
9.1. General aspects exceed the blocking temperature of titanite.
The volcanic rocks of the Uusimaa belt
The E-trending Uusimaa belt consists mainly range from picrites to rhyolites and show
of mudrocks, graywackes, volcanic rocks, EMORB or WPL to arc affinities (Figures
felsic supracrustal rocks, and sedimentary 8.25 through 8.27). Their U-Pb zircon ages
carbonates. The belt also contains massive range from 19001895 Ma to ~1878 Ma
sulfide deposits and banded iron-formations. (Table 8.1).
Black shales have only been reported from Three parts of the Uusimaa belt are dis-
the Salittu Formation of the Orijrvi area. cussed here: (1) the KemiJrvenp field in
Quartz arenites are rare, the only example is at the center is the widest and shows the typical
Hyvink and resembles the Tiirismaa arenite lithological association of the Uusimaa belt;
(Figures 8.1, 8.3, 8.4). The abundance of felsic (2) the NauvoKorppoo field in the west has
supracrustal rocks, sedimentary carbonates, fewer sedimentary carbonates and its mafic
and massive sulfide deposits distinguish the volcanic rocks are like WPL; and (3) the Pel-
bulk of the Uusimaa belt from most other linki field in the southeast is also relatively
Svecofennian supracrustal belts in Finland. poor in sedimentary carbonates but rich in
Furthermore, Pb in the sulfide deposits of arc-type basalts and andesites.
the Uusimaa belt tends to be less primitive
than in central Svecofennia and the Savo belt 9.2. KemiJrvenp field
(Vaasjoki, 1981).
In the Uusimaa belt, the early tectonometa- The KemiJrvenp field is characterized by
morphic evolution peaked at 1.871.86 Ga, felsic supracrustal rocks, which largely repre-
whereas the subsequent major metamorphic sent volcanic and volcanogenic sedimentary
event related to the late Svecofennian granite- deposits, and sedimentary carbonates (Figure
migmatite zone of southern Finland peaked 8.1; Khknen, 1998; Reinikainen, 2001).
at ~1825 Ma (Pajunen et al., 2002; Visnen Massive sulfide deposits, related alteration
and Mnttri, 2002; Visnen, 2002). The products, and minor banded iron-formations
metamorphic conditions and degree of defor- are abundant particularly in the west (Latva-
mation varied widely. For instance, the Ori- lahti, 1979; Mkel, 1989). Picritic to inter-
jrvi area (Figure 8.23) with well-preserved mediate lavas (in part with pillow structures)
primary structures (Figure 8.24) has been and pyroclastic rocks as well as intermediate
a type locality of amphibolite facies rocks subvolcanic intrusions are also relatively
since the study of Eskola (1914), but some abundant (Latvalahti, 1979; Schreurs et al.,
15 km northeast of Orijrvi the amphibolite 1986; Colley and Westra, 1987; Mkel, 1989;
facies rocks change abruptly to low-P granu- Visnen and Mnttri, 2002). Among the vol-
lites (Schreurs and Westra, 1986; Korsman et canogenic rocks, felsic to intermediate types
al., 1997). The 1.831.81 Ga event has also predominate. The volcanic rocks are mostly
largely obscured features of the preceding subalkaline and include both calc-alkaline
1.871.86 Ga orogenic events; for instance, and tholeiitic associations. The frequency
in the otherwise well-preserved Orijrvi area distribution of silica is bimodal in the vicinity
a ~1878 Ma dacite (Table 8.1) has concordant of massive sulfide deposits but, regionally, this
1797 3 Ma titanite (Visnen et al., 2002). feature is less conspicious (Mkel, 1989).
On the other hand, titanites from migmatites The chondrite-normalized REE patterns of the
on the southern coast of Finland yield ages of volcanic rocks show mostly moderate enrich-

ment of LREE (Figure 8.26; see also Mkel, rhyolites with basaltic andesites and andesites
1989), and relative depletions in Nb and Ta are as the most common rock types. The upper
pronounced to absent (Figure 8.27). part of the formation also includes a picritic
Stratigraphic concepts of the KemiJr- interlayer with felsic fragments.
venp field are mainly based on the well-pre- According to Visnen and Mnttri
served rocks of the Orijrvi triangle (Ploegsma (2002), the Salittu Formation is younger than
and Westra, 1990; Figure 8.23). The views of the Kisko Formation, and these units are
Latvalahti (1979), Colley and Westra (1987), separated by mica schists (mudrocks and gray-
and Mkel (1989) show some differences and wackes) with occasional andalusite porphyro-
are not discussed here. Visnen and Mnt- blasts. The Salittu Formation consists mainly
tri (2002), supported by U-Pb zircon ages, of picritic (>12 wt.% MgO) and basaltic lavas,
distinguished three major units: (1) the ~1895 which are in places brecciated or pillowed and
Ma Orijrvi Formation, (2) the ~1878 Ma contain interbeds of graphite-bearing mica
Kisko Formation, and (3) the Salittu Forma- gneisses (black shales) and minor sedimentary
tion (youngest). Outside the Orijrvi triangle, carbonates. It mainly lies outside the Orijrvi
a fourth unit, the Toija Formation, probably triangle and differs from the Orijrvi and
underlies the Salittu Formation. The volcanic Kisko Formations because migmatites are
formations are separated by sedimentary units common and gently dipping early structures
and truncated by a shear zone. are present, as opposed to the mainly upright
The Orijrvi Formation comprises a structures of the latter two units.
bimodal association of mainly medium-K The Toija Formation west of the Kisko
basalts and medium-K to high-K dacites shear zone lies outside the Orijrvi triangle
and rhyolites interbedded with sedimentary (Figure 8.23). It resembles the Salittu Forma-
carbonates, iron formations, and intensively tion in structural style and apparently underlies
altered supracrustal rocks hosting Cu-Zn-Pb it. The Toija Formation includes mafic pillow
deposits. Pillow lavas (Figure 8.24A) and lavas and rhyolites with intercalations of
sedimentary intercalations indicate subaque- marbles and mica schists. A picritic volcanic
ous eruptions. The 1.901.89 Ga Orijrvi horizon is found close to the contact with the
granodiorite (Table 8.1) is cogenetic with Salittu Formation.
this unit. The basalts, basaltic andesites, and picrite
The Orijrvi Formation is separated from of the Orijrvi and Kisko Formations plot into
the Kisko Formation by a unit of graywackes the arc field in the Ti vs. Zr diagram (Figure
and mudrocks. The graywackes are relatively 8.25). The LREE enrichments are moderate,
rich in ~2.12.0 Ga detrital zircon, whereas LILE/HFSE ratios high, and Nb depletions
younger and Archean grains are not abundant pronounced (Figures 8.26, 8.27; see also
(Figure 8.3F; see also Claesson et al., 1993). Visnen and Mnttri, 2002). The Nb, Zr,
The youngest zircons are ~1.931.92 Ga and and Sm contents in the least evolved rocks
thus older than the ~1895 Ma Orijrvi Forma- of the Orijrvi Formation are below those in
tion beneath. Visnen and Mnttri (2002) average MORB and indicate a depleted rather
explained the absence of 1.901.89 Ga zircons than enriched mantle source. The felsic and
in the graywackes by the subaqueous character intermediate rocks in these units also have
of the Orijrvi Formation. The scarcity of Ar- subduction-related characteristics (Figure
chean grains is in agreement with the positive 8.25; see also Visnen and Mnttri, 2002).
Nd (at ~1.9 Ga) value of ~ +1 (Figure 8.4C). The slightly negative Nd (at 1.9 Ga) value of
The volcanic rocks of the Kisko Forma- the Orijrvi granodiorite, which is probably
tion range from medium-K/high-K basalts to comagmatic with the Orijrvi Formation, sug-

CFGC
Tampere belt
en Pirkanma
ed d
Sw lan a belt
Fin CS
Be
SS
Hme belt
Turku
25 km
NK
Rapakivi granite
K Uusimaa belt
SZ
sko
Ki
Jyly S
Z
OM
5 km u Fm
Salitt
m
Orijrvi
F
Toija
Kisko Fm
SZ
Jyly
o
sk
Orijrvi Fm Mrjrvi
Ki
SZ
2 km
Granodiorite Maficintermediate volcanic rock Marble Altered rock

Gabbro Felsic volcanic rock Picrite and basalt Metapelite
Granite Iron formation Road Shear zone (SZ)
Fig. 8.23. Lithological map of the Orijrvi area. BBergslagen, CFGCCentral Finland granitoid
complex, CScentral Svecofennia, KKemi, NKNauvoKorppoo, OMOrijrvi mine, SSsouthern
Svecofennia. Slightly modified from Visnen and Mnttri (2002).

A B
C D
E F
Fig. 8.24. Structures of supracrustal rocks of the Uusimaa belt. (A) Pillow lava, Orijrvi Formation,
Hyypinmki, Kisko. The pen is 13 cm long; (B) Tuff breccia, Orijrvi Formation, Multsilta, Kisko. The
compass is 6 cm wide; (C) Dacitic volcanic breccia, locality of the dated sample of the Kisko Forma-
tion, Kisko. The pen is 12 cm long; (D) Picritic volcanic breccia, Salittu Formation, Kisko. The pen is 12
cm long; (E) Pillow lava, Toija Formation, Kisko. The scale bar is 10 cm long; (F) Erosional scour filled
by volcaniclastic material, subvertical section looking north, Pellinki Group, Suur-Pellinki, Porvoo. The
scale bar is 12 cm long. Photos: Yrj Khknen (A, B, and E), Markku Visnen (C, and D), and Matti
Laitala (F).

A B
Vestlax, Kemi
Salittu Fm.
Toija Fm. NauvoKorppoo
Kisko Fm. 10000
10000 Orijrvi Fm. WITHIN
PLATE
RB LAVAS
O
M
Ti Ti
ppm ppm ARC LAVAS
1000 1000
10 Zr ppm 100 500 10 Zr ppm 100 500
Fig. 8.25. Ti vs. Zr diagram of representative Uusimaa belt volcanic rocks. Data from Ehlers et al.
(1986), Lindroos and Ehlers (1994), and Visnen and Mnttri (2002). (A) Orijrvi area; (B) Vestlax
(Kemi) and NauvoKorppoo (mafic middle unit). The fields of MORB (mid-ocean ridge basalts),
within-plate lavas, and arc lavas are according to Pearce (1982). One felsic sample from Kemi has
960 ppm Ti and 250 ppm Zr. Two felsic samples from the Toija Formation have Ti below 1000 ppm and
110180 ppm Zr.
gests that the source of the felsic rocks of this Salittu Formation.
formation had a significant contribution from The most mafic rocks of the Orijrvi For-
older Proterozoic crust (Figure 8.2). mation tend to be lower in Zr, Hf, P, LREE,
In the basaltic and picritic rocks of the and LILE, and higher in Cr and Ni than the
Salittu Formation, the LILE elements, par- mafic volcanic rocks in the Kisko Formation.
ticularly Ba, are variable (at least in part due The most primitive lavas are found in the
to alteration) but, in general, enrichments in lower parts of the Orijrvi Formation. Thus
LILE and LREE are moderate to minor. Deple- evolution from a less mature arc (lowermost
tions in Nb relative to Th are mostly absent. parts of the Orijrvi Formation) to a more
Overall, the Salittu Formation volcanic rocks mature arc (Kisko Formation) is obvious.
resemble T- or EMORB rather than WPL. The mafic rocks of the Orijrvi Formation
However, the Nd (at 1.9 Ga) value of ~ +3 resemble the classic island arc tholeiites of
of the Salittu picrite (Figure 8.2) indicates a Jake and Gill (1970) in their low Zr contents
depleted mantle source. but are distinct due to their LREE enrichment.
The stratigraphically high picrite in the The abundance of felsic volcanic rocks and
Toija Formation resembles those of the Salittu the initial Nd value of ~ 1 of the Orijrvi
Formation (Figure 8.27). The mafic rocks at granodiorite (Figure 8.3) further indicate that
Toija show depletion in Nb and are like the the Orijrvi Formation was not emplaced in
arc-type rocks of the Kisko and Orijrvi For- a true primitive oceanic arc.
mations. These similarities support the view of Visnen and Mnttri (2002) suggested
Visnen and Mnttri (2002) that the Salittu that the T- or EMORB-like rocks of the
Formation overlies the Kisko Formation and Salittu Formation were emplaced in a back-
that the Toija Formation represents a transition arc or intra-arc basin during arc extension
from the Orijrvi and Kisko Formations to the and that the Toija Formation represents an

initial stage of the opening of that basin. The through 8.27). The Ti/Zr/Y diagram (figure
clearly positive Nd (T) value in the Salittu not shown) suggests that the ultramafic rocks
Formation contrasts with the negative Nd (T) also are of WPL type. Ehlers et al. (1986)
of the Orijrvi granodiorite and could imply suggested that the mafic to ultramafic volcanic
marked extension. On the other hand, ac- rocks represent a stage of rift-related volca-
cording to my view, the strong contrast in Nd nism that preceded the ~1.9 Ga Svecofennian
(T) values, structural style, and metamorphic arc volcanism. Accordingly, the setting of the
grade between the Salittu Formation and the NauvoKorppoo volcanic units seems to differ
Orijrvi and Kisko Formations suggest that the from that of the Salittu Formation. Assuming
stratigraphic scheme may be more complex that the stratigraphic concepts of Ehlers et
than currently perceived. al. (1986) and Visnen and Mnttri (2002)
Supracrustal rocks at Vestlax, Kemi, are both correct, ultramafic to mafic volcanic
approximately halfway between Orijrvi rocks are found at two stratigraphic levels in
and NauvoKorppoo (Figure 8.1), display a the Uusimaa belt.
mushroom-shaped fold interference pattern
with subvertical E-striking axial plane of the 9.4. Pellinki field
second fold event (Lindroos and Ehlers, 1994).
The interpreted stratigraphic sequence of the The supracrustal rocks at Pellinki in the south-
supracrustal rocks begins with felsic ignim- eastern part of the Uusimaa belt (Figure 8.1)
brites. These are covered by pillow-basalts, show several major E-trending syncline-anti-
mafic volcanic breccias, and fine-grained cline pairs with subvertical axial planes and
felsic volcaniclastic rocks. The Vestlax mafic subhorizontal fold axes (Laitala, 1972). These
volcanic rocks fall in all three fields in the are curved due to subsequent deformation
Ti vs. Zr diagram, have flat to slightly LREE mainly in ENE-trending zones. The succes-
enriched REE patterns, and show relative sion at Pellinki includes more mafic volcanic
depletions in Ta (Figures 8.25 through 8.27). rocks than the Uusimaa belt in general and has
Thus they differ from the mafic volcanic rocks only minor sedimentary carbonates. It is ~7
of the Orijrvi area and the NauvoKorppoo km thick and is here divided into (1) a strati-
field (see below). graphically lower unit of mainly felsic schists
and gneisses in the north (Tirmo Group) and
9.3. NauvoKorppoo field (2) an upper unit of mafic to intermediate vol-
canic rocks in the south (Pellinki Group).
In the westernmost part of the Uusimaa belt, In the Tirmo Group, the felsic schists and
the volcanic rocks at NauvoKorppoo (Fig- gneisses are mainly sedimentary rocks and
ure 8.1) comprise a <1-km-thick formation have intercalations of silty and clayey mud-
enveloped by turbidites. Ehlers et al. (1986) rocks, intermediate to mafic volcanic and
divided the volcanic rocks into three units: (1) volcaniclastic rocks, conglomerates, and rare
subvolcanic gabbro sills, (2) pillowed mafic sedimentary carbonates (Laitala, 1972; Kors-
lavas and pyroclastic volcanic rocks, and (3) man et al., 1997). The felsic rocks grade from
ultramafic to mafic lavas. A thin horizon of generally stratified and fine-grained types in
sedimentary carbonates is found between the the north to coarser-grained, poorly stratified
second unit and the enveloping cordierite- and types in the south.
garnet-bearing mica gneisses. The ultramafic The volcanic rocks of the Pellinki Group
to mafic lavas are found as an interlayer in the show well-preserved primary structures
gneisses. The mafic volcanic rocks at Nauvo (Figure 8.24F). The lower part of the unit
Korppoo are within-plate basalts (Figures 8.25 consists of subaqueous rocks with pillow

A B
Orijrvi Fm. Orijrvi Fm.
Felsic volcanic rocks
ROCK / CHONDRITE
ROCK / CHONDRITE
Basaltic andesite Orijrvi granodiorite
100 Basalt
100
10 10
1 1
C D
Rhyolite
Kisko Fm. Dacite Salittu Fm.
Andesite
Andesites
ROCK / CHONDRITE
ROCK / CHONDRITE
Mafic volcanic rocks
Basalts and basaltic Picrites
andesites
100 Picrite 100
10 10
1 1
E F
Vestlax, Kemi Pellinki
ROCK / CHONDRITE
ROCK / CHONDRITE
Felsic volcanic rocks Andesite

Mafic volcanic rocks Basalts
100 100
10 10
NauvoKorppoo
Mafic volcanic rocks
1 1
Fig. 8.26. Chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) patterns of representative volcanic rocks
of the Uusimaa belt. (A, B) Orijrvi Formation; (C) Kisko Formation; (D) Salittu Formation; (E) Vestlax
(Kemi) and NauvoKorppoo (mafic middle unit); (F) Pellinki area. Data from Koljonen and Rosen-
berg (1975), Ehlers et al. (1986), Lindroos and Ehlers (1994), and Visnen and Mnttri (2002). Chon-
drite values from Boynton (1984).
lavas, pyroclastic deposits, and associated mainly basaltic to andesitic massive lavas.
volcaniclastic sedimentary rocks. These are A pooled U-Pb zircon date of 1887 14 Ma
cut by subvolcanic mafic to dacitic intrusions (Table 8.1) yields an approximate age for the
and sills, which are in part cryptodomes with Pellinki Group.
peperitic contacts (Strandman and Frjd, The volcanic rocks of the Pellinki Group
2002a,b). They are overlain by extensive, show a continuous trend from basalts to da-

A 100 B 100
Orijrvi Fm. Kisko Fm.
five least evolved basalts picrite, basalt,
basaltic andesites
10
ROCK / MORB
10
ROCK / MORB
1 1
Basalt
Picrite
0.1 0.1
Sr K Rb Ba Th NbCe P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta Nb Ce P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr
C 100 D 100
Salittu Fm. Salittu Fm.
picrites mafic volcanic rocks
and an andesite
ROCK / MORB
ROCK / MORB
10 10
Andesite
1 1
0.1 0.1
Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta NbCe P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta NbCe P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr
E 100 F 100
Toija Fm.
Vestlax, Kemi
Mafic rocks
ROCK / MORB
ROCK / MORB
10 Picrite 10
1 1
NauvoKorppoo
0.1 0.1
Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta NbCe P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr Sr K Rb Ba Th Ta NbCe P Zr Hf Sm Ti Y Yb Sc Cr
Fig. 8.27. Mid-ocean ridge basalt-normalized trace element patterns of representative volcanic rocks
of the Uusimaa belt. (A) Least evolved samples, Orijrvi Formation; the arrow indicates some samples
had Nb contents below detection limit; (B) A picrite, basalt and basaltic andesites, Kisko Formation;
(C) Picrites, Salittu Formation; (D) Mafic volcanic rocks (basalts, basaltic andesites) and an andesite,
Salittu Formation; (E) A picrite and two mafic volcanic rocks, Toija Formation; (F) Mafic volcanic rocks
from Vestlax (Kemi) and NauvoKorppoo (middle unit). Data from Ehlers et al. (1986), Lindroos and
Ehlers (1994), and Visnen and Mnttri (2002). Normalizing values are from Pearce (1982).
cites, are mostly medium-K rocks, and exhibit b). The low Ti contents and, in particular,
moderate enrichment of LREE (Figure 8.26; clear depletions in Ta and Nb indicate an arc
see also Laitala, 1972; Koljonen and Rosen- setting (Strandman and Frjd, 2002a, b).
berg, 1975; Strandman and Frjd, 2002a, The slightly to moderately positive initial Nd

(at 1.9 Ga) values (Figure 8.2) are relatively Tampere, and Pirkanmaa belts. Volcanism in
high, but the variation in these values may the Skellefte field evidently took place in an
imply heterogeneous sources. In general, the extensional continental margin arc rather than
volcanic rocks of the Pellinki Group resemble in an oceanic island arc (Allen et al., 1996b).
those of evolved arcs rather than those of true Subduction was directed towards the present
primitive arcs. northeast, and the arc system at Skellefte was
thrust onto an Archean craton in the north
9.5. Sedimentary carbonates of the (BABEL Working Group, 1990).
Uusimaa belt The supracrustal rocks of the Skellefte
field resemble those of the Ylivieska field in
Sedimentary carbonates of the Uusimaa belt some respects but there are also differences.
are commonly associated with volcanic rocks Both are characterized by well-preserved arc-
and locally also with chemical precipitates type volcanic and related sedimentary rocks.
(Ehlers et al., 1986; Lindroos, 1990; Reinikai- The volcanic and synvolcanic plutonic rocks
nen, 2001). Lindroos (1990) suggested that of the Skellefte field show a range in age from
the sedimentary carbonates and the associated ~1890 Ma to ~1875 Ma (Wilson et al., 1987;
cherts and iron formations represent a marker Billstrm and Weihed, 1996) but Kousa and
horizon between the (older) MORB- or WPL- Lundqvist (2000), referring to a 1907 12
type mafic lavas and the (younger) arc-type Ma tonalite intrusive into the Skellefte supra-
volcanic rocks. In the Orijrvi area, however, crustal rocks, suggested that the Skellefte
sedimentary carbonates are found at several volcanism may have commenced before that
stratigraphic levels (Mkel, 1989; Visnen time. The typically submarine rhyolitic and
and Mnttri, 2002). Sedimentary carbonates dacitic volcanic rocks of the Skellefte field
in the Bergslagen field in south-central Swe- are overlain by sedimentary rocks, mafic lavas,
den, a lateral extension of the Uusimaa belt and felsic subaerial ~1876 3 Ma (Skild et
(see section 10.2), have also been deposited at al., 1993) volcanic rocks of the Arvidsjaur
different periods (Allen et al., 1996a). Some field. The subduction-related volcanic activ-
of these show stromatolite structures (Lun- ity in the Skellefte field thus seems to have
dqvist, 1979, p. 27) and are thus shallow-water lasted longer than in the Ylivieska field and
deposits. In the Uusimaa belt the sedimentary Tampere belt.
carbonates were in part deposited in relatively The volcanic rocks of the Skellefte field
deep water (Reinikainen, 2001). are, although locally rich in andesites, char-
acterized by calc-alkaline or subalkaline
submarine rhyolites and dacites (Claesson,
10. Discussion 1985; Vivallo and Claesson, 1987; Allen et
al., 1996b). Instead, the Ylivieska field tends
10.1. Correlation of the Pohjanmaa belt to be more abundant in intermediate and mafic
to northern Sweden rocks and generally displays features indicative
of a shallow-water or subaerial environment
In northern Sweden, the Skellefte field with (Kousa et al., 1994; Kousa and Lundqvist,
abundant ~1.891.88 Ga arc-type volcanic 2000; Koistinen et al., 2001). Furthermore,
rocks (volcanic arc) and the area of turbi- counterparts of the mafic volcanic rocks over-
dite-derived migmatitic gneisses to the south lying the typical felsic volcanic rocks of the
(subduction zone complex) probably belong Skellefte field and rocks similar to the felsic
to lateral extensions of the arc system that volcanic rocks of the Arvidsjaur field have not
in Finland is represented by the Pohjanmaa, been reported in the Ylivieska field.

In the Skellefte field, Nd (at 1.88 Ga) val- al., 1997), whereas no economic VHMS ore
ues of the 1.891.87 Ga arc-related volcanic deposits are known in the Ylivieska field.
and plutonic rocks range mostly from ~ +1 to The Bothnian basin south of the Skellefte
~ +3 (Wilson et al., 1985, 1987; Billstrm and field is dominated by gneissose graywackes
Weihed, 1996). No Nd values have been pub- to mudrocks. The northern part of the basin,
lished on the volcanic rocks of the Ylivieska here called the Ume field, is rich in black
field but the possibly arc-related 1.901.88 shales. The Ume and Evijrvi fields are
Ga plutonic rocks in the northwestern part of probably lateral counterparts, because both
the Pohjanmaa belt also have relatively high are characterized by gneissose turbidites with
Nd (T) values from ~ +2.5 to ~ +4 (Huhma, relatively abundant black shales and belong to
1986; Patchett and Kouvo, 1986; Lahtinen the zone of crustal conductors that curves from
and Huhma, 1997). It will be interesting to the Pirkanmaa belt in southern Finland via the
see if the volcanic rocks of the Ylivieska Evijrvi field to the Ume field (Korja, 1993;
field in general have similar values or if they Korja, 1995; Korja and Hjelt, 1993; Korja et
resemble more rocks of the Central Finland al., 1993; Eriksson and Henkel, 1993; Arkimaa
granitoid complex the latter have Nd (at 1.88 et al., 2000; Rutland et al., 2001). They also
Ga) close to zero. contain mafic volcanic rocks claimed to have
At Lule, some 100 km north of Skellefte, MORB-like geochemical features.
subalkaline andesites to rhyolites with arc af- The Ume field includes mafic volcanic
finity differ from the typical volcanic rocks of rocks, graywackes, black shales, and cherts
the Skellefte field (Perdahl, 1995). Based on intruded by ~1.95 Ga granitoids (Wasstrm,
the age of intrusive granitoids they seem to 1990, 1993, 1996). These volcaniclastic and
be older than 1.901.89 Ga. The Nd values of pillow basalts have been suggested to show
the felsic rocks are clearly negative and indi- evolution from a of mid-ocean ridge to an
cate substantial involvement of Archean crust island-arc setting (ibid.), but in the absence
(hlander et al., 1993). The Lule volcanic high-quality data on key immobile trace
rocks were emplaced in an active continental elements and Nd isotopes, I consider these
margin arc and closer to the Archean craton interpretations provisional. In any case, the
than those of the Skellefte field. Similar rocks pillow basalts have low contents of K2O and
are unknown in the Pohjanmaa belt. P2O5 (0.110.19 wt.% and 0.050.11 wt.%,
The Skellefte field is rich in submarine respectively) suggesting an immature system.
felsic volcanic rocks comprising domes or These rocks might resemble the NMORB-like
cryptodomes, and its VHMS deposits occur pillow basalts of the Evijrvi field but 1.95 Ga
almost entirely in below-wave base facies granitoids are not known in Pohjanmaa.
associations (Allen et al., 1996b). Submarine The typical volcanic rocks of the Skel-
volcanism with abundant rhyolitic domes and lefte field are overlain by, in addition to mafic
cryptodomes seems to have been more com- volcanic rocks, subaerial to shallow-water
mon in the Skellefte field than in the Ylivieska sedimentary rocks that laterally grade into
field. Mafic volcanism, similar to that overly- finer-grained turbiditic graywackes. These
ing the felsic volcanic series in the Skellefte graywackes and intercalated black shales and
field, is not known in the Ylivieska field. These mafic volcanic rocks are equivalents of the
features may indicate less pronounced exten- upper part of the sedimentary rocks of the
sion in the Ylivieska arc and could possibly Ume field (Weihed et al., 2002). Accordingly,
explain the difference in the amount of VHMS a part of the black shales and graywackes of
deposits in the two fields. In the Skellefte field the Ume field are younger than the bulk of
about 15 deposits have been mined (Nordin et the volcanic rocks of the Skellefte field. Thus

the Ume field, like the Pirkanmaa belt, may Ma, consequently the duration of volcanism
contain fore-arc sedimentary rocks derived remains unclear. The earliest dated volcanic
from the volcanic arc to the north. events in the Bergslagen field and Uusimaa
belt took place at ~1.90 Ga, but it is not clear
10.2. Correlation of the Uusimaa belt to if volcanism in the Bergslagen field lasted to
the Bergslagen field ~1.88 Ga as in the Uusimaa belt.
The age distribution of detrital zircons in a
The Bergslagen field in south-central Sweden sandstone from the Bergslagen field resembles
resembles the Uusimaa belt, particularly the that of the Orijrvi graywacke (Claesson et
KemiJrvenp field, in many respects. The al., 1993; Lahtinen et al., 2002) and renders
two areas are strikingly different from the these sedimentary rocks unique in this respect
other Svecofennian supracrustal belts and are within the Svecofennian domain. A quartz
commonly regarded as lateral counterparts. arenite in the southeastern part of the field dif-
Lahtinen et al. (Chapter 11) suggest that they fers from the former both in older ages of the
originally belonged to the Bergslagen micro- Proterozoic population and higher proportion
continent that was divided into two parts by a of Archean grains (ibid.), thus emphasizing the
NW-striking shear zone. need for further studies.
The Bergslagen field is characterized by The Nd (T) values in most igneous rocks
1.901.88 Ga felsic volcanic rocks and is of the Uusimaa belt and Bergslagen field
also rich in sedimentary carbonates and mas- show largely similar features but the data
sive sulfide deposits (e.g., Lundstrm, 1987; from the volcanic rocks of the Uusimaa belt
Allen et al., 1996a). Besides these, it locally are scarce. In addition to the Pellinki lavas
includes units of fluvial arkoses (up to 5 km with Nd (at 1.89 Ga) values of ~ +1 to +2.5, a
thick; Kumpulainen et al., 1996) and quartz picrite from the Salittu Formation with an Nd
arenites of deltaic to tidal flat environments value of ~ +3 is the only volcanic rock sample
(Gavelin and Russell, 1967; Claesson et al., studied so far for Nd isotopes (Figure 8.2). The
1993). The Bergslagen field was interpreted Salittu picrite, in particular, deviates from the
as an extensional, probably back-arc active ~1.891.88 Ga mafic to felsic plutonic rocks of
continental margin magmatic region by Allen the belt because the latter have Nd (T) values of
et al. (1996a). In general, the Bergslagen field ~0 to 0.7 (Huhma, 1986; Patchett and Kouvo,
is dominated by felsic volcanic rocks. How- 1986). Among them, the Orijrvi granodio-
ever, mafic volcanic rocks and subvolcanic rite (Figure 8.2) exemplifies the excepted Nd
intrusions are also common in the stratigraphi- values of the arc-type volcanic rocks and is
cally upper parts (e.g., Valbracht et al., 1991; probably cogenetic with the volcanic rocks of
Kumpulainen et al., 1996). the Orijrvi Formation.
Lundstrm et al. (1998) scrutinized the In the Bergslagen field, Nd (T) values
reliability and stratigraphic significance of for ~1.891.88 Ga felsic volcanic rocks and
U-Pb zircon ages on volcanic rocks from the subvolcanic intrusions are close to zero. The
Bergslagen field and found a 1904 4 Ma Nd (at 1.88 Ga) values in the least-altered and
rhyolite from the eastern parts to mark the albitized samples vary from ~ 1 to +2.5 and
onset of volcanism in the area. Another reli- are mostly between 0.5 and +1 (Valbracht et
able age from a stratigraphically low level in al., 1994; Kumpulainen et al., 1996). Similar
western Bergslagen is 1891 4 Ma. The other, variation is shown by the Bergslagen data
less reliable ages evaluated by these authors of Patchett et al. (1987). Mafic subvolcanic
mainly cluster between 1.90 Ga and 1.88 Ga intrusions have Nd (at 1.9 Ga) from ~ +1.5 to
and mostly have analytical errors of 10 to 25 +4.5 (Kumpulainen et al., 1996), and a similar

range (mostly from +1 to +2) is seen in the in the Uusimaa belt. This might be due to the
mafic volcanic rocks studied by Valbracht more pronounced deformation and higher
(1991). The Nd values in the felsic rocks degree of metamorphism in Uusimaa, but it
indicate the presence of relatively evolved may also indicate deposition in deeper water
Proterozoic crust at ~2.02.1 Ga. The mafic in Uusimaa (Reinikainen, 2001). Note also
rocks, which mainly occur relatively high in that cross-bedding has been preserved well in
the succession, show evidence for an increase some quartz arenites of Bergslagen although
in more primitive components with advancing metamorphic cordierite and sillimanite in the
rifting. A similar increase with time, from associated pelitic rocks indicate a fairly high
Nd (T) values of ~ 2.5 to +1, in the sedimen- grade of metamorphism (Gavelin and Russell,
tary rocks in Bergslagen is probably caused 1967). Finally, isotope data of Patchett et al.
by increasing proportion of young, relatively (1987), Claesson et al. (1993), Kumpulainen
juvenile detritus (Kumpulainen et al., 1996). et al. (1996), and Lahtinen et al. (2002) imply
The values in the lowermost sedimentary rocks a more significant Archean component in the
suggest a significant involvement of Archean sedimentary rocks in Bergslagen. The differ-
crustal material. ences between the two areas possibly resulted
The Nd (T) values in the Orijrvi grano- from along-arc lateral changes from a more
diorite and Salittu picrite and the stratigraphy evolved and more continental setting in Berg-
of the Orijrvi area (Visnen and Mnttri, slagen to a less evolved setting in Uusimaa.
2002) suggest similarities between the Ke- The situation largely resembles the change
miJrvenp and Bergslagen fields. The from the microcontinental Taupo volcanic
Orijrvi graywacke with slightly positive Nd system of New Zealand to the more oceanic
(at 1.9 Ga) value (Figure 8.4) resembles, in arc setting in the north (e.g., Cole, 1982).
this respect, the sedimentary rocks relatively
high in the succession (cf. Kumpulainen et 10.3. Correlation of the Hme and
al. 1996). Uusimaa belts
There are also differences between the
Uusimaa belt and the Bergslagen field. Meta- Arc volcanism in the Hme and Uusimaa belts
morphism in the Uusimaa belt was mainly may have been approximately coeval, but
of higher grade than in Bergslagen; the latter data from Hme are scarce. The geochemi-
shows very low grade metamorphic condi- cal (including Nd isotopic) character of the
tions in the west. In general, the volcanic volcanic and plutonic rocks of the Hme belt
rocks tend to be more mafic and contain indicate that the ~1.901.88 Ga magmatism
more pillow lavas in the Uusimaa belt than in the belt took place in an arc setting that
in Bergslagen, and thus have a less mature was less evolved than that of the Tampere belt
arc character and indicate a deeper water and the bulk of the Uusimaa belt. The bound-
environment. This concerns, in particular, ary between the Hme and Uusimaa belts is
the eastern parts of the Uusimaa belt. The difficult to demarcate with certainty because
depositional environments are also in part dif- of prominent faults and the effects of the
ferent. Quartz arenites and fluvial arkoses are late Svecofennian granite-migmatite zone of
locally thick in Bergslagen but, excluding the southern Finland (see the maps of Koistinen,
relatively young Tiirismaa-type quartz arenite 1994, and Korsman et al., 1997). Moreover,
at Hyvink, they have not been reported in it is not known for sure if the two belts were
the Uusimaa belt. Stromatolitic carbonate attached at 1.89 Ga.
sedimentary rocks are known in Bergslagen The volcanic rocks at Pellinki, southeast-
(Lundqvist, 1979; Allen et al., 1996a) but not ern Uusimaa belt, resemble those of the Hme

belt in many respects. This would support active arc occurs above shallower parts of the
the view that the two belts were attached and subduction zone, the associated remnant arc
emphasizes the eastward change from a more is above deeper active parts of the subduction
continental setting in Bergslagen to a more zone, and the back-arc basin lies between the
oceanic setting in the east. On the other hand, two arcs. The S-dipping mantle reflector (cf.
the Salittu Formation at Kisko and its possible Chapter 11), however, cannot be explained by
counterparts in the east might be considered as subduction to the north.
a remnant of oceanic crust between the Hme Finally, the Hme belt could be speculated
and Uusimaa belts. to have been originally exotic in relation to the
At the moment, there are two models with Uusimaa belt because it shows a less evolved
contrasting subduction directions for the evo- arc character than the typical parts of the
lution of the 1.901.88 Ga volcanism in the Uusimaa belt and the Bergslagen field. This
Hme and Uusimaa belts. Lahtinen (1994, could be attributed to along-arc lateral varia-
1996) and Lahtinen et al. (Chapter 11) suggest tion, but the scarcity of sedimentary carbon-
that the 1.891.88 Ga arc volcanism in the ates in the Hme belt might also indicate that
Hme belt was caused by south-directed sub- the Hme belt and the KemiJrvenp field
duction beneath Paleoproterozoic protocrust were exotic and were accreted shortly after the
(the Bergslagen microcontinent) and the at- 1.901.88 Ga arc magmatism. In this model,
tached pre-1.92 Ga arc crust of the Hme belt. the Salittu Formation would represent pre-1.90
This is in line with, though not proven by, the Ga oceanic crust.
S-dipping mantle reflector beneath the Hme
and Uusimaa belts. In this scenario, the Hme 10.4. Tiirismaa-type quartz arenites
belt is characterized by arc-type volcanism
whereas the 1.901.88 Ga magmatism in the The ~1.86 Ga detrital zircons in the Tii-
Bergslagen field and Uusimaa belt represents rismaa-type quartz arenites from southern
a back-arc setting. According to my view, this Finland (Figure 8.3) suggest that very mature
can be the case in Bergslagen but the Orijrvi sandstones were deposited after or during the
area poses problems, because the abundant 1.881.86 Ga tectonometamorphic events.
subduction-related andesites of the 1878 Ma Similar rocks are known at other localities in
Kisko Formation were emplaced in a proper southern Finland (Figure 8.1; Korsman et al.,
arc rather than in a back arc. 1997), but the character and distribution of
Visnen and Mnttri (2002) and Vis- probably associated fine-grained sedimentary
nen (2002) suggested subduction to the present material is unknown. Their sporadic occur-
north and emphasized that subduction-related rence, the absence of Archean zircon grains,
volcanism was still active in the Uusimaa and prismatic 1.871.86 Ga crystals with
belt at ~1.88 Ga when collision was ongoing rounded terminations suggest short transpor-
between southern and central Svecofennia. tation and deposition in small isolated basins
In their model, the Hme and Uusimaa belts (Lahtinen et al., 2002).
once belonged to the same arc system that was In central Sweden, a low-grade quartz
rifted apart, the Salittu Formation represents arenite at Los, close to the southern margin
the back-arc basin, and the Hme belt was a of the Bothnian basin, has a similar relatively
remnant arc at ~1.88 Ga. The model is in line young zircon population (Claesson et al.,
with the ordinary spatial arrangement of active 1993; see also Lahtinen et al., 2002). The
arcs, back-arc basins, and remnant arcs in rela- youngest zircons in the Los arenite were prob-
tion to subduction zones in recent arc systems. ably in part derived from nearby 1867 9 Ma
In the modern arc systems, the volcanically (Welin, 1987) felsic volcanic rocks. In Finland,

proper volcanic rocks of this age are unkown, sible in the Svecofennian domain in Finland.
but the ~1.87 Ga porphyritic dikes and their An angular unconformity (1.871.86 Ga)
possible volcanic counterparts might have probably exists between the bulk of the su-
been a potential source. A further possibility pracrustal rocks and those associated with
are the 1.871.86 Ga granitoids, which are the Tiirismaa-type quartz arenites. The 1.93
relatively abundant in southern and central 1.92 Ga Savo arc, together with the Keitele
Finland. microcontinent, possibly collided with the
In central Sweden, the peak of regional Archean craton at 1.911.90 Ga (Lahtinen,
metamorphism occurred at ~1.861.82 Ga 1994; Nironen, 1997; Chapter 11). Therefore,
(Billstrm and Weihed, 1996; Kousa and the 1.901.88 Ga volcanic rocks at Pielavesi
Lundqvist, 2000), and the Swedish Los-type should be underlain by an unconformity. The
quartz arenites may have deposited before this. third case may be speculated for the Pirkanmaa
In Finland, the Tiirismaa-type quartz arenites and Pohjanmaa belts, where an unconformity
were evidently deposited after or during the could exist between rocks clearly older than
1.881.86 Ga tectonometamorphic events. A 1.91 Ga and rocks deposited after ~1.92 Ga.
problem is that angular unconformities have As referred to by Eskola (1941), J.J. Seder-
not been identified so far. A further problem is holm tried to find the discordance between the
the generally pronounced weathering implied supracrustal rocks of the Tampere belt that he
by quartz-rich arenites. It is not easy to under- called Bothnian schists and the Svionian rocks
stand the origin of the Tiirismaa-type quartz that he considered to compose the depositional
arenites from volcanic, plutonic or metamor- basement of the Bothnian schists. Sederholm
phic sources during the apparently short time was very eager in this topic and stated: Ich
of erosion in an active orogenic setting. A frage nach der Unterlage ebenso hartnckig
viable explanation is that the major tectono- wie Franzose fragt: o est la femme? Consid-
metamorphic event preceding the 1.831.81 ering the established multiple orogenic events
Ga events in the late Svecofennian granite- it seems that we should ask instead: O sont
migmatite zone of southern Finland took place les femmes?
at 1.861.85 Ga, not 1.871.86 Ga. This might
be indicated by the collision-related tonalite
for which Visnen et al. (2002) presented an 11. Summary
age of 1854 18 Ma. However, this rock may
also have been emplaced at 1.871.86 Ga (see The Svecofennian domain of Finland is a
Van Duin, 1992). prime example of Proterozoic accretionary
orogens. Its supracrustal lithological units are
10.5. Angular unconformities? dominated by ~1.9 Ga turbiditic sedimentary
and ~1.901.88 Ga arc-type volcanic rocks
No clear angular unconformities have been (Table 8.3). Black shales, MORB- and WPL-
identified within the Svecofennian domain like, often pillowed basalts, arc-related fluvial
in Finland even though several collisional or to turbiditic sedimentary rocks, felsic rocks
accretional orogenic events are evident. In the (largely volcanic or volcanogenic sedimen-
Lachlan Fold Belt of eastern Australia, for tary deposits), and sedimentary carbonates
instance, the orogenic framework consists of are locally common, whereas quartz arenites
four main orogenic pulses between 440 Ma and cherts are rare. Three major terranes are
to 340 Ma, originally delineated by uncon- discerned: the Savo belt, central Svecofennia,
formities (Gray et al., 1997). and southern Svecofennia. The rocks record
Three angular unconformities seem pos- two major orogenic periods: 1.891.86 Ga

events throughout the area and a 1.831.81 Ga dacites, and largely of high-K and medium-
event in the south. In addition, a 1.911.90 Ga K character, but shoshonitic and trachytic
event in the Savo belt seems plausible. High- or high-K rhyolitic types are also relatively
T, low-P amphibolite facies metamorphism abundant. Like the 1.891.87 Ga plutonic
dominated, but there was a variation from rocks of central Svecofennia in general, the
the greenschist/amphibolite facies boundary arc volcanic units seem to have Nd (T) close
to the granulite facies. The tectonothermal to zero. The fluvial to turbiditic sedimentary
events were mainly related to accretions and rocks derived from the arc also show Nd (T)
collisions of Paleoproterozoic microcontinents close to zero. In the northwestern part of the
and newly formed arc systems as well as to Ylivieska field, however, possibly arc-related
their collision with the Archean craton in the plutonic rocks have high Nd (T) of ~ +3 and
northeast, and they were preceded by or partly thus indicate evolution in a less mature sys-
coeval with subduction events at 1.931.92 Ga tem, evidently outside the realm of the Keitele
and 1.9051.88 Ga. microcontinent. The Haveri basalts (Tampere
The Savo belt, close to the Archean belt) are largely pillow lavas and were prob-
craton, differs from the other Svecofennian ably emplaced before the 1.9051.89 Ga arc
supracrustal belts, because it is characterized volcanism. They show EMORB affinity, have
by 1.931.92 Ga bimodal volcanic arc rocks mantle-type Pb isotopes, and show slightly
with juvenile Nd isotope composition, and positive Nd (at 1.9 Ga) values indicating
thus represents a relatively immature arc, and mantle enrichment (relative to depleted
because it includes numerous massive sulfide mantle) some time before 1.90 Ga. The Haveri
deposits. The EMORB- or WPL-like mafic Formation is overlain by a thick unit of tur-
volcanic rocks of the Virtasalmi field are dis- bidites (Osara and Myllyniemi Formations),
tinct and might represent a rift, back-arc basin which have a significant Archean component
or oceanic plateau setting. The 1.931.92 Ga and are dominated by 2.01.92 Ga detritus
arc magmatism in the Savo belt was evidently derived from the Savo belt and the Keitele
related to subduction under a 1.95 Ga crustal microcontinent. Largely similar turbidites
segment close to the inferred ~2.12.0 Ga dominate in the PirkanmaaEvijrvi subduc-
Keitele microcontinent in the southwest. This tion zone complex, but this is relatively rich
newly formed KeiteleSavo entity possibly in black shales and, therefore, geophysically
collided with the Archean craton at 1.911.90 appears as a curved zone of crustal conductors.
Ga. The subduction zone complex also includes
Within central Svecofennia, the 1.905 Ga NMORB- to WPL-like basaltic pillow lavas,
to 1.88 Ga volcanic and related sedimentary minor cherts, and sedimentary carbonates as
rocks of the Tampere belt, Ylivieska field, well as sedimentary rocks probably derived
and the Central Finland granitoid complex from the 1.9051.88 Ga arc. The NMORB-like
represent an arc, whereas the Pirkanmaa belt basalts (from Evijrvi) show clearly positive
and Evijrvi field compose the subduction Nd (at 1.9 Ga) values indicating depleted man-
zone complex of this evolved arc system. The tle sources. In general, the basalts were formed
system was formed close to the western and in various non-arc settings, and the subduction
southern margins of the Keitele microconti- zone complex consists of allochthonous slices.
nent, and the associated subduction zone was The TampereYlivieska arc system probably
curved with N-directed subduction at Tampere continues as the Skellefte and Ume fields (arc
and NE-directed subduction at Pohjanmaa. and subduction zone complex, respectively)
The arc-type volcanic rocks range from ba- in northern Sweden but the slightly to clearly
salts to rhyolites, are rich in andesites and positive Nd (T) values in the arc volcanic rocks

Table 8.3.
General characteristics of Svecofennian supracrustal belts in Finland. Savo belt in black, central Sve-
cofennia in blue, southern Svecofennia in red.
Belt/area/field Characteristic Volcanic age / Nd (T) Environment Tectonic setting

primary rock types maximum deposition of deposition
age in Ga
Pyhsalmi low-K arc basalts 1.93 +3 subaqueous immature arc

Pielavesi rhyolites (bimodal); 1.92
region black shales, dolomites; shelf
graywackes, mudrocks submarine fan
Virtasalmi EMORB or WPB shallow rift or marginal
field pillow lavas subaqueous basin
Tampere belt volcanic sandstones, fluvial to arc related

and mudrocks, conglomerates; 1.90 +0.50 submarine fan
Ylivieska field medium-K to shoshonitic 1.905 subaqueous to highly
arc volcanics; 1.88 01 subaerial evolved arc
lower parts at graywackes, mudrocks; 1.92 +21 submarine fan
Tampere black shales, cherts; rift or
EMORB pillow lavas +0.5 subaqueous marginal basin
Pirkanmaa belt graywackes, mudrocks; 1.92 21 submarine fan subduction

and black shales, cherts; zone
Evijrvi field NMORB to WPB complex
pillow lavas +3 subaqueous various non arc
Hme belt medium-K basalts 1.89 subaerial to rifting arc

andesites; 1.88 subaqueous
medium-K arc basalts 1.89 subaerial to relatively
andesitesrhyolites 1.88 subaqueous evolved arc
Saimaa area mudrocks, graywackes; 1.9 01

TMORB pillow lavas; +3 subaqueous
arc dacites evolved arc
Uusimaa belt
Kemi T-EMORB pillow lavas; +3 subaqueous marginal basin
Jrvenp medium-K to high-K 1.90 1 evolving arc,
field arc basaltsandesites 1.88 subaqueous rifting arc
rhyolites (in part bimodal), in early stage
felsic volcanic and
sedimentary rocks and relatively
sedimentary carbonates; shallow water
graywackes, mudrocks 1.93 +2 submarine fan
Nauvo graywackes, mudrocks; submarine fan
Korppoo WPB pillow lavas subaqueous rifted crust
Pellinki medium-K arc basalts relatively
andesitesdacites; 1.89 +2 subaqueous evolved arc
felsic sedimentary rocks
at Skellefte indicate a less evolved setting than cation of primary features largely impossible.
what is typical at Tampere and Pohjanmaa. In The terrane is characterized by two approxi-
addition, the arc-type volcanic activity seems mately coeval, E-trending volcanic belts with
to have lasted longer in the Skellefte field. different characteristics: the Hme belt in the
In southern Svecofennia, the sedimentary north and the Uusimaa belt in the south.
rocks have diverse sources and tend to be more The Hme belt consists mainly of 1.89
pelitic than those of central Svecofennia. In 1.88 Ga medium-K basaltic to rhyolitic vol-
the bulk of this terrane, pronounced metamor- canic arc rocks, which comprised separate
phism and migmatization as well as abundant stratovolcanoes, and overlying mafic lavas;
1.831.81 Ga potassic granites make identifi- the latter were associated with a stage of arc

rifting. Compared to the Tampere belt and the angular unconformities have not been identi-
bulk of the Uusimaa belt, this arc represents a fied. Similar sequences are known in central
less mature setting. In the northeast, the pre- Sweden where they are partly derived from
dominantly sedimentary rocks of the Saimaa the nearby 1.871.86 Ga volcanic rocks. Such
area have diverse sources, show variation in age volcanic rocks are, however, unknown in
the degree of maturity, and have variable ages Finland.
of deposition. Volcanic rocks are not common
in this area but range from the TMORB-like
mafic to ultramafic pillow lavas with clearly Acknowledgments
positive Nd (at 1.9 Ga) at Rantasalami to the
arc-type medium-K and high-K, mainly inter- First, I would like to thank numerous colleagues
mediate rocks at Parikkala and Punkaharju. for discussions, information, and suggestions
The Uusimaa belt consists mainly of mud- before and during preparation of the manu-
rocks, graywackes, 1.901.88 Ga arc-type script: Carl Ehlers, Hannu Huhma, Juha Karhu,
volcanic rocks, and EMORB- and WPL-like Jarmo Kohonen, Timo Kilpelinen, Aulis
basalts and picrites. Overall, it is relatively Kinnunen, Tapio Koistinen, Kalevi Korsman,
rich in felsic volcanic to volcanogenic sedi- Jukka Kousa, Raimo Lahtinen, Alf Lindroos,
mentary rocks and sedimentary carbonates. Mikko Nironen, Lauri Pekkarinen, Fredrik
The mainly medium-K arc-type volcanic and Strandman, Ragnar Trnroos, Markus Vaarma,
related plutonic rocks of the Uusimaa belt and Markku Visnen, among others. Sincere
show a variation in Nd (T) from slightly nega- thanks go also to Gerhard Hakkarainen, Raimo
tive values (at Orijrvi) to moderately positive Lahtinen, Lauri Pekkarinen, and Markku Vi-
values (at Pellinki), while the T- or EMORB- snen for providing access to data files. Aulis
like Salittu picrites have a clearly positive Nd Kinnunen and Markku Tiainen kindly accepted
(T) value. The EMORB- to WPL-like mafic the use of the Hme belt data and the Pirkanmaa
and ultramafic volcanic rocks of the Uusimaa belt data, respectively, that we had collected
belt were possibly emplaced both before and together. Annakaisa Korja, Raimo Lahtinen,
after the 1.901.88 Ga arc volcanism. The and Mikko Nironen shared unpublished infor-
belt is a lateral counterpart of the Bergslagen mation from Chapter 11. Within the framework
field of Sweden. The supracrustal rocks were of GGT-project, Kalevi Korsman provided an
deposited in a fairly evolved system within or opportunity for field and geochemical studies
close to the ~2.12.0 Ga Bergslagen microcon- in the TampereVammala area. I also gladly
tinent, but the environment in Uusimaa was recall the times of the project led by the late
less continental than in Bergslagen. Compared Tapio Koljonen sponsoring REE analyses on
to the KemiJrvenp field in the west, the the Hme, Pohjanmaa, and Tampere belts. Ex-
arc setting in the eastern Uusimaa belt (at cursion together with Asko Kpyaho and Jukka
Pellinki) was even less mature. Both S- and Reinikainen to the Uusimaa belt opened new
N-directed subduction have been suggested for views. Mirjam Ajlani kindly processed Figure
the arc volcanism in the Hme and Uusimaa 8.5. Carl Ehlers and Raimo Lahtinen reviewed
belts. The original spatial relation of the belts the manuscript and made critical and helpful
remains to be determined. comments. The efforts and suggestions by Mart-
Recent observations on the Tiirismaa-type ti Lehtinen and Tapani Rm were invaluable
quartz arenites from southern Svecofennia during preparation of this article. Hugh OBrien
with ~1.86 Ga detrital zircons indicate depo- checked the English and also made significant
sition after or during the 1.871.86 Ga tecto- comments and proposals.
nothermal peak, but associated mudrocks and

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can, R.A., Petterson, M.G., 2002. Base- 12, 4952.
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Finland, Spec. Pap. 19, 2944. primitive arc, mature arc and back-arc basin
Vaarma, M., 1990. Pohjanmaan liuskevyhyk- in the Orijrvi area, SW Finland. Bull. Geol.
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Finnish) fennian magmatic and metamorphic evolu-
Vaarma, M., Khknen, Y., 1994. Geochemistry of tion in southwestern Finland as revealed
the Paleoproterozoic metavolcanic rocks at by UPb zircon SIMS geochronology.
Evijrvi, western Finland. In: M. Nironen, Precambrian Res. 116, 111127.
Y. Khknen (Eds.), Geochemistry of Pro- Valbracht, P.J., 1991. Early Proterozoic continental
terozoic supracrustal rocks in Finland. Geol. tholeiites from western Bergslagen, central

Sweden. II. Nd and Sr isotopic variations Wasstrm, A., 1990. Knaftenomrdet - en primitiv
and implications from SmNd systematics tidig Proterozoisk vulkaniska bge sder
for the Svecofennian subcontinental mantle. om Skellftefltet, norra Sverige. M.Sc.
Precambrian Res. 52, 215230. Thesis, bo Akademi University, Finland.
Valbracht, P.J., Heimers, H., Beunk, F.F., 1991. 1128. (in Swedish)
Early Proterozoic continental tholeiites Wasstrm, A., 1993. The Knaften granitoids of
from western Bergslagen, central Sweden. Vsterbotten County, northern Sweden.
I. Petrology, geochemical petrogenesis and In: T. Lundqvist (Ed.), Radiometric dating
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187214. 823, 6064.
Valbracht, P.J., Oen. I.S., Beunk, F.F., 1994. SmNd Wasstrm, A., 1996. UPb zircon dating of
isotope systematics of 1.91.8-Ga granites a quartz-feldspar porphyritic dyke in
from western Bergslagen, Sweden: infer- the Knaften area, Vsterbotten County,
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(in Finnish) the Svecofennian supracrustal sequence
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Finland. Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec. Pap. M., Michard, A., 1985. Granites and early
19, 6169. Proterozoic crustal evolution in Sweden:
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and massive suphide mineralization in an tope systematics. Earth Planet. Sci. Lett.
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district, northern Sweden. In: T.C. Pharaoh, Wilson, M.R., Claesson, L.-., Sehlstedt, S., Smell-
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chemistry and Mineralization of Protero- lick, A.E., 1987. Jrn: An early Proterozoic
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means of mafic dyke swarms and ophiolites Amsterdam, 419446.
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Ward, P., 1987. Early Proterozoic deposition and of volcanic rocks in Viljakkala, Ikaalinen
deformation at the Karelian craton margin and Kankaanp. In: Y. Khknen (Ed.),
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and evolution of the central Baltic Shield. Helsinki, Finland. Abstracts. Dept. Geol.,
Precambrian Res. 35, 7193. Univ. Helsinki, p. 46.

Chapter 9
SVECOFENNIAN
MAFICULTRAMAFIC
INTRUSIONS
P. Peltonen
Cover page: Orbicular peridotite from the Kylmkoski Ni-Cu deposit.
Photo: Jari Vtinen.
Peltonen, P., 2005. Svecofennian maficultramafic intrusions.
Three types of maficultramafic intrusions (Groups I, II, and III) were emplaced
during the Svecofennian orogeny at ~1.891.87 Ga. Altogether, this magmatism
represents a significant fraction of the Paleoproterozoic crustal growth of the
Fennoscandian Shield and it also had a major influence on its metamorphic
evolution. Most of the Group I intrusions were emplaced close to the peak of
the Svecofennian orogeny (~1.89 Ga) and were derived from hydrous arc-type
basalts. They bear striking geochemical, mineralogical, and structural simi-
larities to the maficultramafic complexes exposed in younger deeply eroded
oceanic and continental arcs (e.g., the Aleutians and Andes). The Group I intru-
sions were emplaced over a protracted period during the amalgamation of the
Svecofennian arc collage; some of them represent conduits of arc basalts or
were emplaced within an accretionary wedge, others were emplaced during the
Svecofennian arcArchean craton collision along transtensional shear zones.
The Group I intrusions show evidence for syncrystallization deformation and
assimilation of country rocks. They have a high potential for magmatic Ni-Cu
sulfide deposits and have been the main source of Ni in Finland.
The Group II intrusions are large synvolcanic layered gabbro complexes
located in the Southern Finland arc complex. They represent low-pressure
crystallization products of relatively juvenile subalkalic tholeiitic basalts within
an oceanic arc and are not spatially associated with the Group I bodies. This
suggests that the southern Finland oceanic arc terrain was amalgamated to the
Western Finland arc complex only after the emplacement of the Group I and
Group II intrusions. The latter have low potential for magmatic sulfide and
oxide deposits.
The Group III intrusions are Ti-Fe-P-rich gabbros within the Central Fin-
land granitoid complex region. They share the geochemical similarities with
anorogenic gabbros and probably do not all have a common origin. Several of
these intrusions are genetically related to K-rich granitoid plutons and form,
together with the granites, a bimodal magmatic suite that was generated by
magmatic underplating at the postkinematic stage of the Svecofennian orogeny.
However, a few of the Ti-Fe-P gabbros yield synorogenic crystallization ages
and may actually represent evolved Group I magmas. Some of the Group III
intrusions host important Ti ore reserves.
C H A P T E R 9 S V E C O F E N N I A N M A F I C U LT R A M A F I C I N T RU S I O N S 409
1. Introduction of valuable magmatic Ni-Cu-PGE sulfides,
Ti-Fe-V oxides or apatite. Clearly, proper
Maficultramafic plutonic rocks emplaced understanding of both the magmatic and sub-
during Precambrian orogenic episodes are a solidus history of orogenic maficultramafic
poorly defined category of intrusions. This intrusions is a prerequisite for the modeling
is not only because of the long tectonometa- of crustal evolution and development of suc-
morphic history of such terrains and scarcity cessful exploration strategies.
of young analogies (deeply eroded oceanic or This chapter provides a review of the maf-
continental arcs), but also because orogenic icultramafic intrusions of the Svecofennian
emplacement of magmas is often accompanied orogen (Figure 9.1). Distribution of various in-
by subsequent breakup or boudinage of the trusion types in the Svecofennian domain will
intrusions, syncrystallization deformation, be outlined and several case studies will be
metamorphism, assimilation of country rock described in detail. In most cases, the cumulus
material, and prolonged thermal re-equilibra- terminology of Irvine (1982) is followed un-
tion with the country rocks. These processes less only conventional rock names were used
cause lithologic and textural diversity, which in the original descriptions and corresponding
hampers their characterization and exact cumulus names cannot be deduced. The mu-
timing of emplacement relative to the major tual relationship of the intrusion types, timing
stages of the orogeny. of their emplacement relative to the tectonic
Proper characterization of orogenic mafic evolution, and significance for regional stud-
plutonism is of prime importance for a num- ies of the Svecofennides will be scrutinized.
ber of reasons. First, their parental melts have Lahtinen et al. (Chapter 11) describe in detail
ultimately been generated in the upper mantle, the geodynamic context of the Svecofennian
and these rocks thus provide information on magmatism and give necessary tectonic infor-
the nature of the mantle source beneath con- mation that is not repeated here.
vergent plate margins. Often, however, the
composition of the parental melts becomes 2. Classification of the intrusions
strongly modified by assimilation of crustal
material at lower crustupper mantle bound- Maficultramafic plutonic rocks can be classi-
ary region or during magma ascent towards fied according to their isotope ages, petrology,
higher crustal levels (Hildreth and Moorbath, and geochemistry or tectonic setting. Accord-
1988). Second, orogenic maficultramafic ing to the classification scheme of Naldrett
plutonic rocks may constitute a significant (1989), all Svecofennian intrusions belong,
part of the new crust generated at convergent in a broad sense, to Category IV Intru-
tectonic settings (Robins and Gardner, 1974; sions emplaced in an active orogenic belt.
Boyd and Mathieson, 1979; Snoke et al., 1982; Such bodies are characterized by syndefor-
Thompson, 1984; Burns, 1985; Butler, 1989; mational intrusion resulting in fragmentation
DeBari and Coleman, 1989; Grissom et al., and boudinage, partial metamorphism, and
1991; Kepezhinskas et al., 1993; Skirrow and presence of primary hydrous phases that, at
Sims, 1999; Schersten, 2001). Third, mafic least in some cases, indicate origin above ac-
plutonism provides a mechanism to transport tive subduction zone. Also typical are complex
heat upwards within the crust and thus has a contact phenomena and emplacement at rela-
strong impact on the metamorphic evolution tively deep crustal levels where high ambient
of the lower and middle crust (Komatsu et al., temperatures result in assimilation of country
1994). As any other maficultramafic magmas, rock material. For the Svecofennian intrusions,
orogenic melts can also lead to accumulation however, a more specific classification scheme
410 C H A P T E R 9 S V E C O F E N N I A N M A F I C U LT R A M A F I C I N T RU S I O N S
Ar
che
+2.5
an
cra
Hitura
ont
Lapinlahti
Koivusaarenneva
Tyypekinlampi
Saarisenjrvi
Kotalahti
Laukunkangas
Kauhajrvi +0.1
Permaa 0.7
+0.6
Kaipola
+0.2 Juva +0.4
+0.3 +0.5 +1.2
+2.4
Porrasniemi +0.1
Vammala
+0.1 0.5
Soukkio +2.3
Forssa
100 km
Hyvink
+2.7
+0.4 Central Finland granitoid complex

+0.1
Primitive (1.931.91 Ga) arc complex
Postkinematic granitoid plutons
Arc complex of western and southern Ti-Fe-P gabbros (Group III)
Finland (1.891.87 Ga)
Pirkanmaa belt +2.3 Initial Nd value
Archean Karelian craton
Tampere belt
Southwestern margin of the craton
Synorogenic (Groups Ia, Ib) intrusions
Proterozoic metasedimentary cover
Hme belt of the Archean craton
Synvolcanic mafic intrusions (Group II) Rapakivi granites and minor
sedimentary rocks
Fig. 9.1. Generalized geological map of central and southern Finland (modified from Korsman et al.,
1997, and Rm et al., 2001) show the occurrences of different types of maficultramafic intrusions.The
synorogenic Group I bodies are found both within the Primitive and Western Finland arc complexes and
also intrude the Archean basement gneisses (and their metasedimentary cover), but are absent from the
Hme belt. Group I intrusions have variable and relatively non-depleted initial Nd isotope composition.
Much of the Hme belt consists of Group II synvolcanic intrusions and associated volcanic formations
with depleted Nd isotope signatures. Group II bodies are absent from the Pirkanmaa belt suggesting
a major tectonic boundary between Hme and Pirkanmaa belts. Group III Ti-Fe-P gabbros are found
within the peripheral zones of the Central Finland granitoid complex, some of them closely associated
with postkinematic granitoid plutons. Initial Nd values after Huhma (1986; unpubl.), Patchett and Kouvo
(1986), Makkonen (1996), Rm et al. (2001).
is desirable. man et al., 1997). Below, a general outline of
U-Pb zircon ages of the Svecofennian ma- the intrusions and some detailed case studies
ficultramafic intrusions form a rather contin- will be provided for the following subgroups
uous spectrum spanning the synorogenic of mafic intrusions:
(~1.871.89 Ga) stage of the Svecofennian
orogeny (Figure 9.2). Some intrusions record Group I: Intrusions of the Arc com-
slightly older ages that, however, tend to be plex of western Finland
associated with large errors, probably indica- Group Ia: Intrusions close to the
tive of heterogeneous zircon populations. Most Archean craton margin
clearly, this may be the case for Lapinlahti,
Group Ib: Intrusions of the
which is a rare example of Svecofennian intru-
Tampere and Pirkanmaa belts
sions emplaced into the Archean crust (Figure
9.1). Whether some of the maficultramafic Group II: Synvolcanic intrusions of
intrusions within the Svecofennian orogen the Arc complex of southern Finland
were emplaced at the early orogenic stage Group III: Ti-Fe-P gabbros of the Cen-
(~1.9 Ga) remains uncertain. Similarly, the tral Finland granitoid complex.
samples yielding the youngest ages (~1.87 Ga)
have rather large errors. The Soukkio gabbro,
for example, is a bimodal maficfelsic igneous 3. Intrusions close to the craton
complex (Eerola et al., 2001; Huhma, 1986) margin (Group Ia)
in which mixing of older mafic intrusive rocks
with younger granite remains a possibility. The craton margin environment in central
Therefore, the actual range of emplacement Finland shows a marked concentration of maf-
ages for the Svecofennian maficultramafic icultramafic intrusions, several of which host
intrusions is probably somewhat smaller than small magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide occurrences or
the range indicated by the minimum and maxi- deposits (e.g., Papunen and Gorbunov, 1985).
mum ages of the chronogram (Figure 9.2). Within this domain the areal distribution of the
Most of the maficultramafic intrusions intrusions is not restricted to any major geotec-
record ages between 1875 Ma and 1885 Ma, tonic unit (Figure 9.1). They are found both
which corresponds to the peak of the synoro- in the older (~1.92 Ga) Primitive arc complex
genic stage of the orogeny. Two small flexures and the younger (1.891.87 Ga) Arc complex
on the chronogram divide this population into of western Finland. Some of them are found
three subgroups, 1885, 1880, and 1875 Ma. All east of the (subsurface) ArcheanProterozoic
these contain samples from both southern and boundary and are intrusive both to the Archean
central Finland and from various geotectonic basement gneisses and the overlying metase-
and lithologic units and correlations between diments (e.g., the Lapinlahti gabbroanortho-
age and geographic location are absent. One site). Traditionally, the emplacement of these
kind of relationship is, however, evident: all intrusions has been related to development of
intrusions that contain significant magmatic subvertical D3 wrench lineaments (e.g., Gal,
Ni-Cu sulfide deposits belong to the 1880 Ma 1972). Spatial association of shear zones and
age group. intrusions is especially evident adjacent to the
Because age data cannot be used to di- suture zone in the southeast (Figure 9.1). Most
vide the intrusions into meaningful lithologic of the intrusions are found within a broad belt
groups, a geotectonic domain concept is used. outside these shear zones and an unambigu-
Basically, the terminology for the geotectonic ous genetic relationship between them has not
units follows that presented elsewhere (Kors- been established. Structural analysis implies
1860 1870 1880 1890 1900 1910 Age in Ma
Soukkio maficfelsic complex
Saarisenjrvi
Tyypekinlampi
Permaa Ti-Fe-P gabbro
Hitura (Ni-Cu)
Porrasniemi layered gabbro
Laukunkangas (Ni-Cu)
Hyvink layered intrusion
Koivusaarenneva Ti-Fe-P gabbro
Kaipola layered intrusion
Kotalahti (Ni-Cu)
Groups Ia and Ib Vammala (Ni-Cu)

Group II
Lapinlahti
Mean
Group III
Unclassified
Fig. 9.2. Chronogram of U-Pb zircon ages of the Svecofennian maficultramafic plutonic rocks. Data
sources for targets discussed in the text: Soukkio (Huhma, 1986), Hitura (Isohanni et al., 1985), Lau-
kunkangas (Huhma, 1986), Hyvink (Patchett and Kouvo, 1986; Suominen 1988), Koivusaarenneva (Krk-
kinen, 1999b), Kotalahti (Gal, 1980), Vammala (Hkli et al., 1979), Lapinlahti (Paavola, 1988), Permaa
(Rm et al., 2001), Saarisenjrvi and Tyypekinlampi (Ekdahl, 1993).The remaining non-labeled data from
Helovuori (1979), Honkamo (1988), Hopgood et al. (1983), Marttila (1981), Nurmi et al. (1984), Nyknen
(1983), Suominen (1991),Vaasjoki (1989),Vaasjoki et al. (1988, 1996) and from the unpublished database
of the Geological Survey of Finland.
that the intrusions were emplaced already dur- was one of the largest in the Svecofennian in-
ing early D2 deformation and were deformed trusions and yielded 6.6 Mt ore (0.78 wt.% Ni
by recumbent D2 folding that predates the D3 and 0.22 wt.% Cu) in 19841994 (Puustinen
lineament formation (Jokela, 1991; Koistinen, et al., 1995). The Laukunkangas intrusion
1996). The present author favors a model in is elongated, pipe-shaped, approximately 1
which plutonism occurred over a wide zone km long, 200 m wide, and more than 800 m
due to the westward subduction during the deep. The mineralized eastern part of the body
final stages of the closure of the basin between is well known because of extensive drilling.
the Primitive arc complex and the Arhean Breccia structures and graphite-rich gneiss
craton. Synchronous or subsequent to the xenoliths are common throughout the body,
amalgamation, transtensional shear systems and are considered indications of tectonic
developed at the continental margin locally fa- disturbance during intrusion and solidification
cilitating the ascent of melts along subvertical (Grundstrm, 1980).
shear zones. This model also explains the more Laukunkangas intrusion can be divided
primitive composition and higher Ni potential into marginal and layered series (Figure 9.3).
of the shear zone-associated intrusions com- The marginal series is heterogeneous, noritic
pared to intrusions elsewhere. Within shear and shows reverse fractionation. The layered
zones, magmas are expected to rise faster and series comprises two distinct zones: peridotite
undergo less fractionation during emplace- and norite. The peridotite zone is located in
ment thus also retaining higher potential to the eastern tip of the intrusion and consists
saturate nickeliferous sulfides. During the D3 of olivine, olivine-plagioclase, and olivine-
phase these zones were further reactivated, de- orthopyroxene cumulates. The peridotite zone
forming and brecciating the intrusions. Mafic is overlain by the norite zone that is more than
magmatism continued for some time after the 200 m thick, comprising rhythmically layered
amalgamation as evidenced by intrusions (e.g., orthopyroxene-plagioclase and plagioclase-
Saarisenjrvi, Tyypekinlampi) that yield post- orthopyroxene cumulates. On the basis of
kinematic crystallization ages of ~1875 Ma the Ni content of silicates and sulfides the
(Figure 9.2; Ekdahl, 1993). norite zone can be divided into three subzones
Three representative intrusions, Laukun- (Figure 9.3). Generally, the norite subzone
kangas, Kotalahti, and Lapinlahti, of the 1 overlays the peridotite zone but is locally
craton margin environment are described in missing, whereas subzone 2 lies directly on the
more detail. Two of these, Laukunkangas and peridotite zone. Subzone 3 is above subzone
Kotalahti, hosted economic magmatic Ni-Cu 2 and consists of evolved plagioclase-rich cu-
sulfide deposits. mulates. Subzone 1 has the highest Ni content,
subzone 2 is intermediate, and subzone 3 is
3.1. Laukunkangas most depleted (Pertti Lamberg, pers. comm.,
2001). Clinopyroxene, plagioclase, magmatic
The Laukunkangas mafic intrusion is a small amphibole, phlogopite, and Ni-Cu sulfides
maficultramafic body within a zone of intense dominate as intercumulus minerals. The Ni-Cu
transcurrent faulting adjacent to the south- mineralization is associated with the peridotite
western margin of the Archean craton (Figure zone close to intrusion margin. The mineral-
9.1). It is enclosed by high-grade Svecofennian ization includes both disseminated, massive,
graphite-bearing migmatites that, close to the and breccia-textured ore types. Sulfide brec-
intrusion margins, may contain garnet, cordi- cias and sulfide veins, which are confined to
erite, and orthopyroxene porphyroblasts. The the contact zone between the intrusion and
associated magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposit country rocks, consist of massive sulfides and
was associated with high strain, refoliation,
Laukunkangas intrusion and generation of the NW-trending Kotalahti
Ni belt shear zone.
The Kotalahti intrusion is a subvertical
Layered series Marginal series plate that is ~1300 m long and 200 m wide
at maximum. The nothern part of the body
is steeply dipping and shows normal order
Peridotite zone Norite zone of fractionation form footwall peridotites
towards hanging-wall gabbros (Figure 9.4).
Norite subzone 3 The central part of the plate is characterized
Ni(opx) <50 ppm
by upside-down structure with pyroxenitic
Norite subzone 2 and peridotitic cumulates in the upper parts
Ni(opx) 50250 ppm
of the body. Some structures indicate that the
Norite subzone 1
Ni(opx) >250 ppm emplacement of the ultramafic rocks postdates
that of the gabbros. The southern part of the
Fig. 9.3. Subdivision of the Laukunkangas Kotalahti intrusion consists of a mineralized
intrusion (Pertti Lamberg, pers. comm., 2001). ultramafic pipe that does not display internal
Opxorthopyroxene. fractionation. Heterogeneous gabbros are
abundant in the lower parts and at the marginal
contain abundant country rock fragments. Pyr- zones of the intrusion. They include olivine
rhotite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite are the gabbros, olivine norites, norites, gabbros and
major ore-forming minerals and sphalerite, hornblende gabbros. The most fractionated
gersdorffite, violarite, ilmenite, magnetite, rock types are diorites and quartz diorites
rutile, graphite, and molybdenite are found as at the bottom of the complex (Papunen and
minor constituents (Grundstrm, 1980). Frac- Koskinen, 1985). Breccia textures are common
tional crystallization and sulfide saturation between the peridotitic, pyroxenitic, and gab-
modeling suggest that crustal contamination of broic units and indicate polyphase intrusion.
a relatively primitive parental magma resulted The sulfides can be classified as disseminated
both in a shift of the melt composition from (interstitial), breccia, and massive ore veins
the olivine field to the orthopyroxene field (Papunen, 1970). They are associated with the
and sulfide saturation (Pertti Lamberg, pers. ultramafic cumulate units and a separate brec-
comm., 2001). cia-textured ore body (Jussi Ore) within the
graphitic gneisses outside the ultramafic intru-
3.2. Kotalahti sion proper. Such offset ores, also present in
most of the other Svecofennian Ni-Cu depos-
The Kotalahti intrusion is one of several its, are of high-grade and form the economic
maficultramafic intrusions within the NW- backbone of these otherwise rather low-grade
running tectonic shear zone, the Kotalahti Ni deposits. The mineralogical composition of
belt (Gal, 1972). It hosted the largest Sveco- the Kotalahti ore is simple: the main miner-
fennian magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposit with als are monoclinic and hexagonal pyrrhotite,
total production of 12.3 Mt of ore (0.66 wt.% rare troilite, pentlandite, and chalcopyrite. The
Ni and 0.26 wt.% Cu) in 19571987 (Puus- Jussi Ore also contains pyrite, millerite, and
tinen et al., 1995). According to Gal (1980) bornite (Papunen, 1970).
the magma was emplaced along subvertical
axial plane of a NNW-trending synform in
the Archean bedrock. Next deformation phase
Mertakoski
ore body
100 m 100 m
200 m 200 m
300 m 300 m
Vlimalmi
ore body
400 m 400 m
500 m 500 m
600 m 600 m
Gabbro Mica gneiss
Pyroxenite Amphibolite
Peridotite Granite
Ni-Cu sulfide ore
Fig. 9.4. Two representative cross-sections from the northern part of the Kotalahti intrusion (after
Papunen and Koskinen, 1985).
3.3. Lapinlahti gabbroanorthosite to the major phase of Svecofennian mafic

plutonism (Figure 9.2). Lapinlahti intrusion is
The Lapinlahti gabbroanorthosite was em- a subrounded body with a narrow 8-km-long
placed into the Archean crust close to the tail protruding towards southwest from the
craton margin (Figure 9.1). A coarse-grained main body, and has a total areal coverage of 44
gabbro dike from the central part of the body km2 (Figure 9.5). The intrusion is completely
yielded a zircon age of 1895 15 Ma (Paavola, enclosed by Archean banded tonalitetrond-
1988) implying that also this gabbro belongs hjemite migmatites and has a concentric struc-
ture with steeply (6090) dipping layering consists of two distinct lithological domains,
and a strike parallel to the intrusion margins. the high-grade Pirkanmaa belt and the me-
Magmatic layering proceeds from olivine dium-grade Tampere belt (Figure 9.1). The
gabbronorites and gabbronorites within the Pirkanmaa belt consists of high-grade and
outer rim of the body towards more evolved polydeformed tonalitic migmatites derived
leucogabbros, anorthosites, and hornblende from psammitic protoliths (Koistinen, 1996).
gabbros in the central parts (Figure 9.6A, The Tampere belt is a narrow volcano-sedi-
B). Minor ultramafic rocks include olivine mentary sequence of basaltic to rhyolitic ma-
websterites, websterites, and their hornblende- ture arc-type rocks and turbiditic graywackes
bearing varieties. Crystallization started with (Khknen, 1989). The boundary between the
plagioclase and olivine and was followed by Pirkanmaa and the Tampere belts is located
orthopyroxene and clinopyroxene. Apparently, within a major shear zone that is not a major
the parental melt had high volatile content as terrain boundary but a thrust or reverse fault
not only calcic amphibole but also biotite is (Nironen, 1989). These belts are believed to
present as large poikilitic intercumulus grains represent the upper and middle crustal ex-
throughout the crystallization sequence. In the pressions, respectively, of the same volcanic
more evolved rock types hornblende and apa- arcaccretionary wedge terrain.
tite appear as cumulus minerals. Kerkkonen The maficultramafic intrusions of the
(1985) argued that the parental melt of the Pirkanmaa belt are, in general, more mafic
Lapinlahti was probably high-Al basalt. compared to those of the Tampere belt and
The internal structure of the Lapinlahti have high potential for magmatic Ni-Cu sul-
gabbroanorthosite is well displayed on aero- fide deposits (Lamberg, 1990; Papunen and
magnetic and ground gravity survey anomaly Gorbunov, 1995; Peltonen, 1995a). Within
maps. The Bouguer anomaly (Figure 9.5B) these belts a broad correlation exists between
is tightly restricted within the exposed area the nature of the Group Ib intrusions and the
of the gabbro showing maxima in the center metamorphic grade of their country rocks.
of the body. These features are consistent Intrusions within high-grade domains tend to
with the intrusion being an almost vertical be more metamorphosed and deformed, smal-
funnel-shaped pipe (Kukkonen, 1981). The ler, and more mafic (and Ni-ore potential) than
second vertical derivate of the gravity data their counterparts in the lower-grade crustal
visualizes the concentric structure of the body domains. This is a typical feature of synoro-
(Figure 9.5C). Ultramafic cumulates, olivine genic intrusions and suggests that the depth of
gabbro-norites, and hornblende gabbros out- their emplacement corresponds to the pressure
come as dense outer and inner layers while the determined from the metamorphic mineral as-
anorthosite-dominated middle layers appear semblage of the enclosing supracrustal rocks
as a gravity low. Gray-tone and obliquely il- (Peltonen, 1995a).
luminated low-altitude aeromagnetic maps A complete layered series is not preserved
bring out more subtle features of magmatic in any of the intrusions but a cumulate pseudo-
layering (Figure 9.5D, E). stratigraphy obtained by combining petro-
graphic data from over 50 bodies illustrates
some salient features of their fractionation.
4. Intrusions of the Tampere and Figure 9.7 shows an idealized layered series
Pirkanmaa belts (Group Ib) that would result from closed-system crystalli-
zation of the parental melt, as well as the extent
The supracrustal belt between the Central of layered series in some example intrusions.
Finland granitoid complex and the Hme belt The layered series and country rocks are sepa-
A 65 B
56 78
mGal
77 78
89 +30
70
P +20
75 22
88
+10
70 75 0
70
80 2 km
70
84
5 km
C D
mGal/km2 nT
+9
+3000
+0
+1500
-9
0
5 km 5 km
Archean Gabbronorite E
basement
Schistosity, dip Hydrous
cumulates
Igneous layering, dip (intercumulus
hornblende +
biotite)
P Gabbro pegmatite
Hornblende
Fault gabbro
Ultramafic cumulates
Olivine gabbronorite
Leucogabbro and
anorthosite
5 km
Fig. 9.5. Geological (A), Bouguer gravity anomaly (B), second vertical derivative of Bouguer anomaly
(C), gray-tone low-altitude aeromagnetic (D), and obliquely-illuminated aeromagnetic anomaly (E) maps
of the Lapinlahti gabbroanorthosite. Geology modified after Kerkkonen (1985) and Paavola (1988).
Geophysical data from the Geological Survey of Finland (processed by Seppo Elo).
rated by a hybrid zone of magmasediment but rather indicates the presence of volumi-
mingling and by a more extensive marginal nous maficultramafic massifs at subsurface
zone. The marginal zone shows a reverse trend levels (Elo, 1992). Most of the ultramafic
of differentiation dominated by two-pyroxene bodies can be depicted as boudins or lenses
cumulates. At the top, direction of differentia- that float in polydeformed, medium- to
tion changes to normal and marginal contact high-grade paragneisses. The intrusions con-
zone gives way to the cumulates of the layered sist mainly of olivine-chromite and olivine-
series. Peridotite zone is distinguished by the clinopyroxene cumulates with clinopyroxene,
presence of cumulus olivine. Earliest cumu- orthopyroxene, magmatic amphibole, and
lates are composed of cotectic proportions of phlogopite as intercumulus phases (Figure
olivine and chromite and intercumulus mate- 9.9A). The entry of plagioclase was delayed,
rial (locally including abundant magmatic probably as a consequence of crystallization
sulfides). Olivine-chromite cumulates are at relatively high confining pressure; moder-
followed by olivine-two-pyroxene cumulates ate crustal pressures are also indicated by
until the cumulus termination of olivine marks relatively aluminous pyroxenes and chromian
the top of the peridotite zone. Pyroxenite zone spinels (Peltonen, 1995a).
is dominated by two-pyroxene cumulates with Metamorphism, deformation, subsolidus
plagioclase as a common intercumulus phase; equilibration, and geochronology suggest
the amount of plagioclase increases with strati- that the emplacement of these cumulate-
graphic height. In some bodies of the Pirkan- textured bodies coincided with the peak of
maa belt plagioclase is absent and magmatic regional meta morphism and deformation
amphibole is the major intercumulus phase. (Figure 9.6C; Jokela, 1991; Peltonen, 1995a;
Beginning of the gabbro zone is marked by Marshall et al., 1995). Internal structures of
the appearance of cumulus plagioclase. Lower the cumulate lenses and absence of strong
gabbro zone is dominated by clinopyroxene- penetrative tectonic fabric (in spite of their
plagioclase and clinopyroxene-orthopyrox- deformed large-scale morphology) may in-
ene-plagioclase cumulates. The most evolved dicate that the cumulate-textured sills were
rock types are plagioclase-orthopyroxene boudinaged while not completely solidified.
rocks and plagioclase cumulates; these may Partial recrystallization of cumulate bodies is
contain abundant euhedral apatite, ilmenite, also consistent with their synkinematic intru-
and magnetite. Upper contact zones are only sion. Lack of prograde reactions in cumulate
sporadically exposed and are composed of cores indicates that, between igneous crys-
cognate gabbro xenoliths in a matrix of hybrid tallization and regional metamorphism, the
gabbrometapelite rocks. cumulate bodies became hydrated only close
to their margins. The metamorphic conditions
4.1. Ultramafic intrusions of the reached upper amphibolitelower granulite fa-
Vammala Ni province cies, i.e., 600700 C and 56 kbar (Peltonen,
1990). Folding of the host migmatites prob-
More than 50 small (1001000 m long) ultra- ably resulted in flexing and melt-facilitated
mafic cumulate bodies are concentrated within fracturing of the ultramafic bodies and their
a roundish crustal block ~15 km in diameter veining by neosome material (Marshall et al.,
near Vammala (Figure 9.8). This area the 1995) a feature common also in the Hitura
Vammala Ni province is associated with a and Kotalahti intrusions (Papunen, 1970). The
moderate gravity anomaly maximum that is slow cooling of cumulates from peak condi-
not explicable by the small and extensively tions is evidenced by extensive subsolidus
serpentinized cumulates exposed in the area, reequilibration of olivine and chromian spinel
A B
C D
E F
G H
(Peltonen, 1995c) and redistribution of Ca GRANOPHYRE Examples
between pyroxenes. Slow cooling rates and
the absence of significant contact aureoles may pC
GABBRO
reflect a low temperature gradient between the pbC P K
ZONE
cooling intrusions and their metapelite sur- o a
LAYERED SERIES
abpC
roundings undergoing migmatization. Later, r i
r p
Fe-Mg silicates became extensive replaced by PYROXENITE baC a o
pseudomorphic lizardite. ZONE abC s l
n a
Although ultramafic in bulk composi- i
tion, these cumulates were not derived from e
aboC m
ultramafic melt as suggested by the relatively PERIDOTITE Vam-
obaC i ma-
low and uniform forsterite content of olivine ZONE
o(s)C la
(Fo = 77.082.4 mol.%). Instead, they either
MARGINAL SERIES
crystallized in an open system or represent
fragments of much larger intrusions (Figure HYBRID ZONE
9.8). However, because only minor amounts
of more evolved cumulates are found in the Fig. 9.7. An idealized magmatic cumulus stratig-
region, the bodies cannot represent the basal raphy for a Group I intrusion crystallized from a
units of fragmented layered intrusions, neither single pulse of magma. The column was recon-
do they represent ophiolitic cumulates or the structed from several bodies of the Pirkanmaa
products of ultramafic magmas. They have belt; complete stratigraphy is not preserved in
been interpreted as remnants of synorogenic any of the intrusions. The extent of cumulus
sequence observed in some well-studied intru-
conduits for tholeiitic arc-type magmas that
sions is outlined on the right (Lamberg, 1990;
became choked by cumulus crystals and were
Peltonen, 1995a; Peltonen and Elo, 1999). Mineral
boudinaged into small lenses and fragments abbreviations for the cumulate (C) names after
by concomitant tectonic movements (Peltonen, Irvine (1982): oolivine, bbronzite, aaugite,
1995a, b). pplagioclase, sspinel.
Several of the Vammala Ni province in-
trusions are mineralized (Figure 9.6D). The
largest magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposit was indicative of early formation of immiscible
hosted by the Vammala intrusion (Hkli et al., sulfide liquid in the magma (Figure 9.9B).
1979) it yielded 7.6 Mt of ore (0.68 wt.% Minor remobilization of the interstitial ore oc-
Ni, 0.42 wt.% Cu) in 19741994 (Puustinen et curred during metamorphism and deformation
al., 1995). Most of the sulfides are interstitial, resulting in formation of thin massive sulfide
Fig. 9.6. (facing page) (A) Layered leucogabbro, Lapinlahti gabbroanorthosite. (B) Mottled anorthosite,
Lapinlahti. (C) Pyroxenitic dike in polydeformed graywackeslate migmatite in the proximity of the
Piimsjrvi intrusion,Vammala Ni province. Such features can be applied to constrain the timing of the
magmatism relative to the regional deformation. (D) Orbicular peridotite from the Kylmkoski Ni-Cu
deposit. Several origins have proposed for such a texture, e.g., the orbicules could represent rounded
cumulate fragments (autoliths) that settled to the base of the magma chamber together with the im-
miscible sulfide liquid or be products of rapid olivine crystallization due to supercooling. (E) Pothole
structure in the layered series of the Hyvink intrusion. (F) Layered ultramafic cumulates, Hyvink. (G)
Rhytmically layered gabbronorite cumulate layers, Hyvink. (H) Fragmental unit with gabbro autoliths
embedded in fine-grained gabbro, Hyvink. Photos: Petri Peltonen (A, B, G), Markku Tiainen (C), Jari
Vtinen (D) and Riku Raitala (E, F, H).
veins. The dominating sulfide assemblage is is relatively abrupt and is marked by a change
monoclinic pyrrhotite + pentlandite + chalco- from reverse to normal fractionation.
pyrite cubanite mackinawite valleriite. The layered series can be divided into
Less common sulfides include gersdorffite, peridotite, pyroxenite, and gabbro zones. The
niccoline, various tellurides, sphalerite, ga- peridotite zone is relatively thin (~50 m) and
lena, molybdenite, gold, silver, and PGM consists of peridotites and olivine webster-
(Peltonen, 1995b). The petrogenesis of these ites at the base and wehrlites at the top. The
magmatic sulfide ores will be discussed in overlaying pyroxenite zone is approximately
Section 7. 250 m thick and consists of two-pyroxene cu-
mulates (Figure 9.9C). The modal amount of
4.2. Porrasniemi layered gabbro intercumulus plagioclase gradually increases
upwards in the pyroxenite zone. The peridotite
Porrasniemi layered gabbro is a typical ex- and pyroxenite zones consist of ~ 40-cm-thick
ample of maficultramafic intrusions within layers of uniform composition. At the base of
the high-grade Pirkanmaa belt. The internal the peridotite zone modal rhytmic layering is
structure of Porrasniemi is well-preserved and present: 15-cm-thick augite-bronzite-olivine
enables detailed study of magmatic evolution cumulate layers are frequently separated by
and primary structures. Porrasniemi exhibits 12-cm-thick olivine-rich laminae. In the
an extensive and complete cumulate sequence gabbro zone, melano- and leucocratic lami-
and has some special interest because of its nae alternate and, at the highest stratigraphic
apparent potential for magmatic sulfide de- levels, 13-cm-thick pyroxene laminae alter-
posits at depth. nate with plagioclase-rich layers. This type of
The Porrasniemi layered gabbro comprises layering resembles the schlieren-lamination
three tectonic blocks separated from each of Irvine (1982). The ~100-m-thick gabbro
other by migmatites (Figure 9.10). Originally, zone is characterized by cumulus plagioclase
the gabbro was probably emplaced as a con- gabbros and norites. The contacts between
tinuous 2-km-long and 400-m-thick stratiform peridotite, pyroxenite, and gabbro zones are
sheet but became boudinaged by tectonic phase boundaries: beginning of the pyroxenite
movements. In the subsequent deformation, zone is marked by disappearance of cumulus
the three blocks were rotated relative to each olivine, and the start of the gabbro zone by
other and the magmatic layering was tilted appearance of cumulus plagioclase.
close to vertical (Lamberg, 1990). Each block Smooth geochemical and mineral chemi-
can be subdivided into layered series and mar- cal trends suggest that Porrasniemi crystal-
ginal series. Marginal series is located between lized from a single pulse of magma. Because
the layered series and the footwall contact of chilled margins are not exposed and the rocks
the intrusion and shows a reverse trend of are cumulates, the composition of parental
fractionation: olivine content increases and magma is difficult to estimate. However,
plagioclase content decreases upwards in the back-calculation from cumulus mineral com-
sequence towards the peridotite zone. The positions implies that the parental magma was
marginal series is an up to 75-m-thick het- close to tholeiitic basalt. Ubiquitous hydrous
erogeneous unit with abundant country rock intercumulus minerals suggests that it had
xenoliths and poorly developed cumulus tex- relatively high volatile content.
tures. Lamberg (1990) distinguished a country Mass balance calculations have shown
rock xenolith-rich fragmental unit within the that the cumulus sequence is incomplete also
marginal series of the Krki block. Transition in Porrasniemi. The most primitive olivine-
from the marginal series to the layered series cumulates are missing from the intrusion, and
N
Vammala (Ni-Cu) mine
2 km
Granite Migmatites (turbiditic rocks)

Granodiorite Ultramafic intrusions
Basaltic volcanic rocks
Fig. 9.8. Simplified geology of the Vammala Ni province. The small size, deformed morphology, and in-
ternal textures of ultramafic bodies suggest that the bodies represent originally much larger ultramafic
sills or dikes that became boudinaged by deformation that was synchronous with their emplacement
(after Peltonen, 1995a).
olivine may have saturated already within the of the Tampere belt (upper crustal milieu) from
feeder system. Also, the most evolved plagio- the strongly deformed and metamorphosed
clase-titanian magnetite cumulates, predicted rocks of the Pirkanmaa belt (middle crustal
to occur at the top, have not been found; they milieu). The intrusion is a 4.6-km-long and
may remain unexposed above the norites or 2.2-km-wide oval gabbrodiorite body, which
the most evolved melt may have escaped the is beautifully displayed in the aeromagnetic
magma chamber (Lamberg, 1990). map (Figure 9.11A). Its residual gravity anoma-
ly is about 13 mGal and, according to gravity
4.3. Kaipola layered intrusion modeling, the body dips to the northnorthwest
with an average depth extent of about 1.4 km.
The Kaipola layered intrusion (Figure 9.11) The associated volcanic rocks give rise to a
is located close to the easternmost tip of the magnetic maximum on the northwest side of
Tampere belt close to the boundary of the the intrusion (Peltonen and Elo, 1999).
Central Finland granitoid complex (Sandholm, Unlike most other Svecofennian maficul-
1970). The intrusion is situated between two tramafic intrusions, Kaipola is not enclosed
NW-trending faults about 20 km to the north by metasedimentary rocks but by syn- and
of the shear zone separating lower grade rocks postkinematic granitoids. Gabbrogranite
A B
C D
Fig. 9.9. (A) Olivine-clinopyroxene-orthopyroxene cumulate with magmatic amphibole occupying the
intercumulus space. Note the resorbed outlines of the cumulus clinopyroxe crystals indicative of the
peritectic reaction clinopyroxene + intercumulus melt = amphibole. Vammala Ni province. (B) Olivine
+ chromite cumulate with interstitial Ni-Cu-Fe sulfides consisting of pentlandite (light yellow), chalco-
pyrite (yellow), and pyrrhotite (light brown).Vammala Ni-Cu deposit. (C) Clinopyroxene-orthopyroxene
cumulate with intercumulus plagioclase. Porrasniemi layered gabbro. (D) Clinopyroxene-orthopyrox-
ene-plagioclase cumulate with brown poikilitic intercumulus amphibole (pargasite). Note the resorbed
outlines of the cumulus crystals due to their peritectic reaction with hydrous intercumulus melt. Kaipola
layered intrusion. Width of the images corresponds to 2.5 mm.
relationships are well exposed at a road cut sion of immiscibility and co-existence of
close to the western tip of the intrusion where felsic and mafic magmas, whereas the younger
the contact zone is characterized by gabbro dikes clearly postdate the solidification of the
enclaves in the granite and small mica-rich gabbro. The older dikes are interpreted to be
clots in the gabbro both features implying coeval with the synkinematic granitoids en-
immiscibility of two melts. Two distinct types closing the gabbro and the younger dikes are
of granitoid dikes intrude the gabbro: older related to the emplacement of the somewhat
fine-grained, 550-cm-wide, and deformed younger, postkinematic, Kaipola granitoid
dikes with smooth and irregular boundaries pluton nearby (cf. Nironen et al., 2000).
and younger coarse-grained pegmatite dikes The Kaipola layered intrusion is character-
that sharply cut both the gabbro and the fine- ized by a well-preserved layered series show-
grained granite dikes. The relationship of the ing distinctive large-scale repetitive layering
gabbro with the older dikes gives an impres- with at least seven zones (Figure 9.11B). Thin
Kyt block
Krki block
N
S
LAYERED
Gabbro zone
SERIES
Pyroxenite zone
Peridotite zone
MARGINAL SERIES Terrinen block
Mica gneiss
Sedimentary layering 200 m
Fig. 9.10. Geological map of the Porrasniemi layered gabbro (modified after Lamberg, 1990).The originally
sill-type intrusion that crystallized from a single pulse of magma is interpreted to have boudinaged into
three roundish fragments rotated relative to each other during regional deformation.
olivine-bearing (augite-bronzite-olivine cu- sion was relatively hydrous (arc-type basalt?).

mulates, aboC) and pyroxenitic layers (augite Some of the poikilitic amphibole was formed
or augite-bronzite cumulates, aC/abC) repre- by interstitial crystallization, but most of it
sent the most primitive fractionation products was produced by peritectic replacement of
and have been observed at the base of some cumulus pyroxenes and plagioclase (Figure
of the zones. Most of the cumulus sequence is 9.9D). Other intercumulus minerals include il-
composed of more evolved leucocraticmeso- menite, apatite, phlogopite, quartz, zircon, and
cratic plagioclase-dominated orthocumulates plagioclase. Sulfides are uncommon which,
(paC/pabC/pbC/pC) with apatite and titanian together with low PGE contents, implies that
magnetite as minor cumulus phases. A striking Kaipola layered intrusion has low potential for
feature of the intrusion are large postcumulus magmatic sulfide deposits.
oikocrysts of green and brown amphibole,
implying that the parental melt of the intru-
5. Synvolcanic intrusions of the 5.1. Forssa gabbro
Arc complex of southern Finland
(Group II) The Forssa gabbro consists of medium-grain-
ed amphibole and pyroxene gabbros, diorites,
The Hme belt is a major volcanic-dominated and quartz diorites. Ultramafic and anortho-
terrain in southern Finland bounded by the sitic varieties are uncommon. Aeromagnetic
Pirkanmaa belt in the north and high-grade low-altitude map (not shown) brings out
metamorphic gneiss complexes in the south the concentric structure of the gabbro with
(Figure 9.1). Hakkarainen (1994) divided the gabbroic rocks in the core and diorite in the
supracrustal formations into the Forssa Group margins. In many places the diorite brecciates
and stratigraphically younger Hme Group. the gabbro. This, together with the lack of
The volcanic rocks of the Forssa Group are fine-scaled magmatic layering, is indicative
mainly medium-K, calc-alkaline pyroclastic of a dynamic environment of crystallization.
andesites probably related to mature arc stra- In the northwest, the plutonic rocks grade into
tovolcanoes with intervening sedimentary a plagioclase-phyric and weakly ophitic hyp-
basins. The Hme Group volcanic rocks are abyssal rock type that gradually grades into
medium-K tholeiitic basalts and basaltic an- hornblende-plagioclase porphyry (Neuvonen,
desites believed to represent fissure eruptions 1956). All these features, also supported by the
during late intra-arc rifting. These volcanic U-Pb zircon ages (Figure 9.2), are indicative
formations are spatially associated with mafic of a synvolcanic nature of the gabbros and a
intrusions, the most extensive of these are the comagmatic origin of the spatially associated
Forssa gabbro and the Hyvink layered intru- volcanic formations.
sion (Figure 9.1).
Age data from the Hme belt and associ- 5.2. Hyvink layered intrusion
ated mafic intrusions are few. An andesitic
lava close to the western margin of the Forssa The synvolcanic Hyvink layered intrusion
gabbro yielded an age of 1888 11 Ma (Vaas- in the Hme belt (Figure 9.12) has an areal
joki, 1994). This felsic lava unit represents extent of ~120 km2 and is one of the largest
the uppermost units of the Hme belt (Hak- Svecofennian layered gabbro complexes. It is
karainen, 1994) and thus provides a minimum an oval lopolithic body consisting of layered
age for the Forssa gabbro. Patchett and Kouvo peridotites, pyroxenites, olivine gabbros,
(1986) reported an age of 1880 5 Ma for a gabbronorites, non-layered isotropic gabbros,
gabbro pegmatoid of the Hyvink layered and granophyre. According to Raitala (1997),
intrusion. Plagioclase porphyrite close to the the body has been slightly tilted from its pri-
eastern margin of the intrusion yielded an age mary position so that the western part exposes
of 1880 3 Ma and is considered to be indica- deeper levels of the igneous stratigraphy and
tive of the cogenetic origin of the gabbro and thus more primitive cumulates than those
volcanic rocks (Suominen, 1988). A somewhat exposed in the east. In the east, the gabbros
younger age, 1870 8 Ma, was yielded by a are rich in hornblende, biotite, and magnetite
hornblende gabbro from the Soukkio complex which, together with some quartz and alkali
~20 km east of Hyvink (Huhma, 1986). In feldspar, imply proximity of roof.
the light of these data the possibility remains The layered series of the Hyvink intru-
that the mafic magmatism gets younger from sion has been studied in detail by Raitala
west to east: i.e., Forssa gabbro (>1888 Ma) (1997). The outermost shell is a hybrid zone
> Hyvink layered intrusion (~1880 Ma) > between the country rocks and the first margin-
Soukkio complex (~1870 Ma). al series cumulates. The hybrid zone may reach
B
70 85
80
80
85 85
70
85
80
85 P
85
80
N
80
85
80
80 S
80 65 1 km
85
75
2558 2578
CUMULUS PARAGENESES 6860 6860
A
pC ( apatite, titanian magnetite)
paC/pabC/pbC ( apatite, titanian
magnetite)
Kaipola layered
aC/abC intrusion
aboC
nT
Modal layering/foliation 3000
Plagioclase pyroxene-phyric 2000

volcanic rocks 1000
Tampere belt
0
Plagioclase pyroxene phyric-dikes
P Gabbro pegmatite Pirkanmaa belt

6830 6830
2558 10 km 2578
Fig. 9.11. (A) Low-altitude aeromagnetic anomaly map of the Kaipola layered intrusion and surround-
ings. The intrusion is located between two parallel NW-trending faults. The lower part of the image
illustrates the sharp boundary between the high-grade Pirkanmaa belt and lower-grade Tampere belt
(after Peltonen and Elo, 1999; data from the Geological Survey of Finland). (B) Geology of the Kaipola
layered intrusion. Mineral abbreviations for the cumulate names as in Figure 9.7.
600 m in thickness but locally may be only 6. Ti-Fe-P gabbros of the Central
a few meters. It consists of a variety of rock Finland granitoid complex
types that formed through mixing between (Group III)
the magma and country rocks. Frequently,
the hybrid rock types bear evidence for strong
interaction with late magmatic fluids. The Several gabbroic intrusions, some of them
presence of some disseminated sulfides and hosting important magmatic oxide deposits,
tellurides, including some Pt group minerals, are found within the Central Finland granitoid
has raised economic interest for the hybrid complex (Figure 9.1). Most of them are located
zone (Raitala, 2000). in the peripheral areas of the complex and are
The marginal series is believed to have confined to two clusters: the Kauhajrvi and
formed from cumulus crystals that nucleated Koivusaarenneva gabbro provinces. Although
and grew higher in the magma chamber but intrusions within these two provinces share a
which, due to density contrast or convective number of features, distinct origins have been
currents, settled at the sidewalls of the magma proposed. Rm et al. (2001) argued that the
chamber. The rock types of the marginal se- Kauhajrvi gabbros are genetically related
ries are cumulates with clinopyroxene, ortho- to the ~1.87 Ga postkinematic Lauhanvuori
pyroxene, and olivine as cumulus phases and granite and form a bimodal magmatic suite.
plagioclase and clinopyroxene as the most In contrast, according to Krkkinen (1999a),
common intercumulus minerals. The cumulus the Koivusaarenneva gabbros are Group I
paragenesis alternates in a random manner and intrusions emplaced during the synorogenic
is distinct for example from the marginal series stage of the orogeny.
of the Porrasniemi intrusion (above) in which
the order of crystallization was reverse to that 6.1. Kauhajrvi gabbro province
of the layered series. The layers are frequently
graded and 1 to 5 m thick. Magmatic erosion, The Kauhajrvi gabbro province (Figure 9.1)
slumping, gliding as well as textures imply- consists of five, 210-km-long and 13-km-
ing filter pressing are common (Figure 9.6E). wide gabbro intrusions. These gabbros are
Erosional discordance separates the marginal located between the postkinematic (1867 6
series from the overlying layered series. Ma) metaluminous to peraluminous Lauhan-
Most of the layered series consists of vuori granite in the west and a foliated syn-
rhytmically layered gabbro to gabbronorite kinematic (1886 11 Ma) granodiorite in the
cumulates (Figure 9.6F, G). The layers are east (Rm et al., 2001). Field observations
generally 0.530 cm thick. A characteristic imply that gabbros are younger than the syn-
feature are country rock xenoliths and auto- kinematic granitoids but are intruded by the
lithic fragments (Figure 9.6H). These have Lauhanvuori granite that postdates the main
settled parallel to the magmatic layering. A stage of the Svecofennian orogeny (Rm,
late magmatic dunite pipe, which consists of 1986). The Permaa gabbro has yielded a
cumulus olivine and chromite and intercumu- similar crystallization age (1874 14 Ma;
lus clinopyroxene, intrudes the layered series Rm et al., 2001) and has been related to the
(Figure 9.12). Later, the Hyvink layered same geotectonic event as the Lauhanvuori
intrusion was intruded by K-rich granite and granite.
diabase (Raitala, 1997). The intimate association of the Ti-Fe-P
gabbros and latekinematic granites imply an
mature, postorogenic type setting for the mag-
matism. Nironen et al. (2000) interpreted the
80
80 75
Lake
5
80 60 10
60
85 70
Lake
2 km
Hybrid zone Granophyre
Marginal series Country-rock xenolithes
Ultramafic cumulates Fault
Gabbro, norite Dunite pipe
Maficintermediate volcanic rocks Igneous layering (strike and dip)
Microcline granite 85 Strike and dip of schistosity
Fig. 9.12. Geology of the Hyvink layered intrusion after Raitala (1997) and Vuori (1999).
contact features of the postkinematic granites the mafic underplating. Both anatectic silicic
and spatially associated gabbros as a result melts and underplating mafic magmas contrib-
of mixing and mingling of coeval felsic and uted to the bimodal postkinematic magmatism
mafic magmas. They disregarded the possibil- that took place in response to extensional or
ity of a single parental magma and presented transtensional events that modified the tectoni-
a two-stage model for the coexistence of the cally thickened Svecofennian crust.
felsic and mafic magmatic suites. According
to this model, compositionally variable and Kauhajrvi gabbro
anhydrous lower crust was first produced as a The Kauhajrvi gabbro consists of two chemi-
result of extraction of synkinematic magmas. cally distinct zones: relatively thin (~50 m),
This granulitic residue was then melted due to poorly layered basal zone and thicker (>400
m) well-layered main zone (Figure 9.13). The Rm (1986) described rhytmic layering
basal zone consists of gabbro, gabbronorite, where individual 1015-cm-thick layers con-
and olivine gabbronorite and layering is only sist of thin seam of magnetite in the bottom
weakly developed. Ilmenite and apatite are followed first by gabbro and then leucogabbro
strongly concentrated in the uppermost part of on the top. As was in the case of Kauhajrvi
the basal zone. The main zone is texturally and intrusion, also in Permaa the Fe, Ti, and P
modally layered and extends from peridotite abundances are highest in the melanocratic
to anorthosite. Layers are 0.220 m thick. The cumulates. The Permaa intrusion shears
chemical compositions of the basal zone and many features in common with anorogenic
main zone are distinct the main zone is en- intrusions; this reflects its emplacement into
riched in Fe, Ti, and P and depleted in Mg, Cr, stabilized crust during the latest stages of the
Si, and Al relative to the basal zone. Ilmenite Svecofennian orogeny (Nironen et al., 2000).
was saturated early in the main zone and was Before the final emplacement the primary melt
concentrated into the most primitive Mg-rich for the Permaa gabbro evolved under low fO2
cumulates. The main zone contains ~1500 at almost closed system, which resulted in a
ppm F, which is believed to reflect interaction Ti-Fe-P-rich parental magma for the intru-
of basaltic parental melt with coeval granitic sion (Rm, 1986). During crystallization,
magma. The compositional variation of both however, fO2 increased as evidenced by the
the basal zone and main zone can be explained gravitative accumulation of oxides at the base
by a closed-system fractional crystallization of of individual cumulate layers. Importantly, the
a single pulse of tholeiitic magma. However, H2O content of the melt was low. This is in
redox conditions during their crystallization marked contrast to the synorogenic intrusions
were variable. The basal zone crystallized such as Kaipola that crystallized from hydrous
under low fO2, which resulted in strong enrich- (arc-type) magma.
ment of Ti, Fe, and P at the top of the zone. The
main zone crystallized under relatively high 6.2. Koivusaarenneva layered intrusion
oxygen fugacity resulting in co-precipitation
of ilmenite and apatite throughout the layered The Koivusaarenneva layered intrusion the
series, thus preventing formation of massive host for a major magmatic ilmenite deposit
oxide ore layers (Krkkinen, 1999a). is located ~170 km northnortheast of the
Permaa gabbro (Figure 9.1). It is an elon-
Permaa gabbro gated, 0.51-km-wide and 3-km-long sill-like
The Permaa intrusion is found in the same intrusion belonging to a suite of several similar
tectonic setting as the Kauhajrvi gabbro intrusions that are found adjacent to the inter-
(Figure 9.1). Intermediate differentiates section of SW- and SE-trending fault zones.
dominate but ultramaficgabbroic rocks make The intrusion itself bears some similarities
approximately one third of the total volume with the intrusions of the Kauhajrvi gabbro
of the intrusion (Figure 9.14). This mafic part province it is intrusive to the Central Finland
of the body consists of rhytmically layered or granitoid complex and shares some composi-
massive cumulus-textured peridotites, olivine tional features of anorogenic mafic plutonism.
gabbronorites, gabbronorites, and gabbros, However, the Koivusaarenneva intrusion is not
derived from a tholeiitic parental magma associated with postkinematic granites and
(Rm, 1986). Plagioclase (An3259), olivine has yielded an older zircon age of 1881 6
(Fo3570), titanian magnetite, ilmenite, apatite, Ma (Krkkinen, 1999b). Krkkinen (1999a)
and clinopyroxene are cumulus phases, pla- interpreted it to belong to the synorogenic
gioclase and orthopyroxene are intercumulus. group and to share common origin with other
MAIN ZONE
Anorthosite, anorthositic gabbro
Gabbro, gabbronorite, olivine gabbro
Peridotite
BASAL ZONE
Gabbro, gabbronorite, olivine gabbro
Fault
Lauhanvuori granite (late orogenic)
Granodiorite (synorogenic)
400 m
Fig. 9.13. Geology of the Kauhajrvi gabbro (after Krkkinen, 1999a).
craton margin intrusions. is characterized by low TiO2/Fe2O3. The lower

On the basis of modal mineral variations, zone is, however, of only minor economic im-
Krkkinen (1999a) divided the Koivusaaren- portance. The beginning of the middle zone is
neva intrusion into lower, middle, and upper marked by an abrupt increase in ilmenite and
zones characterized by titanian magnetite, magnetite and normative pyroxenes coupled
ilmenite, and apatite, respectively (Figure with decrease in plagioclase. The middle zone
9.15). The 150500-m-thick lower zone hosts a 520-m-thick layer of massive, mag-
consists of layered gabbro and gabbronorite netite-poor, ilmenite ore (1848 vol.% ilme-
(plagioclase-pyroxene cumulates). Thin (0.21 nite) overlain by up to 40 m of disseminated
m) pyroxenitic layers are spatially associated ilmenite. The massive ore layers are associated
with oxide-rich layers. The lower zone hosts with both pyroxenitic and gabbro layers, the
disseminated (818 vol.% ilmenite) to semi- remainder of the middle zone consists of gab-
massive titanian magnetite-ilmenite ore that bro and gabbronorite. The middle zone is the
A B C
mGal mGal/km2
-18 +10
-24 +0
-30 -10
1 km
D E
PERMAA GABBRO
Diorite, quartz diorite,
granodiorite
Gabbro, ultramafic rocks
nT
Lauhanvuori granite +4000
(lateorogenic) +2000
Granodiorite 0
(synorogenic)
Fig. 9.14. Geological (A), Bouguer gravity anomaly (B), second vertical derivative of Bouguer anomaly
(C), gray-tone low-altitude aeromagnetic (D), and obliquely illuminated aeromagnetic (E) anomaly maps
of the Permaa gabbro.Ti-rich oxide layers give rise to pronounced aeromagnetic maxima in the central
part of the body. Geology after Rm (1986). Geophysical data from the Geological Survey of Finland,
processed by Seppo Elo.
economically most important ore horizon. The be determined indirectly.

300800-m-thick upper zone is only weakly Because of their potential for Ni-Cu
layered and is dominated by fluorapatite-rich PGE deposits, several attempts have been
gabbro with minor ilmenite. made to determine the parental magma com-
position of the Group I intrusions (Mkinen,
1987; Lamberg, 1990; Peltonen, 1995a; Mak-
7. Chemical and isotope konen, 1996). The Mg content of the primary
composition of magma was close to 12 wt.% MgO as back-
the maficultramafic intrusions calculated from the forsterite content of the
most magnesian cumulus olivine (Lamberg,
The chemical compositions of maficultra- 1990; Makkonen, 1996). This implies that the
mafic intrusions are determined by initial com- ultramafic cumulates were not derived from
position of the parental magma, assimilation ultramafic magma but represent cumulates
of country rock material, possible segregation from more evolved melts. Peltonen (1995a)
of immiscible sulfide liquid, and by cumulus argued that the incompatible trace element
processes. As all Svecofennian intrusions are composition of the most primitive olivine cu-
composed of various types of cumulates and mulates of the Vammala Ni province closely
fresh chilled margins are not well-preserved, approximates that of the parental magma. This
the composition of the parental magma has to approach based on the fact that olivine has
Country rock (tonalite)
UPPER ZONE
Gabbro/gabbronorite
200500 m Leucogabbro
Ilmenite and
apatite
Chilled upper zone/diabase?
50200 m MIDDLE ZONE
Gabbro/gabbronorite
Ilmenite > 1550 m Low-grade ilmenite ore
titanian magnetite High-grade ilmenite ore
1030 m Pyroxenite
23 m
High-grade ilmenite ore (+magnetite)
LOWER ZONE
Ilmenite 50100 m Gabbro/gabbronorite
Cyclic zone:
low-grade ilmenite ore
Titanian magnetite 1070 m gabbro
> ilmenite pyroxenite
semimassive and disseminated oxides
50 m Gabbro, coarse-grained
Country rock (tonalite)
Fig. 9.15. Igneous stratigraphy of the Koivusaarenneva layered intrusion (after Krkkinen, 1999a).
extremely low mineral/melt partition coeffi- Peltonen and Elo, 1999) indicating high water
cients for incompatible trace elements and that content of the parental magma. This is char-
trapped melt thus determines the trace element acteristic for arc cumulates of Phanerozoic
composition of such cumulates implied that terrains (Snoke et al., 1982; Regan, 1985;
the incompatible trace element composition of Butler, 1989; DeBari and Coleman, 1989;
the magma was similar to that of the enclos- Kepezhinskas et al., 1993; Skirrow and Sims,
ing metaturbidites. This, together with lower 1999) and led Peltonen (1995a) to suggest that
than depleted mantle Nd (at 1.9 Ga) values the Group I bodies are cumulates of Sveco-
(Fig. 7.1; Huhma, 1986, unpubl.; Makkonen, fennian arc basalts. Arc-type volcanic rocks
1996), low Se/S of the sulfides (Peltonen, are, however, uncommon in the vicinity of the
1995b), and presence of graphite in the ores Pirkanmaa belt intrusions. The belt is char-
(Peltonen et al., 1995) shows that the trace acterized by metaturbidites and fragments of
element composition of parental magma for primitive oceanic crust and this led Lahtinen
the Group I intrusions was strongly modified (1994) to favor an accretionary wedge setting
during emplacement through the Svecofennian for the intrusions of the Pirkanmaa belt.
crust. Thus it bears no unequivocal informa- Major element ternary plots (Figure 9.16)
tion of its mantle source. are used to illustrate fractional crystallization
Primary magmatic intercumulus amphi- of the intrusions. The crystallization started
boles are particularly common in the Group with olivine in Vammala, Porrasniemi, Lau-
I bodies (Lamberg, 1990; Makkonen, 1996; kunkangas, and Kotalahti. In the ultramafic cu-
mulate bodies of Vammala Ni province (black major magmatic Ni-Cu sulfide deposit, has
circles) the extent of fractional crystallization also a relatively low Nd (at 1.9 Ga) value of
is restricted to olivine and olivine-pyroxene +0.2 0.5 (Huhma, 1986).
cumulates. In all bodies olivine is followed It seems reasonable to conclude that the
by pyroxenes in the cumulate sequence. In crustal environment of emplacement had a
this respect, intrusions of the craton margin profound effect on the chemical evolution
environment and Pirkanmaa belt show con- of the melts and thus on the mineralogy of
trasting behavior. Generally, clinopyroxene the forming cumulates. Intrusions that were
saturated after olivine in the Pirkanmaa belt emplaced through the thick sialic Archean
intrusions (such as Porrasniemi), shifting the crust or the Primitive arc complex were more
cumulate compositions towards the CaO-apex likely to become contaminated by SiO2 and
in the CMA-ternary (Figure 9.16). Figure 9.16 crystallize orthopyroxene. Intrusions in west-
also shows that the most primitive olivine- ern Finland became contaminated as well,
bearing cumulates are absent in Porrasniemi. but the main contaminant was carbonaceous
This implies early segregation of significant and calcareous sulfidic black schist material
amounts of olivine ( chromite) during ascent resulting in early sulfide and clinopyroxene
or intermediate magma storage a process saturation in the melt.
that significantly decreased the potential of The Group II synvolcanic intrusions of the
the Por rasniemi intrusion to host magmatic arc complex of southern Finland have some-
sulfide deposits. what different chemical and isotope charac-
Orthopyroxene dominates in the craton teristics compared to Group I intrusions (Huh-
margin intrusions resulting in Laukunkan- ma, 1986; Patchett and Kouvo, 1986; Vuori,
gas-type trends with low and ~constant CaO 1999). The Hyvink layered intrusion, for
abundances (Figure 9.16). This feature was example, crystallized from a subalkalic tho-
recognized by Mkinen (1987), who divided leiitic magma (Vuori, 1999). Low Nb and Zr,
intrusions into Vammala-type (cpx-dominat- together with slight LREE enrichment, high
ed) and Kotalahti-type (opx-dominated) and Sr and Ba/Rb suggest an island arc setting. In
interpreted the division to reflect higher degree the AFM ternary diagram the Hyvink lay-
of mantle melting for Kotalahti-type magmas. ered intrusion follows a typical tholeiitic trend
However, crustal contamination provides an with local production of Ti-Fe-V-rich residual
alternative explanation: extensive assimilation melts (Figure 9.16). The compositional trend
of country-rock sediments would increase the in the CMA ternary implies that the cumulate
silica content of the melt resulting in early compositions are largely related to orthopyro-
crystallization of orthopyroxene instead of xene fractionation this is consistent with
clinopyroxene (Haughton et al., 1974). This is the noritic bulk composition of Hyvink.
supported by the Nd isotope composition of Vuori (1999) concluded that, although crustal
the intrusions. In the Juva area (Figure 9.1), xenoliths are locally common in the cumulate
where Kotalahti- and Vammala-type bodies sequence of the Hyvink layered intrusion,
coexist in the same region, two Kotalahti-type the effect of contamination on the melt com-
intrusions yield an average Nd (at 1.9 Ga) of position was relatively small. This is consistent
+0.7, whereas three Vammala-type bodies with the high Nd (at 1.9 Ga) value of +2.7
yield an average Nd(at 1.9 Ga) of +1.7. This (Patchett and Kouvo, 1986).
suggests higher amount of crustal material The Group III Permaa intrusion records
in the Kotalahti-type magmas (Makkonen, Nd (at 1875 Ma) of 0.1 (average of five) and is
1996). The Laukunkangas intrusion, which is less juvenile compared to the intrusions of the
a typical Kotalahti-type intrusion and hosts a Arc complex of southern Finland but is similar
MgO FeOtot
CaO Al2O3 Na2O+K2O MgO
GROUP Ia GROUP Ib
Laukunkangas (Ni-Cu) Porrasniemi
Kotalahti (Ni-Cu) Vammala (Ni-Cu)
Lapinlahti Kaipola
GROUP II GROUP III
Hyvink Permaa
Koivusaarenneva
Fig. 9.16. Major element CMA and AFM ternary plots illustrating the trends of the fractional crys-
tallization for selected Group I, II, and III mafic intrusions. Boundary between the calc-alkaline and
tholeiitic fields in the AFM diagram is after Irvine and Baragar (1971).
to other maficultramafic intrusions outside of depleted mantle derived magmas and crust
Central Finland granitoid complex (Rm during the genesis of postkinematic granite
et al., 2001). The time-corrected Pb isotope plutons and associated mafic intrusions.
ratios for Permaa gabbro and diorite average
at 206Pb/204Pb = 15.64 and 207Pb/204Pb = 15.28
(Rm et al., 2001); these are close to those of 8. Economic aspects and
the adjacent postkinematic granitoid plutons. petrogenesis of the ores
They both plot close to the composition of
average crustal Pb. Rm et al. (2001) favored Svecofennian maficultramafic intrusions
these values to reflect an enriched subconti- show high potential for both magmatic Ni-
nental lithospheric mantle source. However, Cu PGE sulfide deposits (Papunen and
they could also indicate pervasive interaction Gorbunov, 1985) and ilmenitic (FeTiO3) Ti
ores (Krkkinen et al., 1997). Magmatic Ni circulation of such fluids enabled selective
sulfide deposits are restricted to the orogenic transfer of large quantities of S and Zn from
Group Ia and Ib bodies. The potential of the black schists into the cooling magma. In the
synvolcanic Group II intrusions has also been craton margin intrusions (Group Ia) the ore
extensively evaluated, but the results have been genesis was basically similar, but black schist
discouraging (Hkli, 1970; Raitala, 1997; sulfides were less important contaminants. In
Vuori, 1999). Since the start up the produc- this case, the magmas gained excess SiO2 from
tion of the Makola deposit in 1941, altogether their country rocks, which promoted orthopy-
nine deposit have been exploited from Group roxene crystallization and sulfide saturation
I bodies. The total production has been 41 (Makkonen, 1996).
Mt ore with an average (weighted) grade of The Group III intrusions host important
0.67 wt.% Ni and 0.28 wt.% Cu. Most of the ilmenite resources. The Koivusaarenneva
deposits have low abundances of Pt group layered intrusion is estimated to contain 44
elements. Rare examples of PGE mineralized Mt ore down to 150 m with 15% ilmenite and
Group I intrusions are Ekojoki (Peltonen et 6% vanadiferous magnetite (Krkkinen et
al., 1995) and Uudiskorhola (Papunen, 1989). al., 1997). The Koivusaarenneva intrusion is
Group I intrusions have been the most impor- currently under feasibility study. The whole
tant source rock for Ni in Finland and their Koivusaarenneva gabbro province (Figure 9.1)
production has far exceeded that from other has exploration potential as also several other
type of formations (e.g., Archean komatiites intrusions host Ti deposits.
in eastern Finland ). Krkkinen (1999a) proposed a two-stage
Sulfide mineralogy and ore textures in- model for the Koivusaarenneva intrusion and
dicate that the Ni-Cu deposits originated as the oxide mineralizations. At the first stage, a
concentrations of immiscible sulfide liquid primary tholeiitic arc basalt magma underwent
(Figures 9.6D, 9.9B). The mineralized zones fractional crystallization in a deep magma
are frequently located within the most primi- chamber. This took place at very low fO2 to
tive cumulates at the stratigraphic base of the prevent early saturation of Ti-rich oxides. In
intrusions (Papunen and Gorbunov, 1985; the second stage, the modified residual magma
Mkinen, 1987; Peltonen, 1995a; Makkonen, enriched in TiO2 up to 3.3 wt.% was em-
1996). In addition, deformation has resulted placed at higher crustal levels to form the
in remobilization of primary sulfides and for- intrusion. The average chemical compositions
mation of economically important high-grade of the lower, middle, and upper zones are not
offsets in several intrusions (Kotalahti, Lau- consistent with the origin from a single batch
kunkangas, Telkkl). Chemical, isotope, and of magma, but requires successive magma
mineral composition of the ores require that pulses from the same source. The lower zone
assimilation of sedimentary rocks by the mag- crystallized from a single magma pulse and
ma, combined with decreasing temperature, fractional crystallization of ilmenite and fer-
was the ultimate cause for the sulfide satura- roan titanian spinel led to the stratification.
tion and formation of immiscible nickeliferous The middle zone and the ilmenite ore were
sulfide liquid. For the deposits of the Vam- probably formed through open-system frac-
mala Ni province (Group Ib bodies), Peltonen tional crystallization in a dynamic system as
(1995b) suggested that in the metamorphic the amount of ilmenite ore exceeds what might
environment, H2S-bearing C-O-H-S fluids be expected to saturate from the volume of the
were continuously produced in the surround- magma represented by the middle zone. The
ing schists through the conversion of pyrite upper zone crystallized from a more fraction-
to pyrrhotite in the presence of graphite. The ated and P-rich pulse of the parental magma.
9. Concluding remarks maficultramafic intrusions across the bound-
ary. These imply more a depleted source or less
The maficultramafic intrusions of the Sveco- crustal contamination for the Group II intru-
fennian orogen are classified into three major sions (Figure 9.1). The Group II intrusions
groups. Their areal distribution, petrology, apparently because of their more evolved
and geochemical and isotope characteristics compositions and less dynamic crystallization
provide important constraints for crustal regime (Maier et al., 2001) have significantly
evolution. Group I intrusions include all lower potential for magmatic sulfide deposits
synorogenic bodies that were emplaced ei- than the Group I intrusions.
ther within the Archean craton margin, the Group III comprises evolved gabbroic
Primitive arc complex or the Arc complex intrusions in the Central Finland granitoid
of western Finland (Figure 9.1). This implies complex region. This is a relatively poorly
that their emplacement was coeval with or characterized suite of bodies including gab-
slightly postdated the amalgamation of these bros gene tically related to postkinematic
arc complexes. Although Group I intrusions (~1.87 Ga) granites (e.g., Permaa) and intru-
may have diverse country rocks, shapes, sions that share the characteristics of evolved
and to some extent crystallization order of Group I intrusions (e.g., Koivusaarenneva).
minerals, they share a number of common It is, however, important to notice that post-
features. Their U-Pb zircon systematics in- kinematic gabbros are not strictly restricted
variably record ages between 1.891.87 Ga to the Central Finland granitoid complex.
the time of the synorogenic stage of the Saarisenjrvi and Tyypekinlampi (Figure 9.1)
orogeny. Structural analysis indicates that the are examples of intrusions that were formed
bodies were emplaced during early orogenic within the Primitive arc complex and have
stage into short-lived extensional structures postkinematic crystallization ages (Figure 9.2;
within the arc crust. Ubiquitous boudinage Ekdahl, 1993).
and fragmentation, partial metamorphism,
and extensive fluid-driven contamination are
all indicative of synkinematic intrusion. Group Acknowledgments
I intrusions have high potential for magmatic
Ni-Cu sulfide deposits. Numerous individuals are acknowledged for
All intrusions within the Arc complex putting their expertise, unpublished data or
of southern Finland are Group II bodies. photographs at the authors disposal. Thanks
They differ from Group I intrusions in being go to Seppo Elo, Niilo Krkkinen, Markku
much larger and spatially associated with Tiainen (GTK), Pertti Lamberg (Outokumpu
metavolcanic rocks. In contrast to the Group Research), and Riku Raitala (University of
I intrusions which show evidence for crystal- Helsinki). Heikku Papunen (University of Tur-
lization at high confining pressures (Peltonen, ku), Hannu Makkonen (GTK), and the volume
1995 a) the Group II intrusions crystallized editors carefully reviewed the manuscript and
at low pressure. The boundary of the Hme and suggested numerous improvements.
Pirkanmaa belts is a major tectonic boundary,
no Group I intrusions are found south of it
and no Group II intrusions north of it. This References
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Montreal 4, 215224. Series, 8092.
Gal, G., 1980. Geological setting and intrusion Huhma, H., 1986. Sm-Nd, U-Pb and Pb-Pb isotopic
tectonics of the Kotalahti nickel-copper evidence for the origin of the Early Protero-
deposit, Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland zoic Svecokarelian crust in Finland. Geol.
52, 101128. Surv. Finland, Bull. 337, 148.
Grissom, G.C., DeBari, S.M., Page, S.P., Page, Irvine, T.N., 1982. Terminology for layered intru-
R.F.N., Villar, L.M., Coleman, R.G., de sions. J. Petrol. 23, 127162.
Ramirez, M.V., 1991. The deep crust of an Irvine, T.N., Baragar, W.R.A., 1971. A guide to
early Paleozoic arc; the Sierra de Fiambala, the chemical classification of the com-
northwestern Argentina. In: R.S. Harmon, mon volcanic rocks. Can. J. Earth Sci. 8,
C.W. Rapela (Eds.), Andean magmatism 523548.
and its tectonic setting. Geol. Soc. Am., Isohanni, M., Ohenoja, V., Papunen, H., 1985. Geol-
Spec. Pap. 265, 189200. ogy and nickel-copper ores of the Nivala area.
Grundstrm, L., 1980. The Laukunkangas nickel- Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 333, 211228.
copper occurrence in southeastern Finland. Jokela, J., 1991. Valkeakosken alueen kalliopern
Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland 52, 2353. integroitu rakennetulkinta. M.Sc. Thesis,
Hakkarainen, G., 1994. Geology and geochemistry Univ. of Turku, Finland. (in Finnish)
of the Hmeenlinna-Somero volcanic belt, Khknen, Y., 1989. Geochemistry and petrology of
southwestern Finland: a Paleoproterozoic the metavolcanic rocks of the early Protero-
island arc. In: M. Nironen, Y. Khknen zoic Tampere Schist Belt, southern Finland.
Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 345, 1107. Finland. Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 378,
Krkkinen, N., 1999a. Titanium ore potential 1128
of small mafic intrusions based on two Lamberg, P., 1990. Porrasniemen intruusio, sen
examples in western Finland. Ph. D. The- rakenne ja petrologia 1.9 Ga-magmatismi
sis, Houghton, Michigan Technol. Univ., ja Ni-malmit. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Oulu,
U.S.A. Finland. (in Finnish)
Krkkinen, N., 1999b. The age of the Koivusaa- Maier, W.D., Li, C., de Waal, S.A., 2001. Why are
renneva ilmenite gabbro, western Finland. In: there no major Ni-Cu sulfide deposits in
S. Autio, Ed.), Current Research 19971998. large layered mafic - ultramafic intrusions?
Geol. Surv. Finland Spec. Pap. 27, 3537. Can. Min. 39, 547556.
Krkkinen, N., Sarap, O., Huuskonen, M., Mkinen, J., 1987. Geochemical characteristics
Koistinen, E., Lehtimki, J., 1997. Ilmen- of Svecokarelidic maficultramafic intru-
ite exploration in western Finland, and sions associated with Ni-Cu occurrences
the mineral resources of the Klvi de- in Finland. Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 342,
posit. In: S. Autio (Ed.), Current Research 1109.
19951996. Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec. Pap. Makkonen, H.V., 1996. 1.9 Ga tholeiitic magma-
23, 1524. tism and related Ni-Cu deposition in the
Kepezhinskas, P.K., Reuber, I., Tanaka, H., Miya- Juva area, SE Finland. Geol. Surv. Finland,
shita, S., 1993. Zoned calc-alkaline plutons Bull. 386, 1101.
in Northeastern Kamchatka, Russia: Impli- Marshall, B., Smith, J.V., Mancini, F., 1995. Em-
cations for the crustal growth in magmatic placement and implications of peridotite-
arcs. Mineral. Petrol. 49, 147174. hosted leucocratic dykes, Vammala Mine,
Kerkkonen, K., 1985. Lapinlahden gabron petrogra- Finland. GFF 117, 199205.
fiasta, rakenteesta ja kemismist. M.Sc. The- Marttila, E., 1981. Explanation to the map of rocks.
sis, Univ. of Oulu, Finland. (in Finnish) Geological map of Finland 1:100 000, Sheet
Koistinen, T.J. (Ed.), 1996. Explanation to the 3323 (Kiuruvesi), Kiuruveden kartta-alueen
map of Precambrian basement of the Gulf kallioper. Geol. Surv. Finland, Espoo.
of Finland and surrounding area 1:1 mill. Naldrett, A.J., 1989. Magmatic sulfide deposits.
Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec. Pap. 21. Oxford University Press. 186 p.
Komatsu, M., Toyoshima, T., Osanai, Y., Arai, M., Neuvonen, K.J., 1956. Kallioperkartan selitys. Sum-
1994. Prograde and anatectic reactions in mary: Explanation to the map of rocks. Geo-
the deep arc crust exposed in the Hidaka logical map of Finland 1:100 000, sheet 2113
metamorphic belt, Hokkaido, Japan. Lithos (Forssa), Geol. Surv. Finland, Helsinki.
33, 3149. Nironen, M., 1989. Emplacement and structural
Korsman, K., Koistinen, T., Kohonen, J., Wenner- setting of granitoids in the early Proterozoic
strm, M., Ekdahl, E., Honkamo, M., Id- Tampere and Savo Schist Belts, Finland
man, H., Pekkala, Y. (Eds.), 1997. Bedrock implications for contrasting crustal evolu-
map of Finland 1:1 000 000. Geol. Surv. tion. Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 346, 183.
Finland, Espoo. Nironen, M., Elliott, B.A., Rm, O.T., 2000.
Kukkonen, R., 1981. Painovoima-anomalioiden atk- 1.881.87 Ga post-kinematic intrusions of
tulkintaohjelmisto kolmedimensionaalisten the Central Finland Granitoid Complex: a
geologisten rakenteiden tulkitsemiseksi. shift from C-type to A-type magmatism
M.Sc. Thesis, Helsinki Univ. of Technology, during lithospheric convergence. Lithos
Espoo, Finland. (in Finnish) 53, 3758.
Lahtinen, R., 1994. Crustal evolution of the Nurmi, P.A., Front, K., Lampio, E., Nironen, M.,
Svecofennian and Karelian domains dur- 1984. Etel-Suomen svekokarjalaiset por-
ing 2.11.79 Ga, with special emphasis on fyyrityyppiset molybdeeni- ja kupariesiin-
the geochemistry and origin of 1.931.91 tymt, niiden granitoidi-isntkivet ja lito-
Ga gneissic tonalites and associated supra- geokemiallinen etsint. Summary: Sveco-
crustal rocks in the Rautalampi area, central karelian porphyry-type molybdenum and
copper occurrences in southern Finland: Mineral. Petrol. 52, 124.
their granitoid host rocks and lithogeo- Peltonen, P., 1995c. Crystallization and re-equili-
chemical exploration. Geol. Surv. Finland, bration of zoned chromite in ultramafic
Tutkimusrap., Rep. Invest. 67, 188. cumulates, Vammala Ni-belt, southwestern
Nyknen, O., 1983. Explanation to the map of Finland. Can. Min. 33, 521535.
rocks. Geological map of Finland 1:100 Peltonen, P., Elo, S., 1999. Petrology of the Kai-
000, Sheets 4124 + 4142 (Punkaharju) pola layered intrusion, southern Finland.
and 4123 + 4114 (Parikkala), Geol. Surv. In: S. Autio (Ed.), Current Research
Finland, Espoo. 19971998. Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec. Pap.
Paavola, J., 1988. Lapinlahden kartta-alueen kal- 27, 2124.
lioper. Summary: Pre-Quaternary rocks of Peltonen, P., Pakkanen, L., Johanson, B., 1995.
the Lapinlahti map-sheet area. Geological Re-Mo-Cu-Os sulphide from the Ekojoki
map of Finland 1:100 000, sheet 3332 (La- Ni-Cu deposit, SW Finland. Mineral. Petrol.
pinlahti), Geol. Surv. Finland, Espoo. 52, 257264.
Papunen, H., 1970. Sulfide mineralogy of the Puustinen, K., Saltikoff, B., Tontti, M., 1995. Dis-
Kotalahti and Hitura nickel-copper ores, tribution and metallogenic types of nickel
Finland. Ann. Acad. Sci. Fenn., Ser. A III deposits in Finland. Geol. Surv. Finland,
109, 174. Rep. Invest. 132, 138.
Papunen, H., 1989. Platinum-group elements in Raitala, R., 1997. Hyvinkn emksinen kerrosint-
metamorphosed Ni-Cu deposits in Finland. ruusio. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Helsinki,
In: M.D. Prendergast, M.J. Jones (Eds.), Finland. (in Finnish)
Magmatic sulphides the Zimbabwe vol- Raitala, R. (Ed.), 2000. Hyvinkn-Mntsln
ume. London: The Institution of Mining and malmiprojektin loppuraportti. Report,
Metallurgy, pp. 165176. Ministry of Trade and Industry, Helsinki,
Papunen, H., Gorbunov, G. I. (Eds.), 1985. Nickel- Finland. (in Finnish)
copper deposits of the Baltic Shield and Rm, T., 1986. Honkajoen Permaan emksinen
Scandinavian Caledonides. Geol. Surv. intruusio erityisesti sen gabro-osien petro-
Finland, Bull. 333, 1394. grafia, mineralogia ja petrologia. M.Sc. The-
Papunen, H., Koskinen, J., 1985. Geology of the sis, Univ. of Helsinki, Finland. (in Finnish)
Kotalahti nickel-copper ore. In: H. Papu- Rm, O.T., Vaasjoki, M., Mnttri, I., Elliott, B.A.,
nen, G.I. Gorbunov (Eds.), Nickel-copper Nironen, M., 2001. Petrogenesis of the post-
deposits of the Baltic Shield and Scandi- kinematic magmatism of the Central Fin-
navian Caledonides. Geol. Surv. Finland, land Granitoid Complex I; Radiogenic iso-
Bull. 333, 228240. tope constraints and implications for crustal
Patchett, J., Kouvo, O., 1986. Origin of continental evolution. J. Petrol. 42, 19711993.
crust of 1.91.7 Ga age: Nd isotopes and Regan, P.F., 1985. The early basic intrusions. In:
U-Pb zircon ages in the Svecokarelian ter- W.S. Pitcher, R.S. Middleton (Eds.), Mag-
rain of South Finland. Contrib. Mineral. matism at Plate Edge, The Peruvian Andes.
Petrol. 92, 112. Wiley, New York, pp. 7289.
Peltonen, P., 1990. Metamorphic olivine in picritic Robins, B., Gardner, P.M., 1974. Synorogenic
metavolcanics from Southern Finland. Bull. layered basic intrusions in Seiland prov-
Geol. Soc. Finland 62, 99114. ince, Finnmark. Norg. Geol. Unders. 312,
Peltonen, P., 1995a. Petrogenesis of ultramafic 91130.
rocks in the Vammala Nickel Belt: Impli- Sandholm, G., 1970. Om gabbroplutonen i Kaipola,
cations for crustal evolution of the early Jms. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Helsinki,
Proterozoic Svecofennian arc terrane. Lit- Finland. (in Swedish)
hos 34, 253274. Schersten, A., 2001. Mafic intrusions in SW Swe-
Peltonen, P., 1995b. Magma-country rock interac- den. Ph. D. Thesis, Earth Sciences Center,
tion and the genesis of Ni-Cu deposits in Gteborg University, Sweden.
the Vammala Nickel Belt, SW Finland. Skirrow, R.G., Sims, J.P., 1999. Genesis and setting
of intrusion-hosted Ni-Cu mineralisation at environment. In: K. Kojonen (Ed.), The early
Las Aguilas, San Luis Province, Argentina: Proterozoic Zn-Cu-Pb sulphide deposit of
implications for exploration of an Ordovi- Rauhala in Ylivieska, western Finland. Geol.
cian arc. Expor. Mining Geol. 8, 120. Surv. Finland, Spec. Pap. 11, 5965.
Snoke, A.W., Sharp, W.D., Wright, J.E., Saleeby, Vaasjoki, M., 1994. Valijrven hapan vulkaniitti:
J.B., 1982. Significance of mid-Mesozoic minimi Hmeen liuskejakson iksi. Sum-
peridotitic to dioritic intrusive complexes, mary: Radiometric age of a meta-andesite
Klamath Mountainswestern Sierra Ne- at Valijrvi, Hme schist zone, southern
vada, California. Geology 10, 160166. Finland. Geologi 46, 9192.
Suominen, V., 1988. Radiometric ages on zircons Vaasjoki, M., Sakko, M., 1988. The evolution of the
from a cogenetic gabbro and plagioclase RaaheLadoga zone in Finland: isotopic
porphyrite suite in Hyvink, southern constraints. In: K. Korsman (Ed.), Tectono-
Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland 60, metamorphic evolution of the RaaheLadoga
135140. zone. Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 343, 732.
Suominen, V., 1991. The chronostratigraphy of Vaasjoki, M., Pietikinen, K., Vaarma, M., 1996.
southwestern Finland with special reference U-Pb zircon determinations from the Keiky
to Postjotnian and Subjotnian diabases. breccia and other sites in the Svecofennides:
Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 356, 1100. indications of a Svecokarelian protocrust.
Thompson, J.F.H., 1984. Acadian synorogenic ma- Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland 68, 310.
fic intrusions in the Maine Appalachians. Vuori, S., 1999. Hyvinkn emksisen kerrosint-
Am. J. Sci. 284, 462483. ruusion lnsiosan rakenteesta ja geoke-
Vaasjoki, M., 1989. Pb and S isotopic studies on the miasta. M.Sc. Thesis, Univ. of Helsinki,
Rauhala Zn-Cu-Pb sulphide deposit and its Finland. 178. (in Finnish)
Chapter 10
PROTEROZOIC
OROGENIC GRANITOID
ROCKS
M. Nironen
Cover page: Postkinematic quartz monzonite crosscutting mafic monzodiorite. Aplite dikes cross-
cut the quartz monzonite and monzodiorite. Distance between the two horizontal dikes is 15 cm.
Paloinen, Toivakka, central Finland.
Photo: Mikko Nironen.
CHAPTER 10 PROTEROZOIC OROGENIC GRANITOID ROCKS

444
Nironen, M., 2005. Proterozoic orogenic granitoid rocks. In:
The classification of the Paleoproterozoic granitoid rocks of Finland has been

renewed to conform to the evolution of the Svecofennian orogen. Preorogenic
granitoids (1.951.91 Ga) are located in the Primitive arc complex of central
Finland and in northernmost Finland. They differ from the orogenic ones in
having higher Fe, Mg, and Ca contents typical of primitive arc environments.
Emplacement and deformation of the synorogenic rocks in southern and central
Finland relate to accretion of two arc complexes at 1.911.89 Ga. These rocks
are divided into synkinematic (1.891.87 Ga) and postkinematic (1.881.86 Ga).
Both show high K contents; the postkinematic rocks also have high Fe/Mg and
an overall alkaline character. The synorogenic (1.891.86 Ga) rocks of northern
Finland comprise high-Na monzonitic and tonaliticgranodioritic suites.
The lateorogenic granites of southern Finland (1.841.81 Ga) are peralu-
minous S-type granites with abundant garnet. They are associated with migma-
tizing veins and were formed by partial melting of Paleoproterozoic metasedi-
mentary rocks. The postorogenic plutons of southern Finland (1.811.77 Ga)
were emplaced at high crustal levels. They have a wide compositional range,
shoshonitic affinity, and they were probably derived from an enriched litho-
spheric mantle source. The lateorogenic (1.841.80 Ga) granites of northern
Finland are associated with migmatizing veins and often contain fragments
of older rocks. The postorogenic granites of northern Finland (1.801.77 Ga)
are high-level intrusions with abundant quartz porphyry and aplite dikes. The
lateorogenic and postorogenic granites of northern Finland are peraluminous
and alkaline.
Initial Nd values are ~ +3 in the preorogenic rocks, 1.5 to +1 and ~ +3
in the synorogenic rocks, 1 to +0.5 in the postkinematic rocks of the Central
Finland granitoid complex, 0 to +2 in the lateorogenic and postorogenic granites
of southern Finland, and strongly negative in the lateorogenic and postorogenic
rocks in areas underlain by Archean crust. These values reflect a shift from juve-
nile arc magmatism to mixed sources involving Paleoproterozoic and Archean
components. Orogenic magmatism in central Finland started with calc-alkaline
synkinematic magmatism and ended in alkaline postkinematic magmatism. A
younger cycle in southern Finland commenced with peraluminous lateorogenic
magmatism and ended in shoshonitic postorogenic magmatism. The first evolu-
tion line resulted from accretion of two arc complexes and subsequent stabiliza-
tion of the crust in central Finland. The other reflects prolonged deformation,
magmatism, and metamorphism along the southern collision zone, possibly as
the result of orogenic collapse.
CHAPTER 10 PROTEROZOIC OROGENIC GRANITOID ROCKS 445

1. Classification of plutonic rocks classification of magmatism corresponds to a
plate tectonic application of the classic (geo-
The classification of plutonic rocks with re- synclinal) orogenic hypothesis:
spect to orogeny originated in Finland. Pentti
Eskola (1932) classified plutonic rocks in (1) island arc magmatism preceding
southern Finland as synkinematic, late kine- onset of accretion or collision (preoro-
matic, and postkinematic using the degree of genic stage);
deformation and compositional differences (2) magmatism associated with accre-
as criteria. In the same year, J. J. Sederholm tion of arc(s) to a continent or collision
divided the Precambrian rocks of Fennoscan- of two continents (synorogenic stage);
dia into four sedimentation cycles, each with (3) magmatism associated with large
distinct plutonism. The plutonic rocks of the horizontal movements and extension of
first and second cycles mainly correspond orogenically thickened crust (late- and
to the synkinematic rocks of Eskola (1932). postorogenic stages).
Some granite stocks in southern Finland and
Lapland (northern Finland) belong to the third As mid-ocean ridges and island arcs ul-
cycle, and the rapakivi granites in southern timately collide with continents, virtually all
Finland (Chapter 12) are part of the fourth plutonic rocks except intracontinental suites
cycle. Later, Simonen (1960) distinguished will be deformed in crustal movements. This
synkinematic granodiorite, trond hjemite, leads to a general problem of the tectonic set-
charnockite, and granite provinces as well as ting of plutonic rocks: the style and degree
a belt of latekinematic microcline granites. In of deformation does not necessarily indicate
1980, Simonen divided the Svecofennian plu- tectonic regime. Contemporaneous plutons
tonic rocks into synorogenic, lateorogenic, and may appear syntectonic or posttectonic with
postorogenic and considered that the rapakivi respect to a specific deformation, depending
granites are anorogenic. on their emplacement level (e.g., Brown,
Along with the acceptance of the plate 1994). The classification according to geo-
tectonic theory the magmatectonic classifica- logical environment (e.g., Pitcher, 1982) was
tion of plutonic rocks was renewed to conform aimed for Phanerozoic granitoid rocks but it
to the new concepts of crustal evolution. An has also been applied to the Precambrian. The
attempt was focused to unravel which areas are tectonic classification based on trace elements
remnants of ancient ocean floor or magmatic (Pearce et al., 1984) has been widely used, but
arc and which are part of an older continental the complex history of granitoid rocks (e.g.,
crust onto which arcs collided. The following geochemical inheritage in the source area,
Table 10.1.
Classifications of Proterozoic orogenic granitoid rocks in Finland.
Simonen (1960) Simonen (1980) This study
synkinematic (1.851.75 Ga) synorogenic (1.901.86 Ga) preorogenic (1.951.91 Ga)
synorogenic (1.891.86 Ga)
synkinematic (1.891.87 Ga)
postkinematic (1.881.86 Ga)
latekinematic lateorogenic lateorogenic (1.841.80 Ga)
postorogenic (~1.80 Ga) postorogenic (1.811.77 Ga)
446 CHAPTER 10 PROTEROZOIC OROGENIC GRANITOID ROCKS

Inari area
Hetta
complex
Central Lapland
granitoid complex
Preorogenic rocks
Synorogenic rocks
Lateorogenic rocks
AWF
PA Postorogenic rocks
Central Finland
granitoid complex
Rapakivi granite
Supracrustal rocks
Archean rocks
ASF
100 km
Helsinki
Fig. 10.1. Paleoproterozoic felsic and intermediate plutonic rocks in Finland (modified from Kors-
man et al., 1997, and Koistinen et al., 2001). Terrane boundaries (in blue) between the Arc complex of
southern Finland (ASF), Arc complex of western Finland (AWF), and Primitive arc complex (PA) are
from Korsman et al. (1997).
mixing of magmas) hamper, often severely, the underwent orogenic processes at different
interpretation of discrimination diagrams. times: arc magmatism took place in one area
There are indications that the Svecofen- and initial accretion in another area, and the
nian bedrock grew by sequential accretion crust was solidified and subject to isostatic
of arcs and probably includes several colli- uplift in one area, while elsewhere folding and
sion zones and remnants of marine basins magmatism were still in operation.
(Lahtinen, 1994; Nironen, 1997). Therefore, A renewed classification of the orogenic
different parts of the Svecofennian bedrock granitoid rocks of Finland (including quartz

Preorogenic rocks
Synkinematic rocks
Synorogenic rocks
(northern Finland)
Postkinematic rocks
Lateorogenic rocks
Postorogenic rocks
1750 1800 1850 1900 1950 Ma

Fig. 10.2. Age histogram of the Paleoproterozoic granitoid rocks in Finland (Geological Survey of
Finland database). Each individual age is shown as a rectangle; question marks denote ages with two
sigma error larger than 10 Ma. Numbers in the 18801890 Ma column indicate number of individual
analyses not shown.
monzonite, quartz monzodiorite, and quartz plexes to the Archean craton: the Primitive
diorite) is shown in Table 10.1. This is based on arc complex and the Arc complex of western
new geochronological data and recent concepts Finland 1.91 Ga ago and the Arc complex of
of the evolution of the Svecofennian but retains southern Finland 1.89 Ga ago (Figure 10.1;
the general terminology of Simonen (1980). Lahtinen, 1994; Nironen, 1997). Field studies
The distribution of the rocks is shown in Figure have shown that some synorogenic rocks in
10.1, and the age data that form the basis of the central Finland crosscut their host (synoro-
classification are shown in Figure 10.2. genic) plutonic rocks. These rocks have been
The preorogenic rocks were generated in divided into syn- and postkinematic groups
an island arc environment and were placed in with respect to prominent deformation within
their present location during the Svecofen- the area in question. Recent geochemical and
nian orogeny. Zircons dated from volcanic isotope studies have confirmed this distinction
rocks, granitoids, and mafic plutonic rocks of (Nironen et al., 2000; Rm et al., 2001). The
southern Finland cluster in the age range of lateorogenic granites of southern Finland are
1.891.87 Ga (Vaasjoki, 1996). This time in- located in the collision zone between the two
terval also includes prominent tectonic activity southern arc complexes and are associated
in the Finnish Svecofennian. The emplacement with metamorphism and low-angle crustal
and deformation of the synorogenic rocks is movements. The postorogenic plutons of
assigned to the accretion of three arc com- southern Finland are located within the same

zone but, in contrast to the lateorogenic gran- other problem is the tectonic setting of the
ites, were emplaced along faults and shear rocks: were they formed at the Archean craton
zones within a largely stabilized crust. margin as the result of accretion of the Arc
complex of western Finland (Ekdahl, 1993),
or did the Primitive arc complex unite with
2. Preorogenic rocks the Arc complex of western Finland elsewhere
and dock on the craton margin at 1.91 Ga
2.1. Preorogenic rocks of central Finland (Lahtinen, 1994; Nironen, 1997)?
(1.931.91 Ga)
2.2. Preorogenic rocks of northern
The Primitive arc complex adjacent to the Finland (1.951.91 Ga)
southwestern margin of the Archean bedrock
(Figure 10.1) contains 1.931.91 Ga gneissic In northernmost Finland, within the Inari area,
tonalites, which are associated with a bimodal (Figure 10.1) there are foliated plutonic bodies
volcanic sequence with numerous interlayered that usually have concordant contacts with the
Zn-Cu deposits and graywacke-type mica surrounding Paleoproterozoic gneisses. The
gneisses (Ekdahl, 1993). They are often found composition of the bodies varies from perido-
in the center of domal structures and are sur- tite through gabbro to granodiorite and they
rounded by low-K tholeiitic to calc-alkaline probably consist of several intrusive units. The
basalts, andesites, and low-K felsic volcanic felsic rocks of the group have yielded zircon
rocks with arc affinity. These gneissic tonalites ages of 1.951.93 Ga (Merilinen, 1976). As
are the oldest plutonic rocks so far identified the tectonic character of the Inari area is not
in the Finnish Svecofennian. A 1921 2 Ma well constrained, little can be said about the
rhyolite (Kousa et al., 1994) indicates that the tectonic setting of these rocks.
1.931.91 Ga tonalitic plutonism was associ- The Hetta complex, consisting of tonalit-
ated with volcanism. icgranitic intrusive rocks as well as remnants
The gneissic tonalites are pervasively foli- of supracrustal rocks, is enigmatic in age and
ated and range from tonalite to granodiorite. tectonic setting. A group of flat-lying tonalite
They vary in appearance from felsic, homo- and granodiorite bodies with subhorizontal
geneous, and intrusive-like to migmatitic. The foliation are located within the allochtonous
main minerals are plagioclase, quartz, biotite, metavolcanic rocks to the east of the Hetta
and occasionally hornblende, with orthopyro- complex and it is unknown whether also the
xene in some of the tonalites. The tonalites intrusive rocks are allochtonous. A tonalitic-
contain abundant mafic and felsic enclaves. granitic body of this group yielded an age of
Some of these are disrupted dikes, whereas 1.91 Ga (Rastas et al., 2001), and a granite
others appear to be country rock xenoliths. In of the Hetta complex was dated at 1.81 Ga
some domal areas the composition of the mafic (Huhma, 1986). Korsman et al. (1997) as-
enclaves matches the composition of the sur- signed these rocks to the ~1.8 Ga age group,
rounding mafic volcanic rocks. Ekdahl (1993) whereas Lehtonen et al. (1998) considered the
considered the enclaves intrusive equivalents Hetta complex to be synorogenic (~1.88 Ga);
of the overlying volcanic rocks. This leads to a here the rocks are considered preorogenic. In
yet unresolved problem regarding the geologic the recent lithological map of Fennoscandia
setting of the gneissic tonalites: do they rep- (Koistinen et al., 2001) the Hetta complex is
resent the basement of the supracrustal rocks assigned to the 1.961.91 Ga age group.
(Ekdahl, 1993) or are they sills that intruded
the supracrustal rocks (Lahtinen, 1994)? An-

Oulu
Iisa
lmi
com
Veteli
ple
Vaasa
x
Central Finland
granitoid complex
10
Puruvesi
7 8
Tampere 9
Kalanti 6
Orip
4 5
3 Turku 100 km
2
1
Hanko
Helsinki
Preorogenic rocks Lateorogenic rocks Supracrustal rocks
Synkinematic rocks Postorogenic rocks Archean rocks
Postkinematic rocks Rapakivi granite
Fig. 10.3. Paleoproterozoic felsic and intermediate plutonic rocks in southern Finland (modified from
Korsman et al., 1997). The western margin of the Archean craton (paleosuture) is shown by a dotted
line. Postkinematic microtonalite dikes are found west of the dashed line. Blue line as in Figure 10.1.
Postorogenic intrusions: 1Lemland, 2Mosshaga, 3Seglinge, 4va, 5Turku, 6Renko, 7Parkkila,
8Luonteri, 9Erjrvi, 10Piril.
3. Synorogenic rocks covers most of the Arc complex of western

Finland. The synorogenic rocks are subdivided
Synorogenic plutonic rocks, 1.891.87 Ga in into synkinematic (1.891.87 Ga) and postkine-
age, are found in all the three arc complexes matic (1.881.86 Ga) with reference to promi-
of southern and central Finland (Figure 10.3). nent deformation in the area in question. In
They are especially abundant in the ~40,000 central Finland the prominent deformational
km2 Central Finland granitoid complex that event is dated at 18851880 Ma (Nironen,

A B
C D
Fig. 10.4. Synkinematic rock types of southern and central Finland. (A) Gneissic, folded and sheared
granodiorite of the Central Finland granitoid complex. Length of code bar 12 cm. (B) Coarse-por-
phyritic granodiorite of the Central Finland granitoid complex. Length of code bar 10 cm. (C) Mafic
enclaves in a granodiorite of the Central Finland granitoid complex. Diameter of lens cap 5.5 cm.
(D) Strongly foliated tonalite near Turku, southwestern Finland. Length of code bar 10 cm. Photos:
Mikko Nironen.
1989; Hltt, 1995; Mkitie, 1999; Mouri et 10.3). They exhibit a foliation that varies from
al., 1999). The overlapping ages of the two slight fabric to pervasive gneissic foliation
groups show that, at 1.881.87 Ga, some (Figure 10.4A). Coarse-porphyritic grano-
parts of the Svecofennian crust were subject diorite and granite with abundant subhedral
to penetrative deformation and synkinematic to anhedral alkali feldspar megacrysts 14
magmatism, whereas in other areas the post- cm in diameter are located in the central and
kinematic stage had already been reached. northern parts of the complex (Figure 10.4B).
The granites contain biotite as the only main
3.1. Synkinematic rocks of southern and mafic mineral; accessory minerals are horn-
central Finland (1.891.87 Ga) blende, titanite, apatite, magnetite, and zircon.
Both hornblende and biotite are present in the
Synkinematic rocks of the Central Finland tonalites and granodiorites, and the tonalites
granitoid complex are typically medium- may also contain clinopyroxene or orthopyro-
grained granodiorites and granites; medium- xene. Typical accessory minerals are titanite,
grained tonalites are found especially along apatite, magnetite, and zircon. The minor
the western margin of the complex (Figure mafic rocks mostly consist of quartz diorite

and diorite. The main mafic minerals in the In southwestern Finland intensely foli-
dioritic rocks are biotite and hornblende. The ated tonalites are found as concordant, sheet-
dioritic rocks usually contain so much feldspar like intrusions within the supracrustal rocks
that they have a monzonitic affinity. Further (Figure 10.4D). There are also tonalites and
accessory minerals include clinopyroxene, granodiorites varying in age from 1.87 Ga to
quartz, orthopyroxene, magnetite, apatite, 1.84 Ga (Suominen, 1991; van Duin, 1992;
titanite, and zircon. Abundant mafic enclaves Nironen, 1999). These rocks become pyrox-
in the tonalites and granodiorites (Figure ene-bearing as the grade of metamorphism in
10.4C) suggest that mixing and mingling pro- the host rocks increases. The considerable age
cesses were important; in the granites mafic variation may arise from growth of secondary
enclaves are sparse. The felsic to intermediate zircon during a high grade metamorphic event
synkinematic intrusive rocks grade in places 1.82 Ga ago (Visnen et al., 2002), and thus
into subvolcanic quartz-feldspar and feldspar the crystallization age of these rocks is prob-
porphyries (Nironen, 2003). ably ~1.87 Ga.
Synkinematic rocks of the supracrustal-
dominated belts surrounding the Central Fin- 3.2. Postkinematic rocks of central
land granitoid complex are generally grano- Finland (1.881.86 Ga)
diorites and tonalites. They are usually oval
or roundish intrusions and exhibit a foliation Within the Central Finland granitoid complex
that is locally conformable with the country there is a suite of 1.881.87 Ga quartz mon-
rock contacts. In places the orientation extends zonitic, granodioritic, and granitic plutons
from the plutonic rock into the country rock that crosscut the 1.891.88 Ga synkinematic
a typical feature for syntectonic intrusions rocks (Elliott et al., 1998; Nironen, 2003).
(Figure 10.5). Most of the plutons are multi- These are considered postkinematic because
phase and show normal zoning with tonalitic they are usually unoriented or only slightly
marginal parts and granodioritic to granitic oriented and truncate the foliation of the
central parts; reversely zoned plutons are also synkinematic rocks. They are found all over
found (Nironen, 1989; Nironen and Bateman, the Central Finland granitoid complex and
1989). Biotite is generally more common than also outside the complex however, not in
hornblende, and accessory clinopyroxene is the Arc complex of southern Finland (Figure
some times present. Other accessory minerals 10.3). A postkinematic sequence, consisting
are titanite, magnetite, apatite, and zircon. The of hypersthene granite, monzogranite, and
granitoids contain mafic enclaves, and may coarse-porphyritic granite, was emplaced at
also contain quartz dioritic or dioritic phases. 18861880 Ma in the northeastern part of the
These features suggest that mafic mantle-de- complex (Nironen and Front, 1992). The post-
rived magma and felsic crustal magma mixed kinematic plutonic magmatism shifted from
producing a variety of hybrid rocks (Nironen northeast toward west during 18851870 Ma
and Bateman, 1989; Lahtinen, 1996). (Rm et al., 2001). The postkinematic plutons
Abundant mafic and, less frequently, inter- are located at or close to major crustal shear
mediate dikes are found among migmatitic mica zones. These plutons were emplaced within
gneisses that fringe the Central Finland granit- an extensional or transtensional environment
oid complex in the south and east (Figure 10.3). and shear zones controlled their emplacement.
These dikes crosscut the earliest deformation A couple of small monzodioritic to gabbroic
structures but have been broken or boudinaged bodies are associated with the postkinematic
during subsequent deformation, hence they may plutons of the Central Finland granitoid com-
be considered synkinematic dikes. plex. Magma mingling textures indicate that

A Central Finland granitoid complex
Lake Nsijrvi
H V
10 km
Tampere
B C
3 km 3 km
D E Erosional surface
> >
>
3 km
Diorite Granodiorite Granitoid rocks
Quartz monzodiorite Granite Metavolcanic rocks
Tonalite Feldspar porphyry Metasedimentary rocks
Fig. 10.5. Two synkinematic plutons near the southern margin of the Central Finland granitoid com-
plex. (A) The location of the Hmeenkyr (H) and Vrml (V) plutons. (B) Lithology of the Hmeen-
kyr pluton. (C) Lithology of the Vrml pluton. (D) LS texture in the Vrml pluton and trend lines
of foliation (local S1) within and outside the Vrml pluton. The continuation of foliation into the
pluton and other contact phenomena (Nironen, 1989) indicate that the pluton is syntectonic with
respect to local D1 deformation. (E) Interpretation of the emplacement of the Vrml pluton (Niro-
nen, 1989). Plagioclase accumulated at the base of a magma chamber in deeper crust. The dioritic
body was emplaced first, then the granitic and granodioritic phases. The quartz monzodioritic magma,
containing plagioclase cumulates, was emplaced as the last phase in the center of the pluton.

A B
C D
Fig. 10.6. Postkinematic rock types of the Central Finland granitoid complex. (A) A monzodioritic
enclave in quartz monzonite. Note the reaction rim and the felsic clots in the monzodiorite, suggest-
ing mingling between a monzodioritic and a quartz monzonitic magma. Diameter of coin 2.2 cm. (B)
Coarse-grained granite. Diameter of coin 2.4 cm. (C) Pyroxene-bearing marginal variety of a porphy-
ritic quartz monzonite. Length of code bar 10 cm. (D) Postkinematic porphyritic quartz monzonite.
Note the alkali feldspar crystals mantled by plagioclase. Length of code bar 10 cm. Photos: Mikko
Nironen.
the mafic rocks are coeval with the felsic rocks thus rather late in the crystallization sequence.
(Figure 10.6A). Fluorite is a characteristic accessory mineral of
The postkinematic plutons are multiphase the Type 2 plutons. Other accessory minerals
intrusions that can be divided into three types include apatite, zircon, titanite, and allanite.
(Elliott et al., 1998). Type 1 plutons are bio- Type 3 plutons either have a pyroxene-bearing
tite granodiorites and granites that are found margin (Figure 10.6C) or contain pyroxene
along the southern margin of the Central through out. Large orthoclase megacrysts
Finland granitoid complex. They are coarse- mantled by plagioclase are typical of the Type
porphyritic rocks with abundant orthoclase 3 quartz monzonites (Figure 10.6C, D). Espe-
megacrysts. Accessory minerals are fluorite, cially the Type 2 granites in the western part
zircon, apatite, and ilmenite. Type 2 plutons of the granitoid complex resemble the rapakivi
are coarse-porphyritic or equigranular granites granites in their mineralogy and geochemical
that vary in grain size from medium to coarse characteristics (Nironen et al., 2000). Typical
(Figure 10.6B). The main mafic mineral is structural features of the postkinematic plutons
biotite but some plutons contain amphibole; are shown in Figure 10.7.
the mafic minerals are generally interstitial and A group of 1.871.86 Ga quartz diorites,

+ Porphyritic granite
Even-grained granite
Pyroxene-bearing
quartz monzonite
Gabbro
Location of Synkinematic granitoid
Figure 10.6C rocks
Intermediate and felsic
metavolcanic rocks
Mica gneiss
Foliation form line

Shear zone
Shear sense
5 km
Fig.10.7. Two postkinematic granitoid plutons in the southern part of the Central Finland granitoid
complex (modified from Nironen et al., 2000). The northern one with pyroxene-bearing margin is a
Type 3 pluton, and the southern one is Type 2.
granodiorites, and granites is found east of other. They were emplaced at 1.891.85 Ga,
the suture that marks the boundary of the probably in several periods. They may be di-
Archean craton (Figure 10.3; Huhma, 1986; vided into homogeneous (Figure 10.8A) and
Ruotoistenmki et al., 2001). The rocks are composite (Figure 10.8B) (Rautiainen, 2000).
late in the intrusion sequence and some are The former probably resulted from mixing and
associated with wrench faults (Halden, 1982). the latter from mingling of mafic and felsic
These features are typical of postkinematic magmas.
plutons and the rocks are thus considered
postkinematic. 3.3. Synorogenic rocks of northern
A swarm of dikes is found in a broad Finland (1.891.86 Ga)
zone in central Finland, extending from the
Archean Iisalmi terrain to the northeastern In western Lapland (Figure 10.9), there are
part of the Central Finland granitoid complex granitoids that are broadly coeval with the
(Figure 10.3). These dikes mark a prominent synorogenic granites of central and southern
plutonic event in the zone and are especially Finland. These rocks consitute the Haaparanta
abundant in the east. The dikes are generally (Haparanda) suite and they are found on both
fine-grained and quartz dioritic to tonalitic; sides of the FinlandSweden border (e.g.,
hence they have been called microtonalite Lehtonen et al., 1998; Bergman et al., 2001).
dikes (Huhma, 1981). The dike swarm is The synorogenic rocks in western Lapland
complex in composition, origin, and age. The may be divided into two groups: (1) mon-
dikes are generally deformed and they crosscut zonites, consisting of gabbro, quartz monzo-
sedimentary rocks, igneous rocks, and each diorite, monzodiorite, monzonite, and quartz

A B
Fig. 10.8. Microtonalite dikes from central Finland. (A) Homogenous, fine-grained microtonalite
crosscuts Archean gneiss and is crosscut by another homogeneous microtonalite dike. Width of the
older dike 30 cm. (B) Composite dike, consisting of microtonalite with mafic encaves, crosscuts mica
gneiss. Length of code bar 10 cm. Photos: Olli iks.
monzonite; and (2) trondhjemites, consisting 4. Lateorogenic granites

of quartz diorite, tonalite, trondhjemite, and
granodiorite (Lehtonen, 1984). The monzo- 4.1. Lateorogenic granites of southern
nites are darkish, medium- to coarse-grained, Finland (1.841.81 Ga)
and foliated and contain mafic enclaves. They
have conformal or tectonic contacts with In southern Finland, the lateorogenic granites
host supracrustal rocks. The most common constitute an ENE-trending, roughly 100-km-
mafic mineral is hornblende. Titanite, epidote, wide zone (Figure 10.3). The zone is character-
magnetite, apatite, and zircon are accessory ized by migmatization of supracrustal rocks,
minerals. The trondhjemites are pale, me- and the plutonic rocks are mainly granites
dium-grained and generally weakly foliated containing garnet and cordierite (e.g., Nurmi
rocks that consist mainly of plagioclase and and Haapala, 1986). The paucity of intermedi-
quartz; the amount of alkali feldspar varies. ate and mafic plutonic rocks is characteristic.
Hornblende, clinopyroxene, and biotite are The mode of occurrence of the granites varies:
found as primary minor minerals, and magne- they may be homogeneous, coarse-grained,
tite, titanite, apatite, and zircon are accessory locally porphyritic rocks, small intrusions of
minerals. equigranular granite, or may grade from fairly
Age determinations of the diorites and homogeneous garnet-bearing rocks to granite
monzonites have yielded Paleoproterozoic vein systems that migmatize supracrustal
ages (1.891.86 Ga), whereas the zircons rocks. Many localities within the zone exhibit
in the trondhjemites are mixed populations gradation from a schist or gneiss cut by granite
with an Archean component (Hiltunen, 1982; dikes to a heterogeneous diatexitic rock with
Lehtonen, 1984; Huhma, 1986; Perttunen, remnants of older rock (Figure 10.10A), and
1991; Vnnen, 1998; Perttunen and Vaas- further into a homogeneous plutonic rock.
joki, 2001; Vnnen and Lehtonen, 2001). A Lateorogenic granites may also brecciate syn-
monzonite with an Nd (at 1880 Ma) value of orogenic plutonic rocks (Figure 10.10B).
3.2 and depleted mantle model age of 2.42 The lateorogenic granites are generally
Ga (Chapter 4, Table 4.1.) suggests an Archean found as flat-lying sheets. Tectonic activity
component also in the monzonites. continued within the zone of lateorogenic

Inari area
Vainosp
Preorogenic rocks
Hetta
complex
Synorogenic rocks
Nattanen
Tepasto Riestovaara Lateorogenic rocks
Pomovaara
Postorogenic rocks
Supracrustal rocks
Central Lapland Archean rocks

granitoid complex
Rovaniemi
Rovaniemi
100 km
Fig. 10.9. Paleoproterozoic felsic and intermediate plutonic rocks in northern Finland. Some of the
pre- and postorogenic plutons are indicated by their names. (Modified from Korsman et al., 1997).
granites longer than elsewhere in southern and were formed when Proterozoic sedimentary
central Finland. This is indicated by the appar- rocks were partially melted in the continental
ent association of the granites with overthrust crust. Thus the granites migmatize rocks simi-
structures. Ehlers et al. (1993) suggested that lar to those they originated from. As the grade
the granites intruded as sheets between older of metamorphism rose, the melt collected into
rocks along subhorizontal thrust planes during pressure minima such as fractures and shear
transpressional deformation and were locally zones (Figure 10.10C). These melts may have
folded into vertical position by subsequent remained in the shear zones or escaped to form
open folding. In line with this, Selonen et al. a granite magma. Granite dikes that alternate
(1996) proposed strike-slip dilatacy pumping with layers of garnet-bearing country rock rep-
for the emplacement mechanism of a flat-lying resent granite that has been segregated from the
granite sheet in southernmost Finland. In con- original site of melting. The melt and unmelted
trast, Korja and Heikkinen (1995) presented rocks also rose together to form migmatite
a model favoring emplacement during crustal domes (Korsman et al., 1984; Bleeker and Wes-
extension. tra, 1987). Some granites contain felsic layers
Nurmi and Haapala (1986) concluded that that probably represent melts that accumulated
the lateorogenic granites of southern Finland in shear planes (Figure 10.10D).

A B
C D
Fig. 10.10. Various types of lateorogenic granites in southern Finland. (A) A diatexitic granite with
ghost-like remnants of older gneiss. Diameter of lens cap 5.5 cm. (B) Lateorogenic granite brecciates
synkinematic granodiorite. (C) Migmatitic garnet-cordierite gneiss in which melt has accumulated
into shear zones during syn-anatexis deformation. (D) Banded, garnet-bearing granite. Photos: Mikko
Nironen.
The ages of the lateorogenic granites in The dominant rock type is a coarse-grained,
the western part of the zone vary between 1.84 heterogeneous granite with abundant frag-
and 1.83 Ga (Huhma, 1986; Suominen, 1991). ments of supracrustal rocks. Available zircon
A study of a granitemonzodiorite association ages vary rather susbtantially (2.141.77 Ga;
at Turku yielded a ~1815 Ma age (Visnen Lauerma, 1982; Huhma, 1986). The youngest
et al., 2000). The age indicates that the Turku zircon age (1.77 Ga) was obtained from the
magmatism is postorogenic (see below) but Rovaniemi granite that probably belongs to
geochemically the granite is similar to the the postorogenic group (see below). Recent
lateorogenic granites. monazite and titanite ages (Corfu and Evins,
2002) show that granite magmatism, associ-
4.2. Lateorogenic granites of northern ated with regional deformation and metamor-
Finland (1.841.80 Ga) phism, occurred as late as 1.77 Ga ago in the
Central Lapland granitoid complex.
Mapping of the Central Lapland granitoid The microcline granites in western Lap-
complex (Figure 10.9) dates back to the land are found both as plutons crosscutting
beginning of the 20th century, and the rock all other rocks and as heterogeneous, migma-
distribution of the region is poorly known. tizing veins associated with regional meta-

A B
C
Fig. 10.11. Rock types in the postorogenic va ring complex. (A) Porphyritic va granite crosscuts
supracrustal gneiss. Length of code bar 12 cm. (B) Lamprophyre dike crosscuts va granite. The dike
is ~50 cm wide. (C) va granite, containing a gneiss xenolith, crosscuts a monzonitic member. Length
of pen 13.5 cm. Photos: Mikko Nironen (A) and Veli Suominen (B, C).
morphism (Lehtonen, 1984; Perttunen et al., Central Lapland granitoid complex (see also
1996; Vnnen, 1998). The plutons consist Korsman et al., 1997).
of reddish, coarse-grained granite, typically
with fragments of supracrustal rocks. Biotite
is commonly the only mafic mineral, and mag- 5. Postorogenic rocks
netite is an abundant accessory phase; some
plutons contain also tourmaline. A zircon age 5.1. Postorogenic rocks of southern
of 1.81 Ga was obtained from such a granite, Finland (1.811.77 Ga)
and an age of 1778 Ma from a pegmatitic
granite (Lehtonen, 1984; Lehtonen, 1988; The postorogenic rocks of southern Finland
Vnnen and Lehtonen, 2001). In Sweden, are found as relatively small intrusions that
corresponding plutons are considered to be- roughly follow the northern boundary of the
long to the 1.811.78 Ga Lina granitepegma- of lateorogenic granite zone to Russia (Figure
tite association (Bergman et al., 2001). 10.3; Eklund et al., 1998). Their ages range
The ~1.81 Ga porphyritic granite south- between 1815 Ma and 1770 Ma (Vaasjoki
east of Oulu and granites crosscutting the and Sakko, 1988; Suominen, 1991; Vaasjoki,
Archean complex (Figure 10.3) presumably 1996; Visnen et al., 2000). The intrusions
belong to the same 1.8 Ga age group as the are generally rounded (diameter 215 km);

A B
Monzonite Lateorogenic granite Lamprophyre dike
Granite Gneiss
Fig. 10.12. (A) Postorogenic va ring complex (after Ehlers and Bergman, 1984). (B) Emplacement
mechanism of the va monzonite and granite as suggested by Bergman (1986). The emplacement of a
lateorogenic granite plastically deformed the host gneisses. The monzonite intruded the lateorogenic
granite, and pearced upward by stoping and wedging. Volatiles and excess magma pressure caused
fracturing and uplifting of the roof. The granite followed the hot trail of monzonitic precursors, subse-
quently widening the funnel laterally. The hatched line shows the present level of erosion.
the va, Seglinge and Mosshaga intrusions shaped multiphase pluton that consists of an
are ring complexes and also the Lemland older tonalitic phase followed by granodiorite
intrusion has concentric compositional and and granite (Pitknen, 1985). Biotite is the
structural features. In contrast to the other main mafic mineral, hornblende is an abun-
intrusions, Parkkila and Erjrvi are dike-like dant mineral in some granodiorite varietes.
bodies with lengths of several kilometers. All Typical accessory minerals are titanite, apatite,
intrusions sharply crosscut their host rocks magnetite, zircon, and allanite. Chlorite and
(Figure 10.11A). fluorite are found as alteration products of
Large compositional variation (monzo- biotite, and primary fluorite is present in the
diorite to granite) is present in the intrusions late dike rocks.
of the land islands and at Luonteri whereas Lamprophyric dikes are associated with
the others are more homogeneous (Parkkila the va and Seglinge ring complexes (Fig-
is granodioritic and Piril and Erjrvi are ure 10.11B). Bimodal lamprophyregranite
granitic). The Luonteri intrusion is a funnel- magmatism has resulted in frequent magma

Coarse-porphyritic
Location of Figures granite
13B and 13C
Porphyritic granite
Even-grained granite
Granite porphyry
Rhyolite dike
Granite gneiss
Mafic and ultramafic
metavolcanic rock
Quartzite and arkosite
Mica gneiss
0 3 6 km
6 mm
B C
Fig. 10.13. (A) Map of the postorogenic Riestovaara pluton (modified from Front et al., 1989). Part of
the Nattanen pluton is seen in the upper right corner. A possible unexposed postorogenic pluton is
shown as dashed line on the basis of a positive magnetic anomaly. (B) A boulder close to the margin
of the postorogenic Nattanen pluton, consisting of spherulitic rhyolite dike (right) and host mica
schist (left). Diameter of coin is 2.6 cm. (C) Photomicrograph of the spherulitic rhyolite in Figure
10.13B. Photos: Kai Front.
mixing and mingling structures (Hubbard and considered that both chemical and mechanical
Branigan, 1987; Branigan, 1989; Eklund et al., mixing occurred at several stages in a zoned
1998; Figure 10.11C). Lindberg and Eklund magma chamber during upward movement.
(1988) compared the geochemical features and According to Bergman (1986), the va
contact relationships of mafic, intermediate, monzonite intruded a lateorogenic granite as
and granitic rocks in the Lemland area and branching concentric dikes by stoping, and

the subsequent granite widened the funnel the postorogenic granites. A typical intrusion
laterally (Figure 10.12). The intrusion mecha- sequence is seen in the Riestovaara pluton
nism of the va ring complex and tuffisites at (Figure 10.13A): a coarse-porphyritic granite
Seglinge (Hubbard and Branigan, 1987) imply was emplaced first, then porphyritic granite,
emplacement of these ~1.80 Ma rocks into and finally an even-grained granite. Granite
rigid country rocks at a shallow depth (a few porphyry and aplite dikes are the latest phases.
kilometers). In contrast, a thermobarometric Spherulitic rhyolite dikes (Figure 10.13B, C)
study of the 1815 Ma postorogenic rocks in are found adjacent to the Nattanen pluton.
the Turku area indicates an emplacement pres- These dikes indicate high-level emplace-
sure of 4.1 kbar, corresponding to a minimum ment and may be associated to an unexposed
depth of 1415 km (Visnen et al., 2000). postorogenic pluton between the Riestovaara
and Nattanen plutons (hatched line in Figure
5.2. Postorogenic granites of northern 10.13A).
Finland (1.801.77 Ga) Alkali feldspar megacrysts mantled by
plagioclase are rather common in the early
The postorogenic granites of northern Fin- granitic phases. The granites generally contain
land (the Nattanen type granites; Mikkola biotite as the only mafic mineral. Magnetite
1928, 1941) extend from western Lapland and titanite are typical minor phases, and zir-
to Murmansk in Russia. In Finland, the Te- con, apatite, ilmenite, monazite, and fluorite
pasto, Pomovaara, Riestovaara, Nattanen, are found as accessory minerals.
and Vainosp plutons (Figure 10.9) belong
to this group. Zircon age from the postoro-
genic granites range from 1.80 Ga to 1.77 6. Geochemical comparison and
Ga (Huhma, 1986; Rastas et al., 2001); petrogenetic implications
hence they are broadly coeval with the late-
orogenic granites of northern Finland and The main geochemical differences between
the postorogenic rocks of southern Finland. the granitoid groups and their petrogenetic
The postorogenic granites are generally seen implications are reviewed. The geochemi-
in aeromagnetic maps as positive anomalies. cal data have been collected from published
Also the 1.77 Ga Rovaniemi granite (Figure sources (Eklund et al., 1998; Lahtinen, 1994;
10.9) is seen as a positive anomaly distinct Lehtonen, 1988; Nironen and Bateman, 1989;
from the migmatitic lateorogenic granites Vnnen, 1998; Visnen et al., 2000), the
of the Central Lapland granitoid complex. Geological Survey of Finland databank, and
The Rovaniemi granite crosscuts migmatitic unpublished personal datasets. Analyses from
structures (Perttunen et al., 1996) and is thus clearly altered and/or mineralized rocks and
considered postorogenic. extremely fractionated granites were excluded.
The postorogenic granite plutons of The fact that the analyses were made in differ-
northern Finland are rounded or elongated, ent laboratories and at different times causes
unmetamorphosed and generally undeformed unavoidable scatter, especially in minor and
and sharply crosscut their host rocks (Haapala trace elements, which hampers identification
et al., 1987; Front et al., 1989). Individual plu- of fractionation trends.
tons are multiphase and show a zonal structure
with the oldest phases dominating the area of 6.1. Preorogenic rocks
intrusion and the younger phases generally
in the center of the plutons. Abundant quartz The preorogenic tonalites of the Primitive
porphyry and aplite dikes are characteristic of arc complex are charcterized by high Fe (and

TiO2
Al2O3
FeOtot
CaO
SiO2 SiO2
Fig. 10.14. Variation diagrams (pp. 463465) for the Paleoproterozoic felsic and intermediate plu-
tonic rocks in Finland. Total Fe is expressed as FeOtot. Fields in K2O vs. SiO2 diagrams after Rickwood
(1989), cacalc-alkaline, shshoshonitic. Boundary of I-type and S-type granites in molecular A/CNK
[Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O)] vs. SiO2 diagrams after Chappell and White (1974).

Na2O
K2O
Ba
Rb
SiO2 SiO2
Fig. 10.14. (continued)

Zr
FeOtot/MgO
A/CNK
SiO2 SiO2
Synkinematic rock of southern and Preorogenic rock of central Finland
central Finland Postkinematic rock of central Finland
Synkinematic rock of Central Finland Postkinematic rock of Central Finland
granitoid complex granitoid complex
+ Synorogenic rock of northern Finland Lateorogenic rock of southern Finland
Lateorogenic rock of northern Finland
Postorogenic rock of southern Finland
Postorogenic rock of northern Finland
Fig. 10.14. (continued)

A
metaluminous peraluminous
A/NK
peralkaline
A/CNK A/CNK
B
FeOtot+Na2O+K2O
Al2O3+CaO
ca+sp
alkaline
MgO+FeOtot+TiO2
100 x
SiO2
Fig.10.15. Chemical composition of the Paleoproterozoic felsic and intermediate plutonic rocks of
Finland in (A) molecular A/NK[Al2O3/(Na2O+K2O)] vs. A/CNK [Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O)] diagrams
(Maniar and Piccoli, 1989); and (B) a discrimination diagram for granites (SiO2 >68%) (Sylvester, 1989).
ca+sp is the field for calc-alkaline and strongly peraluminous granitoid rocks.
Mg) and Ca as well as low K and Rb (Figure indicate low degrees (1015 wt.%) of melt-
10.14). In the A/CNK vs. SiO2 diagram the ing of low-K tholeiitic island arc basalts in
preorogenic tonalites plot in the I-type field. an immature arc where thick crust had not
In the A/NK vs. A/CNK diagram (Figure yet been developed. The high Fe, Mg, and Ca
10.15A) they plot on both sides of the bound- contents conform to a mafic source and the
ary between the metaluminous and peralu- low incompatible element abundances to an
minous fields. In Figure 10.15B the tonalites overall immature source area.
plot clearly in the field of calc-alkaline and The Nd (at 1930 Ma) values of the gneissic
strongly peraluminous granites. tonalites vary from +1.1 to +4.4 with a cluster
According to Lahtinen (1994), the low around +3, and the depleted mantle model ages
K and Al contents of the gneissic tonalites vary from 2.33 Ga to 1.86 Ga with most values

A DM
CHUR Nd
Mean 3.1
St. dev. 0.49
Age (Ga)
B DM C DM
CHUR CHUR
Nd
Mean 3.0 0,2 Mean 0,2

St. dev. 0.24 0.99 St. dev. 0.47
Age (Ga) Age (Ga)
D DM E DM
CHUR CHUR Nd
Age (Ga) Age (Ga)
Fig. 10.16. Nd vs. age diagram for the Paleoproterozoic felsic and intermediate plutonic rocks in
Finland (data from Huhma, 1986; Patchett and Kouvo, 1986; Lahtinen and Huhma, 1997; Rm and
Nironen, 2001; Rm et al., 2001; Ruotoistenmki et al., 2001). Analyses with147Sm/144Nd less than
0.08 and over 0.145 have been excluded. Analyses from rocks of the Archean craton area are shown
in blue. (A) Preorogenic rocks of central Finland; (B) Synkinematic rocks of southern and central
Finland; (C) Postkinematic rocks of central Finland; (D) Lateorogenic rocks; (E) Postorogenic rocks.
DM is depleted mantle (DePaolo, 1981), CHUR is the Chondritic Uniform Reservoir (DePaolo and
Wasserburg, 1975). Gray vertical bars denote approximate age of magmatism.
around 2.0 Ga (Figure 10.16A; Lahtinen and component and showed that 1.931.92 Ga is
Huhma, 1997). The clearly positive initial Nd the actual crystallization age of the tonalites
values suggest that the tonalites do not contain (Vaasjoki et al., 1998).
an Archean component, although the Primi-
tive arc complex is located adjacent to the
Archean craton. An ion microprobe study of
zircons confirmed the absence of an Archean

6.2. Synorogenic rocks He also proposed three end-members for the
most common calc-alkaline granitoids of the
Synkinematic rocks of southern and supracrustal belt: mantle-derived magma of
central Finland within plate affinity, calc-alkaline intermediate
The synkinematic rocks of the supracrustal melt, and silicic crustal melt.
belts (red crosses in Figure 10.14) have gen- The synkinematic granitoids may be di-
erally higher Al and Na and lower K, Ba, and vided into two groups by their Nd (at 1880
Rb contents than the synkinematic rocks of Ma) values (Figure 10.16B; Huhma, 1986;
the Central Finland granitoid complex (blue Patchett and Kouvo, 1986; Lahtinen and
crosses in Figure 10.14). These differences Huhma, 1997; Rm et al., 2001). The rocks
indicate the tonaliticgranodioritic character adjacent to the Archean craton margin and
of the former and the granodioriticgranitic the Veteli and Kalanti intrusions in western
character of the latter group. In the K2O vs. Finland (Figure 10.3) form a group with Nd
SiO2 diagram the rocks of the supracrustal (at 1880 Ma) values from +2.7 to +3.4 and
belts plot mainly in the calc-alkaline field, depleted mantle model ages between 1.96 Ga
whereas the rocks of the Central Finland gran- and 1.91 Ga. The granitoids of the Central
itoid complex plot in the high-K calc-alkaline Finland granitoid complex and granitoids of
and shoshonitic fields. The several trends in the supracrustal belts in southernmost Finland
the CaO versus SiO2 diagram do not result have somewhat lower Nd values (from 1.5
from analytical scatter but probably reflect to +1.1) and higher depleted mantle model
source heterogeneity. The synkinematic rocks ages (from 2.41 Ga to 2.05 Ga), indicating
show a typical shift from the I-type to the S- that these areas are less juvenile and probably
type field with increasing SiO2, but the rocks contain an older (~2.0 Ga) nucleus (Lahtinen
of the supracrustal belts show, in general, a and Huhma, 1997; Rm et al., 2001). Nironen
stronger S-type character than the rocks of et al. (2000) proposed that K-rich calc-alkaline
the Central Finland granitoid complex. The volcanic rocks were subducted beneath the
synkinematic rocks of the supracrustal belts older nucleus and that partial melting of these
are also more peraluminous than the rocks rocks in the lower crust, triggered by heat and
of the complex (Figure 10.15A). In Figure magmatic addition from the mantle, produced
10.15B the synkinematic granites mainly plot the synkinematic magmatism in the Central
in the calc-alkaline and strongly peraluminous Finland granitoid complex.
granite field.
The synkinematic rocks of southern and Postkinematic rocks of
central Finland resemble modern calc-alkaline central Finland
andesites and have I-type granitoid charac- There is no marked difference between the
teristics (Front and Nurmi, 1987), indicating postkinematic rocks of the Central Finland
a prominent arc-related source component. granitoid complex and those of the supra-
The peraluminous affinity of the synkinematic crustal belts. The postkinematic rocks are in
rocks of southern Finland as well as their high general higher in Fe, K, Ba, Zr, and Fe/Mg
Al contents suggest a sedimentary component and lower in Mg and Ca than the synkine-
in the source area. Lahtinen (1996) studied matic rocks at similar SiO2 contents (Figure
the rocks of the supracrustal belt immediately 10.14). In the A/CNK vs. SiO2 diagram the
south of the Central Finland granitoid com- postkinematic rocks show a trend from the
plex and concluded that some strongly pera- I-type field towards the S-type field with
luminous granitoids are the result of mantle- increasing SiO 2 , and also a change from
derived magma that melted sedimentary rocks. marginally peraluminous to marginally metalu-

minous (Figure 10.15A). In Figure 10.15B the have clearly higher Na and somewhat lower
postkinematic granites show a slightly more Ti, Al, and Fe contents than the synkinematic
alkaline character than the synkinematic ones. rocks of southern and central Finland (Fig-
Overall, the postkinematic rocks are more ure 10.14). The monzonites (SiO2 less than
alkaline and evolved than the synkinematic 67 wt.%) and trondhjemites (SiO2 over 67
rocks. The composition and similarity to rapa- wt.%) do not constitute different trends in
kivi granites of the postkinematic plutons the discrimination diagrams, except for K
indicate A-type affinity and suggest crystal- and Rb that are lower in the trondhjemites.
lization of relatively dry magmas derived The synorogenic rocks plot in the I-type field.
from deep crust (Elliott et al., 1998; Nironen The monzonites are mostly metaluminous but
et al., 2000). the trondhjemites plot around the boundary
The Nd (at 1880 Ma) values of the post- between the metaluminous and peraluminous
kinematic granitoids within the Central Fin- fields (Figure 10.15A).
land granitoid complex constitute a tight range The I-type characteristics of the synoro-
of 1.1 to +0.5 (Figure 10.16C; Rm et al., genic rocks of northern Finland suggest arc
2001). Depleted mantle model ages of the affinity. However, the high Na and K contents
rocks vary from 2.27 to 2.11 Ga. These values of the monzonites also point to alkaline af-
do not differ remarkably from the values of finity; high Na contents, in particular, are not
the synkinematic granitoids. The homogene- typical for arc-related rocks. Although clearly
ity of the Nd isotope composition implies a albitized rocks with Na2O >7 wt.% were ex-
homogeneous source over the entire granitoid cluded from the presented data, it is possible
complex and that the crust-forming process that the overall high Na values reflect, at least
was quite rapid (Rm et al., 2001). Nironen some, Na metasomatism.
et al. (2000) proposed that the postkinematic
rocks were derived from a granulitic residue 6.3. Lateorogenic granites
left in the lower crust after the extraction of the
synkinematic granitoids. Heat from the mafic The lateorogenic granites have high K and
underplate triggered partial melting of the Rb contents compared to synorogenic rocks
granulite, and mafic magmatic addition also within their limited (7077 wt.%) SiO2 range
contributed to the generation of the postkine- (Figure 10.14). Moreover, the granites of
matic magmas. According to Elliott (2003), southern Finland have somewhat higher Al
the postkinematic magmas may consist of and lower Zr contents and the granites of
partial melts of evolved mafic (ferrodioritic) northern Finland have elevated Na contents.
lower crust with minor incorporation of restitic The lateorogenic granites of southern Finland
material from lower crust. plot in the S-type field whereas the granites of
The Nd (at 1880 Ma) values of the post- northern Finland plot in the I-type field. The
kinematic granitoids east of the paleosuture lateorogenic granites are clearly peraluminous
(Figure 10.3) are from 6.6 to 1.9 (Figure (Figure 10.15A). In Figure 10.15B the granites
10.16C; Huhma, 1986; Ruotoistenmki et al., of northern Finland show a more alkaline char-
2001), indicating major Archean component in acter than the southern Finland granites.
these rocks. The depleted mantle model ages The peraluminous character of the lateoro-
for these rocks are 2.28 Ga to 2.20 Ga. genic granites in southern Finland is in line
with the interpretation that they are S-type
Synorogenic rocks of granites derived by partial melting of sedi-
northern Finland mentary rocks. The low Zr contents in these
The synorogenic rocks of northern Finland rocks suggest low melting temperatures. The

lateorogenic granites of northern Finland are LREE (Nurmi and Haapala, 1986; Eklund et
also peraluminous but they have higher Zr al., 1998).
contents and a more alkaline character than the Pitknen (1985) concluded that fractional
lateorogenic granites of southern Finland. crystallization of a F-rich magma produced the
There are few Nd isotope studies on the phases in the Luonteri intrusion, and that F
lateorogenic granites. The Nd (at 1830 Ma) was confined into the early phases, dominantly
values of the Hanko and Orip granites in biotite. Eklund et al. (1998) showed that the
southwestern Finland (Figure 10.3) are +0.1 postorogenic rocks of southern Finland are
and +2.2, and the depleted mantle model highly enriched in the incompatible elements
ages are 2.08 Ga and 1.94 Ga, respectively and that the more mafic rocks are particularly
(Figure 10.16D; Huhma, 1986; Rm and enriched in F, P, Ba, Sr, and LREE. They
Nironen, 2001). The Puruvesi granite close classified the postorogenic rocks of southern
to the paleosuture yielded an age of ~1.81 Ga Finland as shoshonitic by their high K, Ba, and
(Nyknen, 1983; Huhma, 1986). The strongly Sr contents. However, the Ti contents of these
negative Nd (at 1810 Ma) value of this granite rocks are high for typical shoshonitic rocks
(6.8) indicates an Archean component in the and indeed high compared to other orogenic
source. Nd isotope data from a lateorogenic rocks (Figure 10.14).
granite within the Hetta complex in northern According to Lahtinen (1994), geochemi-
Finland with Nd (at 1810 Ma) value of 8.0 cal features of all the postorogenic rocks of
(Figure 10.16D; Huhma, 1986) also indicates southern Finland are in line with fractional
the presence of an Archean component. crystallization of mantle-derived alkali basal-
tic magmas which assimilated crustal rocks.
6.4. Postorogenic rocks He proposed an enriched subcontinental litho-
spheric mantle source for the mafic magmas.
The postorogenic rocks of southern and north- Eklund et al. (1998) suggested carbonate
ern Finland differ from each other in their SiO2 metasomatism as the reason for enrichment
contents: the southern Finland rocks cover a in the lithospheric mantle and concluded
wide range from 32 to 78 wt.% SiO2 (Eklund that metasomatism was more extensive in
et al., 1998), the northern Finland rocks have the east.
a more limited range at the felsic end (6878 Front et al. (1989) showed that the post-
wt.% SiO2). orogenic granites of northern Finland have an
The postorogenic rocks plot in the high- alkaline affinity with their high SiO2 and total
K and shoshonitic fields in the K2O vs. SiO2 alkali values as well as high Fe/Mg ratios. In
diagram (Figure 10.14). The rocks of southern Figures 10.15A and B these granites plot in the
Finland have high Ti and Ba contents, whereas peraluminous and alkaline fields, respectively,
the granites of northern Finland have elevated and are tightly associated with the lateorogenic
Rb contents. In the A/CNK versus SiO2 dia- granites of northern Finland. The postorogenic
gram the postorogenic rocks mainly plot in granites of northern Finland are F-rich and
the I-type field. The rocks of southern Finland show decreasing F with differentiation of the
have a trend from metaluminous to marginally magma, i.e., a trend similar to the one in the
peraluminous, whereas the rocks of northern postorogenic Luonteri intrusion of southern
Finland are mainly peraluminous, approach- Finland (Kai Front, pers. comm., 2001). The
ing the peralkaline field (Figure 10.15A). In Nd (at 1800 Ma) value of a granite of the
Figure 10.15B, the postorogenic rocks show va ring complex is +0.2, and the depleted
a pronounced alkaline affinity. The rocks of mantle model age is 2.02 Ga (Figure 10.16E;
southern Finland are strongly enriched in the Patchett and Kouvo, 1986). The Nd (at 1800

Table 10.2.
Geochemical and Nd isotope characteristics of the Proterozoic orogenic granitoid rocks of Finland.
The synkinematic rocks serve as the reference group in geochemical comparison. The source for
each group is also assessed. See text for details.
Preorogenic rocks Synorogenic rocks Lateorogenic rocks Postorogenic rocks

(central Finland) Synkinematic rocks Postkinematic rocks northern Finland
SiO2 7276% SiO2 5777% SiO2 5677% SiO2 4775% SiO2 7175% SiO2 5074%
(south), (south),
7076% (north) 6877% (north)
high Fe, Mg, Ca high Fe, K, Ba, Zr high Na high Al, K, Rb high K (+ Ti, Ba, Sr;
south)
low K, Rb low Mg, Ca low Zr (south)
I-type I-type/S-type I-type/S-type I-type S-type (south), I-type
I-type (north)
met/peraluminous met/peraluminous met/peraluminous metaluminous peraluminous met/peraluminous
Nd isotopes
Nd (at 1930 Ma) Nd (at 1880 Ma) Nd (at 1880 Ma) Nd (at 1880 Ma) Nd (at 1830 Ma) Nd (at 1800 Ma)
+1.1 to +4.4 1.5 to +3.4 6.6 to +0.5 3.2 +0.1,+2.2 (south), +0.2 to +0.7(south),
7.7 to 6.5 (north) 8.7 to 5.8 (north)
TDM 1.862.33 Ga TDM 1.932.41 Ga TDM 2.112.88 Ga TDM 2.42 Ga TDM 1.94 Ga, 2.08 Ga TDM 1.972.02 Ga
(south), (south),
2.412.51 Ga 2.412.55 Ga
(north)
Source
primitive arc mature arc mature arc enriched mantle mainly sedimentary enriched mantle
+ mantle + crust rocks (south) + crust
+ sedimentary
rocks
Ma) values of the Parkkila granodiorite and 7. Discussion

the Piril granite (Patchett and Kouvo, 1986;
Lahtinen and Huhma, 1997) are +0.5 and +0.7, The classification presented here is based
respectively. on orogenic evolution in the Finnish Sveco-
The Nd (at 1770 Ma) values of the Natta- fennian and does not apply to other Paleopro-
nen, Rovaniemi, and Vainosp granites are terozoic parts of the Fennoscandian Shield;
strongly negative (from 9.2 to 6.2) and the hence also the orogenic concept differs from
depleted mantle model ages are from 2.55 to the model presented in Chapter 11. The term
2.41 Ga (Huhma, 1986). The Nattanen and postcollisional has been applied to postoro-
Vainosp granites yielded initial Hf values of genic rocks of southern Finland (Eklund et
12 and 10 and plot well below the chondritic al., 1998). Because also the postkinematic
curve (Patchett et al., 1981). Both the Nd and and lateorogenic rocks are postcollisional with
Hf isotope results indicate a substantial Ar- respect to the accretionary events, the term has
chean component in the granites. not been adopted here.
The geochemical and Nd isotope charac-
teristics of the plutonic groups are summed
up in Table 10.2. Figure 10.16 shows that the
initial Nd values are around +3 in the preoro-

genic rocks of central Finland, 1.5 to +1 and and the fact that the initial Nd values in this
around +3 in the synorogenic rocks, 1 to area are slightly lower than those of the syn-
+0.5 in the postkinematic rocks of the Cen- kinematic granitoids in the supracrustal belts
tral Finland granitoid complex, 0 to +2.2 in indicate that the Central Finland granitoid
the lateorogenic and postorogenic granites of complex area is an evolved Paleoproterozoic
southwestern Finland, and strongly negative in terrane. The similar initial Nd values of the
the postkinematic, lateorogenic, and postoro- synkinematic and postkinematic granitoids in
genic rocks that are located in areas underlain the Central Finland granitoid complex indicate
by Archean crust. These changes reflect a shift thorough recycling and homogenization of the
from juvenile arc magmatism to mixed sources lower crust (cf. Rm et al., 2001).
with an older (Paleoproterozoic) component The age of postkinematic magmatism
and further to a predominant Archean com- is ~1885 Ma in the area of the Primitive
ponent. The positive (+0.2 to +3.4) initial Nd arc complex, and decreases westwards with
values of the synkinematic, lateorogenic, and a concomitant shift in composition toward
postorogenic rocks of southwestern Finland fluorite-bearing granites with A-type affinity.
suggest a primitive arc component in the Hence, postkinematic magmatism initiated
source of these rocks. at the zone where the Primitive arc complex
Recently Visnen et al. (2002) proposed and the Arc complex of western Finland had
that the newly dated ~1900 Ma bimodal accreted against the Archean craton, and then
plutonic and volcanic rocks in southernmost spread out to the west (until 1.87 Ga) and
Finland represent pre-collisional island arc east (until 1.86 Ga). The microtonalite dikes
magmatism. It is quite possible that, in ad- in eastern Finland are a further expression of
dition to the Primitive arc complex, also the the postkinematic magmatism. The shift from
southern Finland and western Finland arc granites and granodiorites to microtonalite
complexes contain remains of preorogenic dikes with magma mixing and mingling struc-
rocks. The new ages and interpretations would tures shows an increasing mantle component
thus extend the age range of preorogenic in extensional postkinematic magmatism at
rocks. The Hetta compex in northern Finland, the Archean craton margin.
considered here as preorogenic, may actually The fact that postkinematic magmatism
consist of a variety of intrusive rocks ranging has not been found in the area of the Arc
in age from 1.95 Ga to 1.80 Ga. complex of southern Finland and that late-
Front and Nurmi (1987) concluded that the orogenic and postorogenic magmatisms of
synorogenic granitoids of the Central Finland southern Finland are largely confined to this
granitoid complex with their high Fe/Mg ratios area (Figure 10.3) implies, together with Nd
indicate a tholeiitic character in contrast to isotope data (Rm et al., 2001), that the Arc
the calc-alkaline, synkinematic rocks of the complex of southern Finland is a terrain with
supracrustal belts. Their study covered both lithospheric evolution distinct from the evolu-
synkinematic and postkinematic plutons. The tion in the Arc complex of western Finland.
Fe enrichment in the postkinematic rocks, The details of the difference will be a matter
coupled with high K contents, indicates alka- of future studies. At this stage the orogenic,
line rather than tholeiitic affinity. Front and accretional magmatism of southern and central
Nurmi (1987) also concluded that the Central Finland may be grouped into two evolution
Finland granitoid complex area represents a lines: one starting with calc-alkaline syn-
thicker crust than the adjacent supracrustal- kinematic magmatism and ending in alkaline
dominated areas. Moreover, the generally postkinematic magmatism in the Central Fin-
high-K magmatism in the granitoid complex land granitoid complex area, and another in

southern Finland, starting with synkinematic However, the former are granites within
calc-alkaline magmatism followed by peralu- migmatitic complexes, whereas the latter are
minous lateorogenic magmatism and ending high-level intrusive plutons. The lack of mafic
in shoshonitic postorogenic magmatism. The rocks in association with the postorogenic
first evolution line results from the accretion granites suggests melting of Archean crust
of the Arc complex of southern Finland against rather than magmatic input from the mantle.
the Arc complex of western Finland, and As the lateorogenic and postorogenic rocks are
subsequent stabilization of the crust in central geochemically similar, both groups probably
Finland. The other evolution line reflects pro- result from remelting of Archean crust. This
longed deformation, magmatism, and meta- implies that the entire northern Finland crust
morphism along the southern collisional zone. contains Archean rocks that are partly buried
The origin of magmatism in southern Finland by the Proterozoic cover sequence. Another
(melting of Svecofennian sedimentary rocks) implication is that the orogenic classification
as well as the flat-lying and in places domal of granitoid rocks is not as readily applicable
structures bear similarities to core complexes for northern Finland as for southern Finland.
that are generally assigned to extensional col- The orogenic rocks of northern Finland
lapse of the orogen. Extensional collapse may have an alkaline affinity and especially the
have taken place in southern Finland but the synorogenic rocks are Na-rich. The reason
association of at least some of the lateorogenic for Na enrichment is problematic. Scapolite,
intrusions with transpressional structures im- albite, carbonate, and tourmaline are common
plies that the tectonic setting of this granite alteration products in supracrustal and igne-
group is still unclear. ous rocks of northern Finland and Sweden.
The fairly large compositional variation Frietsch et al. (1997) assigned this alteration
in the synorogenic rocks of northern Finland to evaporitic sediments that were deposited
suggests a mafic component in the source. in an intracratonic rift basin. They concluded
On the other hand, the negative initial Nd that metasomatizing components were re-
value of a monzonite of this group implies an moved from the evaporites during low- to
Archean component. The negative initial Nd medium-grade regional metamorphism and
values obtained from the lateorogenic and that large-scale metasomatism was connected
postorogenic rocks of northern Finland, and with intrusion of granitoids at 1.891.77 Ga.
the fact that many of them contain Archean Another explanation for the Na enrichment
zircons, indicate a substantial Archean contri- of the synorogenic rocks would be melting of
bution in the formation of the magmas. Such relatively Na-rich Archean lower crust.
an Archean component may have been: (1) The high F contents of the postorogenic
Proterozoic sedimentary rocks with detrital rocks in northern Finland bring up another
Archean material; (2) Archean crust that was problem the source of the F-rich fluids. The
remelted or assimilated by magmas rising postorogenic rocks in southern Finland with
from the mantle; or (3) Archean lithospheric similarly high F contents were explained to
mantle. The first possibility may be consid- be derived from an enriched (metasomatic)
ered with the lateorogenic granites, which lithospheric mantle (Eklund et al., 1998). It is
are found both as migmatizing veins and as possible that the lithospheric mantle in north-
plutons that contain fragments of older rocks. ern Finland, with a long enrichment history
The lateorogenic and postorogenic granites from the Archean to the Proterozoic, was the
of northern Finland are very similar both in source of the F-rich fluids. The tectonic regime
their major and trace element characteristics for postorogenic magmatism with high-level
and could thus represent one granite group. emplacement and influx of F-rich volatiles

would have been large-scale extension that chean crust.
affected the crust from the top to the base. The orogenic, accretional magmatism of
southern and central Finland consists of two
8. Summary evolution lines: (1) calc-alkaline synkinematic
magmatism in the Central Finland granitoid
The Proterozoic orogenic granitoid rocks complex area, and subsequent alkaline post-
of Finland may be divided into preorogenic kine matic magmatism that spread to the
(1.951.91 Ga), synorogenic (1.891.86 Ga), west and east of the area of the Primitive arc
lateorogenic (1.841.80 Ga), and postorogenic complex; and (2) calc-alkaline synkinematic
(1.811.77 Ga). The synorogenic rocks of magmatism in southern Finland, followed by
southern and central Finland may be further peraluminous lateorogenic magmatism and,
divided into synkinematic (1.891.87 Ga) and subsequently by shoshonitic postorogenic
postkinematic (1.881.86 Ga). magmatism. The first resulted from accre-
The preorogenic rocks are located in the tion of the Arc complex of southern Finland
Primitive arc complex in central Finland and against the Arc complex of western Finland,
in northernmost Finland. Their high Fe, Mg, and subsequent stabilization of the crust in
and Ca, low K contents, and positive initial Nd central Finland. The second reflects prolonged
values (around +3) are consistent with juvenile deformation, magmatism, and metamorphism
primitive arc magmatism. along the southern collisional zone, possibly
The synkinematic rocks of southern Fin- as a result of orogenic collapse.
land are peraluminous and represent typical
calc-alkaline magmatism, whereas the syn- References
kinematic and postkinematic rocks of central
Finland have higher K, Ba, and Rb contents; Bergman, L., 1986. Structure and mechanism of
the postkinematic rocks also have high Fe/ intrusion of postorogenic granites in the
Mg ratios and an overall alkaline character. archipelago of southwestern Finland. Acta
The synorogenic rocks of northern Finland Acad. Aboensis, Ser. B, 46, 174.
are chartacterized by high Na contents. The Bergman, S., Kubler, L., Martinsson, O., 2001. De-
scription of regional geological and geophy-
initial Nd values of the synorogenic rocks in
sical maps of northern Norrbotten county
southern and central Finland are from 1.5 to
(east of the Caledonian orogen). Geol. Surv.
+3.4 and suggest a slightly evolved Paleopro-
Sweden, Ser Ba 56, 1110.
terozoic source. The strongly negative initial
Bleeker, W., Westra, L., 1987. The evolution of the
Nd values of the synorogenic rocks in northern Mustio gneiss dome, Svecofennides of SW
Finland imply a substantial Archean source Finland. Precambrian Res. 36, 227240.
component. Branigan, N.P., 1989. Hybridisation in middle Pro-
The lateorogenic rocks are peraluminous terozoic high-level ring complexes, land,
S-type granites with migmatizing veins. The SW Finland. Precambrian Res. 45, 8395.
postorogenic rocks of southern Finland are Brown, M., 1994. The generation, segregation,
metaluminous, have a wide compositional ascent and emplacement of granite magma:
range (monzonitegranite) and shoshonitic the migmatite-to-crustally-derived granite
affinity, whereas the postorogenic rocks of connection in thickened orogens. Earth-Sci.
northern Finland are peraluminous, alkaline Rev. 36, 83130.
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genic and postorogenic rocks of range from trasting granite types. Pacific Geology 8,
0 to +2.2 in southwestern Finland and are 173174.
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chaean Suomujrvi Complex, N-Finland. karelian granitoids in southern Finland.
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Lithos 54, 6381. Univ., Amsterdam.

Chapter 11
PALEOPROTEROZOIC
TECTONIC EVOLUTION
R. Lahtinen, A. Korja, M. Nironen
CHAPTER 11 PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C T E C T O N I C EVOLUTION 481

Cover page: A frozen Proterozoic subduction zone in the Gulf of Bothnia (BABEL Working Group,
1990). Smoothed instantaneous amplitude of the migrated section of BABEL 4 reflection profile (im-
age processed by Pekka Heikkinen, Institute of Seismology, University of Helsinki). The image com-
prises a 35-km-wide section of the crust and mantle at depths between 20 km and 70 km. Red and
yellow colors image highly reflective crust, and pale blue denotes poorly reflective mantle.
CHAPTER 11 PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C T E C T O N I C EVOLUTION
482
Lahtinen, R., Korja, A., Nironen, M., 2005. Paleoproterozoic
tectonic evolution. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A., Rm, O.T.
(Eds.), Precambrian Geology of Finland Key to the Evolu-
tion of the Fennoscandian Shield. Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam,
pp. 481532.
An integrated study of petrological, geochronological, potential-field, deep

seismic reflection and refraction, and geoelectric data leads to a new tectonic
model for the Paleoproterozoic of the Fennoscandian Shield. The key issue
in the model is the amalgamation of several microcontinents and island arcs
with the following pre-1.92 Ga components: Karelian, Kola, and Norrbotten
cratons (Archean); Keitele, Bergslagen, and Bothnia microcontinents (> 2.0
Ga); Kittil island arc (~2.0 Ga); and Savo, Knaften, Inari, and Tersk island
arcs (~1.95 Ga). We reject the concept of a semi-continuous Svecofennian (or
Svecokarelian) orogeny and propose five orogenies for the period 1.921.79 Ga;
these overlap partly in time and space and have different structural grains. The
orogenic evolution is divided into (1) microcontinent accretion stage (1.921.87
Ga), (2) continental extension stage (1.861.84 Ga), (3) continentcontinent
collision stage (1.841.79 Ga), and (4) orogenic collapse and stabilization stage
(1.791.77 Ga).
Paleoproterozoic tectonic evolution of the Karelian craton, the Archean
nucleus of the shield, involved a long period of rifting at 2.52.1 Ga that finally
led to continental breakup at ~2.06 Ga. The microcontinent accretion stage
included collision of the Kola and Karelian cratons (LaplandKola orogeny),
collision of the Karelian craton with both the Norrbotten craton and the Keitele
microcontinent, and docking of the Bothnia microcontinent (LaplandSavo
orogeny). The collision of the Bergslagen microcontinent with the newly-formed
ArcheanPaleoproterozoic complex led to the Fennian orogeny. During the
continentcontinent collision stage, two subduction zones, in the south and
west, were active at 1.861.81 Ga. Extension of hot crust in the hinterlands of
the subduction zones began at ~1.86 Ga. This was followed by oblique colli-
sion of Fennoscandia with Sarmatia at 1.841.80 Ga (Svecobaltic orogeny).
A crustal-scale shear zone divided the Svecobaltic orogen into two different
convergent areas, one related to a retreating Andean-type subduction zone in
the southwest and another related to a transpressional regime in the southeast.
Collision of Amazonia with Fennoscandia modified the central and northern
parts of the western edge of the Fennoscandian Shield at 1.821.80 Ga (Nordic
orogeny). Orogenic collapse and stabilization of the Fennoscandian Shield at
1.791.77 Ga were followed by the Gothian orogeny at the southwestern margin
of the shield at 1.731.55 Ga.

1. Introduction zone and the development of an associated
back-arc basin along the craton margin. At the
The East European craton (Figure 11.1A) is same time, a new subduction zone developed
composed of the Fennoscandian, Sarmatian, farther southwest, leading to the formation of
and VolgoUralian crustal segments (Gorba- Svecofennian crust in an island arc setting (cf.
tschev and Bogdanova, 1993) of which the Baker et al., 1988). The scarcity of subduc-
latter two are mainly covered by Phanerozoic tion-related magmatism in the Archean craton
platform sediments. The northeastern part margin and the easterly-directed tectonic
of the Fennoscandian Shield is composed of transport prompted Ward (1987) to suggest
Archean rocks and the central part of Paleo- westerly-directed subduction before collision
proterozoic rocks, forming an area tradition- at the ArcheanProterozoic boundary. Gal
ally called the Svecofennian domain (Figure (1990) adopted the idea of Ward (see also
11.1B). Initial correlations between the Tuisku and Laajoki, 1990) and included a
Svecofennian and younger orogens were made subduction reversal in his model to account
when Wegmann (1928) noted the similarities for the voluminous magmatism in central
between Alpine ophiolites and the ultramafic Finland.
rocks of eastern Finland. Simonen (1953) was Geophysical investigations (especially
the first to compare Svecofennian rocks of the seismic refraction and reflection studies) in
Tampere schist belt (TB in Figure 11.2) to the 1980s allowed the study of the crust in
modern island arcs. Hietanen (1975) presented the vertical dimension and also inspired cor-
the first plate tectonic interpretation of the relations with modern analogues (BABEL
Svecofennian domain based on the correla- Working Group, 1990). In an integrated geo-
tion between the western Cordillera of North logical-geophysical study Korja et al. (1993;
America and the Svecofennian rocks. see also Korja and Hjelt, 1993) attempted
Accumulation of geochronological data to locate the sutures and terrane boundaries
(mainly U-Pb on zircon) and structural map- of the Svecofennian domain and proposed a
ping in the 1970s allowed new plate tectonic mantle-underplating model to account for the
interpretations and reconstructions, focusing thick crust in central Finland. Gorbatschev
mainly on the nature of the ArcheanProtero- and Bogdanova (1993) extended the tectonic
zoic boundary in central Finland. Bowes and discussion, by the use of drill-core and geo-
Gal (1981) and Koistinen (1981) introduced physical data, to the extensions of the shield
the term geosuture for this boundary. Gal that are covered by Phanerozoic rocks.
(1982) presented a plate tectonic model with Ekdahl (1993) and Ruotoistenmki (1996)
subduction toward the east-northeast and col- adopted the model of Gal (1986) with sub-
lision ~1.9 Ga ago. Park (1983) proposed a duction toward the northeast. Lahtinen (1994)
model with the development of a continental presented a plate tectonic model for the Sveco-
back-arc, the Outokumpu assemblage, at 1.97 fennian domain of Finland involving several
Ga. Later Park et al. (1984) and Park (1985) accretionary units and three collisional stages,
proposed a Western Cordillera-type model at 1.911.90 Ga, 1.891.88 Ga, and 1.861.84
with exotic terranes juxtaposed along the Ga. Kohonen (1995) studied the extended
Archean craton margin. eastern part of the craton and its cover in
Gal (1986) presented a comprehensive eastern Finland and proposed a model includ-
model for the evolution of the Fennoscandian ing arccontinent collision that began in the
Shield (cf. Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987). The north and continued to the south. Korja (1995)
basic concept for the Svecofennian orogeny introduced the concept of orogenic collapse to
at 1.92 Ga was an ENE-directed subduction account for the variation in crustal thickness in
484 CHAPTER 11 PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C T E C T O N I C EVOLUTION

A
an
ce FS
ti cO
n
A tla Archean
FENNOSCANDIA
Paleoproterozoic
Meso-
proterozoic a
Se
ic
Balt
VOLGOURALIA
SARMATIA
US
Black
Sea
Ko
la pro
vin
ce
Be
lom
es ori
nid an
pro
le do vin
Ca Ka
ce
rel
ianp
rov
in ce
Svecofennian domain
Southwest
Scandinavian
domain
Transscandinavian
granite-porphyry belt
Fig. 11.1. (A) Crustal segments of the East European craton (modified after Gorbatschev and Bog-
danova, 1993). FS Fennoscandian Shield; US Ukrainian Shield. (B) Major tectonic units of the Fen-
noscandian Shield modified after Gal and Gorbatschev (1987).

21E
Barents Sea
Murmansk
PeB
IA
LGB KOLA CRATON
CRATON
NORRBOTTEN
North Atlantic
KA IVB
Be
lo TT
CLGC m
or
BBZ
ian UGT
PB KB be White Sea
lt
Ka
TIB
3
SD KAR
PR
ELI
K J AN
Ka 1
CR
SWEDEN ATO
N
Ka 2
BB O
SB
FINLAND
NORWAY
H
CFGC
SZ
Gulf of
Bothnia
TIB
TB
60E
HB
Oslo UB
Helsinki St. Petersburg
BA land
TIB
f Fin
Stockholm
Gulf o
ESTONIA
RUSSIA
Baltic Sea
O IB
JB
T
DENMARK LATVIA
LITHUANIA
R.F. 0 250 500 km
Archean Mesoproterozoic
Igneous rocks and gneisses (3.202.50 Rapakivi granite association
Ga) (1.651.47 Ga)
Supracrustal rocks (3.202.75 Ga) Sedimentary rocks (1.501.27 Ga)
Paleoproterozoic Neoproterozoic
Supracrustal rocks (2.501.96 Ga) Sveconorwegian orogenic belt (1.10
0.92 Ga), partly reworked Paleo- to
Mafic intrusive rocks (2.501.96 Ga) Mesoproterozoic rocks
Granulite belt (>1.90 Ga) Phanerozoic

Caledonian orogenic belt (0.51
Supracrustal rocks (1.961.84 Ga) 0.40 Ga)
Alkaline intrusions
Igneous rocks (1.961.84 Ga)
Sedimentary rocks
Granite and migmatite (1.851.75 Ga)
Igneous rocks, TIB1 (1.851.76 Ga)
Igneous rocks, TIB2 (1.711.66 Ga)

33E
21E
9E
Fa(DGRF65
(nT)
600
500 68N
400
300
200
100
64N-100
-200
-300
-400
60N
Magnetic
anomaly
reduced to the
56N
pole
Continued
upwards
5 km
21E
Fig. 11.3. Magnetic anomaly map of the Fennoscandian Shield after Korhonen et al. (2002). Total
intensity anomaly is reduced to the pole, continued upward to 5 km above ground, scale 1:15,000,000.
Horizontal gradients are emphasized by vertical illumination of total intensity.
Fig. 11.2. (facing page) Simplified geological map of the Fennoscandian Shield based on Koistinen et
al. (2001). Archean units: Norrbotten craton, Kola craton, and Karelian craton, including Belomorian
mobile belt. Karelian craton: Ka1 Central Karelian complex; Ka2 Iisalmi complex; Ka3 Pudasjrvi
complex. Paleoproterozoic units in Kola Peninsula: IA Inari area; PeB Pechenga belt; IVB Iman-
dra Varzuga belt; UGT Umba granulite terrane; TT Tersk terrane. Paleoproterozoic units in Finland:
LGB Lapland granulite belt; KA Kittil allochthon; CLGC Central Lapland granitoid complex; PB
Perpohja belt; KB Kuusamo belt; SB Savo belt; CFGC Central Finland granitoid complex; TB
Tampere belt; HB Hme belt; UB Uusimaa belt. Paleoproterozoic units in Sweden: SD Skellefte
district; BB Bothnian basin; BA Bergslagen area; OJB OskarshamnJnkping belt; TIB Trans-
scandinavian igneous belt. Boundaries: BBZ BalticBothnian megashear; PRZ PiteRaahe shear
zone; HSZ Hassela shear zone. Specific localities: J Jormua; O Outokumpu; K Knaften.

southern and central Finland. Nironen (1997) projects, and the outcome of several regional to
presented a kinematic model for the Sveco- shield-scale mapping projects (Lehtonen et al.,
fennian orogen: opening of an ocean basin at 1998; Kousa and Lundqvist, 2000; Bergman
1.95 Ga and progressive accretion of two arc et al., 2001; Koistinen et al., 2001; Nironen et
complexes to the Karelian craton (Karelian al., 2002) have produced large amounts of new
province in Figure 11.1B) at 1.911.87 Ga. data on plate and terrane boundaries.
Korsman et al. (1999) gave the latest sum- One major goal of this paper is to integrate
mary of the Svecofennian orogen along the sample-scale petrologic, chronologic, and iso-
GGT/SVEKA Transect (Figure 11.4). tope data with both regional-scale lithologic
Different plate tectonic models have also and potential-field data, crustal-scale seismic
been presented for the LaplandKola orogen refraction and reflection results, and geoelec-
(LGB, UGT, and TT in Figure 11.2). These tric data. Variable data from surface rocks are
involve two interpretations based on the pro- available for exposed areas, which often lack
posed location of the subduction zone. In the seismic reflection data. Good seismic profiles
first, subduction is toward the northeast and are available from the Baltic Sea and Gulf
the suture zone is within the Lapland granulite of Bothnia, without any bedrock data. Areas
belt (Barbey et al., 1984; Krill, 1985; Daly covered by Phanerozoic platform sediments,
et al., 2001). In the second, subduction is with sparse drilled bedrock data, often lack
toward the southwest and the suture zone is published seismic reflection data. Therefore,
in the ImandraVarzuga and Pechenga belts the evolution of the southeastern part of the
(IVB and PeB in Figure 11.2; Berthelsen and Karelian craton and the junction between Fen-
Marker, 1986a; Marker, 1990). noscandia and the VolgoUralian crustal seg-
The tectonic models above have mainly ments are not discussed. Furthermore, there is
focused on the evolution of the Svecofen- a slight bias to Finland and to the time period
nian domain especially in the vicinity of between 1.93 and 1.77 Ga the late Paleopro-
the ArcheanProterozoic boundary. Most terozoic to Mesoproterozoic Gothian orogenic
commonly, accretionary-type tectonics have events will only be touched briefly.
been proposed to account for the Proterozoic The wealth of new data from the Fenno-
crustal growth. It has been suggested that the scandian Shield allows an attempt of a new
accretionary orogens become younger toward comprehensive tectonic model for the Paleo-
the west (cf. Gothian evolution at 1.751.55 proterozoic evolution of the Fennoscandian
Ga; hll and Larson, 2000). These orogenic Shield. We regard it as a testable model that
domains were reworked in the Sveconorwe- can lead to a more thorough understanding of
gian/Grenvillian orogeny at 1.20.9 Ga (e.g., the processes that operated in the Fennoscan-
Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, 1993; hll and dian Shield during the Paleoproterozoic. Many
Larson, 2000). of the ideas in this study have evolved from
The model by Nironen (1997) is hitherto the authors earlier publications (e.g., Korja
the only tectonic model that attempts to ex- et al., 1993; Lahtinen, 1994; Korja, 1995;
plain the evolution of the entire Svecofennian Nironen, 1997; Lahtinen and Huhma, 1997;
domain. Reinterpretation of seismic reflection Nironen et al., 2000a; Lahtinen, 2000; Korja
and refraction data (e.g., Korja et al., 2001; and Heikkinen, 2000; Korja et al., 2001), and
Luosto and Heikkinen, 2001), new compre- these papers will be referred to only in special
hensive isotope and age data (especially from cases. We also emphasize that in order to keep
the NORDSIM facility), the results from the the number of references to a minimum we
EUROBRIDGE (e.g., Claesson et al., 2001) have mostly referred only to key papers and
and SVEKALAPKO (e.g., Daly et al., 2001) reviews.

2. Geologic outline rocks, including rift-type basalts, deposited
from 2.45 Ga onwards, allochthonous younger
The Fennoscandian crustal segment (Gorba- series, and ~1.95 Ga ophiolites (Chapters 4,
tschev and Bogdanova, 1993) consists of the 6, and 7; Melezhik and Sturt, 1994; Bergman
Fennoscandian Shield, its southern continua- et al., 2001). One important feature in north-
tion covered by platform sediments, and the ern Finland is the Kittil allochthon (KA in
Caledonides in the west (Figure 11.2). The Figure 11.2), composed partly of oceanic
aeromagnetic map (Figure 11.3) shows the crust (Chapter 4). Svecofennian (1.91.8 Ga)
continuation of lithologic units under the plutonic rocks intrude large areas of Paleo-
sedimentary cover. All three crustal segments proterozoic cover rocks in northern Sweden
within the East European craton record both and northern Finland (Chapter 10; Bergman
Archean and Paleoproterozoic evolution (cf. et al., 2001).
Figure 11.1). The 1.95 Ga Knaften granitoid (Was-
The Archean bedrock in the Fennoscan- strm, 1993) south of the Skellefte district
dian Shield includes nuclei dispersed and in Sweden (K and SD in Figure 11.2) and
reassembled during the Paleoproterozoic. We the 1.92 Ga primitive island arc rocks in
divide the Archean into the Karelian craton, the Savo belt (SB, Figure 11.2; Korsman et
including the Belomorian mobile belt, and the al., 1997) adjacent to the Archean craton in
Kola craton (Figure 11.2) (cf. Gal and Gor- Finland are the oldest documented rocks in
batschev, 1987). We also introduce the term the Paleoproterozoic Svecofennian part in
Norrbotten craton for the Archean rocks west the Fennoscandian Shield. However, an older
of the megashear defined by Berthelsen and source (~2.12.0 Ga) has been proposed as a
Marker (1986b). The Karelian craton consists nucleus for the Central Finland granitoid com-
of Archean granitoidgneiss complexes and plex (Lahtinen and Huhma, 1997). New Nd
supracrustal rocks (e.g., greenstones) ranging isotope data support this assumption (Rm
in age between 3.2 Ga and 2.5 Ga (see Chap- et al., 2001). Island arc-type volcanic rocks
ter 2). The Karelian may be divided into the (1.901.87 Ga), varying from less mature
Belomorian mobile belt and three complexes in the Skellefte district (SD in Figure 11.2)
(Figure 11.2): the Central Karelian complex to mature in the Tampere belt (TB in Figure
(Ka1), the Iisalmi complex (Ka2), and the 11.2), and calc-alkaline granitoids are domi-
Pudasjrvi complex (Ka3). The Archean rocks nant in the central Fennoscandian Shield. The
continue under the Central Lapland granitoid latest major magmatic episodes in the central
complex and farther north under the Paleopro- part of the Fennoscandian Shield are marked
terozoic cover where they are again exposed in by plutonic rocks (1.881.87 Ga), with local
areas south and west of the Lapland granulite A-type characteristics, in central Finland and
belt. The boundary zone between the Central 1.801.78 Ga granitoids in Sweden. Migma-
Karelian complex and the Belomorian mobile tites with tonalite leucosome were formed at
belt was formed by sequential accretion of 1.891.88 Ga, whereas younger migmatization
island arc and continental fragments to the associated with granite leucosome and S-type
Karelian core in the Neoarchean (e.g., Mints granites took place at 1.841.82 Ga (e.g., Wei-
et al., 2001). This boundary zone and the hed et al., 1992; Korsman et al., 1999).
whole Belomorian mobile belt were strongly The southern part of the Svecofennian
reactivated in the Paleoproterozoic (Gal and domain includes the 1.901.89 Ga Bergslagen
Gorbatschev, 1987; Bibikova et al., 2001). area (BA) and Uusimaa belt (UB), in part
The Proterozoic rocks on the Archean formed in an intra-arc basin of a mature con-
cratons comprise autochthonous supracrustal tinental arc (e.g., Khknen et al., 1994; Allen

21E
lar
Po
4B
ra
nolo
2
Fen
3
4A
a
ek
Sv
4
81
c
Balti
6 1 1
a9
ek
Fennia
Sv
60N
B
BABEL reflection line
ea
ic S
Refraction line
Balt
Eur Reflection line

ob
rid
A ge
0 250 500 km
Fig. 11.4. Deep seismic refraction and reflection lines of the Fennoscandian Shield referred to in this
paper. Refraction lines: Fennia (Fennia Working Group, 1998), Sveka81 (Grad and Luosto, 1987), Sve-
ka91 (Luosto et al., 1994), Baltic (Luosto et al., 1990), Polar (Luosto et al., 1989), Fennolora (Guggis-
berg, 1986), Eurobridge (EUROBRIDGE Seismic Working Group, 2001), Baltic Sea (Ostrovsky, 1998).
Reflection lines: BABEL A-C, 1-7 (BABEL Working Group, 1990), 4B (Mints et al., 2001). The bedrock
map is modified from Koistinen et al. (2001), see Figure 11.2 for details.
et al., 1996a). Less-evolved island arc volcanic of the Svecofennian domain.

rocks are found in the Hme belt (HB in Figure Plutonism in the southern part of the
11.2; Chapter 8). Paleoproterozoic metapelite- Svecofennian domain shows age groups of
dominated sedimentary rocks, quartzites, and 1.891.85 Ga, 1.841.82 Ga, and 1.811.79
carbonate rocks characterize the southern part Ga. The 1.841.82 Ga-group granites (S-type)

21E
60N
-50 Moho-depth contour in km
Upper surface of dipping mantle

reflector
0 250 500 km
Fig. 11.5. Moho-depth map (Luosto, 1997) and upper surfaces of dipping mantle reflectors compiled
from reflection and refraction studies (BABEL Working Group, 1990; Abramovitz et al., 1997; Ostro-
vsky, 1998; Balling, 2000; Heikkinen and Luosto, 2000; Luosto and Heikkinen, 2001). The bedrock map
is modified from Koistinen et al. (2001), see Figure 11.2 for details.
and migmatites with granite leucosomes (OJB; Figure 11.2) south of the Bergslagen
form a belt that extends from southeastern area is characterized by supracrustal rocks
Finland to central Sweden (e.g., Korsman et intruded by calc-alkaline I-type syntectonic
al., 1999). granitoids (Mansfeld, 1996). Otherwise, the
The 1.83 Ga OskarshamnJnkping belt central part of southern Sweden is dominated

21E
60N
Magnetic lineament
Magnetic and Bouguer lineament
Bouguer lineament
Bouguer lineament associated with shear zone
at surface
0 250 500 km
Fig. 11.6. Major aeromagnetic and Bouguer anomaly lineaments of the Fennoscandian Shield. Aero-
magnetic lineaments are interpreted from Korhonen et al. (1999) and Bouguer lineaments from Elo
(1992) and S. Aaro/Geological Survey of Sweden (1997). The bedrock map is modified from Koistinen
et al. (2001), see Figure 11.2 for detais.
by granitoids of the Transscandinavian igne- The Fennoscandian Shield becomes younger

ous belt (TIB in Figure 11.2; Patchett et al., toward the west, which reflects in decreasing
1987) forming a NS trending belt. Three age granitoid ages (Figure 11.2), the youngest of
groups of volcanic and plutonic rocks (Lar- which belong to the Sveconorwegian orogeny
son and Berglund, 1992; hll and Larson, (e.g., Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987).
2000) have been identified: TIB 1 (1.811.77
Ga), TIB 2 (~1.7 Ga), and TIB 3 (1.681.65
Ga), of which TIB 1 is the most voluminous.

21E
60N
Conductors at depth >20 km

Conductors close to surface
0 250 500 km
Fig. 11.7. Electromagnetic conductivity anomalies after Korja et al. (2002). The bedrock map is modi-
fied from Koistinen et al. (2001), see figure 11.2 for details.
3. Pre-1.92 Ga crustal components and crustal domains, had already started to form
crustal-scale boundaries 2.12.0 Ga ago. Abundant 2.11.95 Ga detrital
zircons also suggest that pre-1.92 Ga crust-
There is increasingly growing evidence for forming processes were important (Huhma et
>1.92 Ga crustal growth in the Fennoscan- al., 1991; Claesson et al., 1993; Lahtinen et
dian Shield. Geochemical and isotope data al., 2002). However, it is not clear where these
(Valbracht et al., 1994; Lahtinen and Huhma, domains were formed.
1997; Andersson, 1997; Rm et al., 2001) In areas lacking seismic reflection or re-
indicate that microcontinents, now seen as fraction data (Figure 11.4), major crustal-scale

boundaries are inferred solely from lineaments with the middle and lower crust.
on magnetic, electromagnetic, and Bouguer
anomaly maps (Figures 11.3, 11.6, 11.7) and 3.1. LaplandKola area
comparable trends on the Moho-depth map
(Figure 11.5). Geoelectric data (Figure 11.7) In our model, the boundary between the Kola
and deep seismic refraction and reflection data and Karelian cratons (Figure 11.9A) coincides
(Figure 11.4) allow us to delineate crustal- with the Paleoproterozoic ImandraVar-
scale boundaries and locate mantle reflectors zuga and Pechenga belts (e.g., Berthelsen and
(Figure 11.5; see also cover page). A geologi- Marker, 1986a) and is associated with SW-
cal interpretation of the BABEL profiles from dipping electrical conductors (Figure 11.7).
the southern Baltic Sea to the northern part This belt (IVB and PeB in Figure 11.2) and its
of the Gulf of Bothnia includes three inferred continuation in Norway form the largest rift-
subduction zones (Figure 11.8). related belt in the Kola craton and displays a
Lithologic, geochemical, isotope, and geo- long evolutionary history from 2.5 Ga to 1.8
physical data allow to disinguish the following Ga (Melezhik and Sturt, 1994).
pre-1.92 Ga components (Figure 11.9A): Ar- The Karelian side of the KolaKarelian
chean Karelian, Kola, and Norrbotten cratons; boundary comprises several Paleoprotero-
>2.0 Ga Keitele, Bergslagen, and Bothnia zoic accreted terranes in the LaplandKola
microcontinents; ~2.0 Ga Kittil island arc area (Figure 11.2): Inari area (IA), Lapland
and oceanic crust; ~1.95 Ga Savo, Knaften, granulite belt (LGB), Umba granulite terrane
Inari, and Tersk island arcs. The Karelian and (UGT), and Tersk terrane (TT) (Korsman et
Kola cratons are well exposed, the Norrbotten al., 1997; Daly et al., 2001). The Archean
craton is not. The Paleoproterozoic microcon- Karelian craton has also been affected by
tinents Keitele, Bergslagen, and Bothnia Paleoproterozoic processes. These include
have no identified surface expressions. The magmatism, e.g., in the Inari area, and as
Kittil and Savo arcs are partly exposed and strong crustal reworking, e.g., in the Belomo-
only small slivers of the Knaften arc are found rian mobile belt (Bibikova et al., 2001).
on the surface. The relationship of the Inari The Inari area (Figure 11.2) comprises
and Tersk arcs with the Archean crust is not Archean gneisses and Paleoproterozoic meta-
well known. The exposed and hidden pre-1.92 volcanic and granitoid rocks. The calc-alkaline
Ga components are outlined in Figure 11.9A, nature of the 1.941.93 Ga plutonic rocks
whereas crust with unknown mantle separa- with TDM model ages of 2.472.07 Ga imply a
tion age, and crust dominated by accreted moderately evolved arc environment without a
sediments are shown in white. strong input from the Archean crust (Barling
Major Paleoproterozoic units are shown in et al., 1997).
Figure 11.9B. Rocks south of the Bergslagen The 1.93 Ga enderbites (Merilinen, 1976)
area and rocks in the Baltic countries have in the Lapland granulite belt have TDM model
similar NW-striking geophysical patterns ages of 2.472.17 Ga (Bernard-Griffiths et al.,
(Figures 11.3 and 11.6) and lithologic conti- 1984; Daly et al., 2001), similar to those of the
nuities, and therefore have been grouped into Inari area granitoids. The metasedimentary
the Svecobaltia area. The Ume area has been granulites, the khondalite series, have been
delineated as a separate unit, based on reflec- interpreted as marine turbidites (Barbey et
tion seismic data (Figure 11.8 and data from al., 1982), and they have a mixed Archean to
line 2; Korja and Heikkinen, 2000). These dominantly ~2.0 Ga Paleoproterozoic source
show different reflecting patterns for the up- based on detrital zircon and Nd isotope data
permost 15 km to 25 km of the crust compared (Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1994; Tuisku and Huh-

TIB OJB BA BA HSZ BB
0
10
20
30
km
40
CHAPTER
50
MR 60
400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 km 125 100 75 50 25 0 200 150 100 50 0 km
11
SW NE SE NW S N S N
BABEL B C1 C BABEL 6
BABEL C
16
UB HB BB UA PRZ 68 68
0
10
20 3
30 4A
km
40
50 4
60 6
70
1
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 km 0 50 100 150 200 250 km BABEL C
S MR N 4 4A 3 B
BABEL 1 SW BABEL 4, 4A & 3 NE
16
Reflective structures
Archean craton TIB granite Rapakivi granite Major thrust or detachment
Paleoproterozoic microcontinent Maficintermediate intrusion Gabbroanorthosite Crustal scale strike-slip shear zone
PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C T E C T O N I C
Mafic nucleus Sandstone Mantle reflections in
refraction data
Fig. 11.8. A geological interpretation of the BABEL lines B, C, 6, 1, 3&4 (see Figure 11.4) modified after Korja and Heikkinen (2000). The line draw-
ing has no vertical exaggeration. Geologic units are as in Figures 11.2 and 11.9B. Colored lines denote reflections arising from units with different
reflection properties, mafic sills are in black. Mantle reflectors (MR) are from Abramovitz et al. (1997) and Heikkinen and Luosto (2000).
EVOLUTION
495
A B
Inari
500 km 500 km Inari
Norr- Kittil Kola craton Norr-
lt
botten arc Kola craton
be
botten
craton
nic
Tersk craton
ge
arc Skel-
oro
Knaften arc Karelian Belo lefte
mo
ian
craton ria Ume
on
n Karelian craton
Bothnia mc
led
Ca
Keitele mc Bothnia Keitele
Sveco- Tavastia
Bergslagen arc norwegian Bergslagen
orogen
Svecobaltia
Gothian orogen
Archean crust ~2.0 Ga crust
Archean / ~2.0 Ga crust ~1.95 Ga crust
Fig. 11.9. Pre-1.92 Ga crustal components and major terranes/units in the Fennoscandian Shield. (A)
Exposed and hidden pre-1.92 Ga components are outlined with a broken line; juvenile crust, crust
without known mantle separation age or crust dominated by accreted sediments are shown in white.
(B) Major geologic units with Paleoproterozoic and younger boundaries.
ma, 1998; Daly et al., 2001). A belt of highly belt (Gal et al., 1989; Marker et al., 1990;
sheared rocks rims the Lapland granulite belt Korja et al., 1996). Marker et al. (1990) mod-
in the southwest (Marker, 1990). eled the Lapland granulite belt as a NE-dip-
The Umba granulite terrane and the Tersk ping thrust wedge that is rooted in the middle
terrane comprise granulite-facies paragneiss- crust beneath the Inari area. It should be noted,
es and metavolcanic and metasedimentary however, that the crust is slightly thinned under
rocks, respectively (Daly et al., 2001). The age the Lapland granulite belt (Figure 11.5). Fewer
of the arc magmatism in the Tersk terrane is data are available from the UmbaTersk areas
~1.96 Ga and the TDM model ages are ~2.2 Ga but the interpretation of potential-field data (cf.
for both metavolcanic and metasedimentary Daly et al., 2001) and geoelectric data (Figure
rocks (Daly et al., 2001). Although separated 11.6) favors southward-dipping structures in
by a major shear zone seen as a magnetic the eastern part of the LaplandKola area.
lineament (Figures 11.3 and 11.5), the Umba
granulite terrane and the Lapland granulite 3.2. Karelian craton
belt have been correlated (e.g., Daly et al.,
2001). The mappable boundaries of the Karelian
The Lapland granulite belt appears as a craton in the northeast, west, and southwest
NE-dipping block in seismic refraction, re- (Figures 11.6 and 11.9) probably delineate
flection, and magnetotelluric models (Behrens Paleoproterozoic sutures. The boundaries
et al., 1989; Luosto et al., 1989; Walther and in the east and southeast are undefined and
Flh, 1993; Korja et al., 1989). The NE-dip- hidden under the Phanerozoic cover (Figure
ping internal structures of the block have been 11.2). Note that the Belomorian mobile belt,
interpreted as thrust structures related to the strongly reworked during the Paleoprotero-
final emplacement of the Lapland granulite zoic, includes an Archean suture. The Archean

rocks in central Lapland are located mainly 3.3. Norrbotten Archean nucleus and
under the Paleoproterozoic cover and, possibly, attached island arcs
under the Central Lapland granitoid complex
(GLGC) (Figure 11.2). Archean crust in northern Sweden is exposed
Numerous rifting episodes occurred with- only locally (Bergman et al., 2001). Small
in the Karelian craton at 2.51.95 Ga. The Pa- windows of Archean rocks are found (e.g.,
leoproterozoic cover sequence in central Lap- Lundqvist et al., 1996) and Nd isotope data in-
land in Finland (Chapter 4) starts with rocks dicate the existence of Archean crust below the
formed in an intracratonic rift environment Paleoproterozoic cover (hlander et al., 1993,
at 2.52.4 Ga, followed by quartzite forma- 1999; Mellqvist et al., 1999). More juvenile
tions deposited in a cratonic or marginal basin arc material, including the Skellefte district,
setting at >2.2 Ga. During basin deepening, formed on the attached Knaften arc (Figure
fine-grained sediments and mafic and ultra- 11.9A) to the south. The western edge of the
mafic volcanic rocks were deposited between Norrbotten craton is buried under the Cale-
2.22.0 Ga. The ~2.0 Ga Kittil allochthon donides and the eastern limit is considered to
(KA in Figure 11.2) represents a block of an- coincide with the BalticBothnian megashear
cient oceanic lithosphere later obducted onto (BBZ in Figure 11.2; Berthelsen and Marker,
the rift sequence. NS magnetic and Bouguer 1986b). The eastern part of the Norrbotten
anomaly lineaments are found in the Karelian craton is dominated by large-scale NS Bou-
craton, and EW and NESW lineaments in guer lineaments overprinted by NNWSSE
central Lapland (Figures 11.3 and 11.6). On structures (Figures 11.3 and 11.6).
the Moho-depth map (Figure 11.5), the iso- In the Kittil allochthon (KA; Figures
lines strike northsouth within the Karelian 11.2 and 11.9A), a chain of serpentinites,
craton and eastwest within Lapland. interpreted as dismembered ophiolitic mantle
A Paleoproterozoic cratonic stage (2.52.1 rocks, and marine metavolcanic rocks (~2.0
Ga) with multiple rifting (e.g., Vuollo, 1994; Ga) comprise an oceanic island arc in which
Kohonen, 1995) also characterizes the Kare- ophiolitic mantle rocks form the base (Chapter
lian craton in eastern Finland. The 1.95 Ga 4). The latest magmatic activity in the Kit-
Jormua ophiolite (J; Figure 11.2) is a fragment til allochthon took place during the initial
of Red Sea-type crust comprising metabasalts collision at ~1.92 Ga. The Kittil island arc
derived from EMORB- to OIB-like sources (allochthon) was originally attached to the
(Kontinen, 1987; Peltonen et al., 1996). An Norrbotten nucleus and was subsequently
age of 1972 18 Ma (Huhma, 1986) has been overthrust onto the Karelian craton.
obtained from a gabbro associated with the MORB- to island arc-type metavolca-
Outokumpu serpentinites (O: Figure 11.2), nic rocks with intercalated turbiditic and
which are part of a possible mantle fragment graphite-bearing argillitic metasediments are
(Chapter 6). A comparable 1965 18 Ma age found in Knaften (K; Figure 11.2), south of
has been obtained from tholeiitic dikes cutting the Skellefte district (SD; Wasstrm, 1990).
the Archean basement (Vuollo et al., 1992; The sequence has been intruded by granitoids
Chapter 5). This part of the Karelian craton (1954 6 Ma; Wasstrm, 1993) and rhyolite
is dominated by large-scale NS magnetic porphyry dikes (1940 14 Ma; Wasstrm,
and Bouguer lineaments (Figure 11.6). In 1996). A comparable age (1959 14 Ma) of a
refraction models, the Outokumpu structure metadacite interlayered with metagraywackes
is imaged as a high-velocity nappe (Luosto west of the Skellefte distric (Eliasson and
et al., 1990). Strng, 1998) verifies the wider occurrence of
1.961.95 Ga island arc magmatism. Although

data are sparse on the pre-1.92 Ga evolution these lavas suggest that an enriched (relative
of the Knaften island arc, it was most likely to depleted mantle) lithospheric mantle was
attached to the Norrbotten Archean craton present below the Keitele microcontinent at
before 1.92 Ga (Figure 11.9A). ~1.91 Ga.
The hidden Keitele microcontinent and
3.4. Keitele microcontinent and attached younger arc material currently have a crustal
island arc thickness exceeding 52 km (Figure 11.5).
The shape of the microcontinent is imaged
The presence of a 2.12.0 Ga continental by geoelectric conductors (Figure 11.7) and
nucleus (Figure 11.9A), coined here as the is supported by potential-field data (Figure
Keitele microcontinent, has been proposed 11.6). Thus, the Keitele area (Figure 11.9B)
on the basis of geochemical and isotopic comprises the Central Finland granitoid com-
characteristics of the Central Finland granitoid plex (evolved arc), the Tampere belt (forearc),
complex (CFGC; Figure 11.2). Both mature and the adjacent migmatite belt (accretionary
crust and enriched subcontinental lithosphere wedge)(see Figure 11.2).
are present (Lahtinen, 1994; Lahtinen and
Huhma, 1997). More juvenile, 1.931.92 Ga 3.5. Bothnia microcontinent and
gneissic tonalites and associated supracrustal attached island arc
rocks are found within the Savo belt (SB) at
the ArcheanProterozoic boundary (Lahtinen, Andersson (1997) argued for the existence of
1994; Kousa et al., 1994). These rocks form Archean lower crust in the central part of the
the Primitive arc complex of Korsman et al. Bothnian basin (BB in Figure 11.2) based on
(1997). No significant Archean component is Nd and Pb isotope and ion microprobe zircon
found in these rocks (Lahtinen and Huhma, data from the 1.531.50 Ga rapakivi granites.
1997), but a clear suture between Keitele and Xenocrystic 2.7 Ga zircons from a related
the arc complex has not been identified. Thus, syenite confirm the presence of Archean ma-
we interpret the 1.931.92 Ga rocks of the terial (Claesson et al., 1997). The interpreta-
Savo belt (SB) to have formed on an island tion of the isotope data (Andersson, 1997) is
arc crust that had been attached to the Keitele not straightforward and an alternative could
microcontinent prior to 1.92 Ga. be substantial input from a heterogeneous
At the southern edge of the Keitele micro- (2.12.0 Ga) subcontinental lithospheric
continent, the Tampere belt 1.901.89 Ga vol- mantle (e.g., Lahtinen and Huhma, 1997). A
canic rocks represent evolved arc volcanism significant pre-1.9 Ga crustal component is
(Khknen, 1989; Chapter 8), probably in a also evident in the 1.8 Ga granitoids (Claes-
fore-arc position. The lower marginal-basin son and Lundqvist, 1995). A hidden Bothnia
(Khknen and Nironen, 1994) or rift-basin microcontinent below the metasedimentary
(Lahtinen, 1994) metalavas in the Tampere rocks is needed to explain the observed iso-
belt are older than 1.91 Ga. This relation is topic features.
based on their occurrence below graywackes A block of higher Bouguer anomaly values
(Khknen et al., 1994) that have a maximum (Korhonen et al., 1999) bounded in the north
deposition age of about 1.91 Ga (detrital by an ENEWSW lineament (Figure 11.6)
zircon data; Huhma et al., 1991; Lahtinen et and in the south by the Hassela shear zone
al., 2002) and on a 1904 Ma zircon age (Kh- (HSZ; Hgdahl, 2000; Hgdahl and Sjstrm,
knen et al., 1989) from the overlying volcanic 2001; Korja et al., 2001) is thought to rep-
rocks. Mantle-like lead and Nd (at 1.9 Ga) resent the hidden Bothnia microcontinent.
value of +0.5 (Vaasjoki and Huhma, 1999) of South of the Bothnia microcontinent, within

the southern part of the Gulf of Bothnia, the by right-lateral displacement along a crustal-
Bouguer anomaly patterns, seismic structures, scale shear zone interpreted from Bouguer and
and mantle reflectors strike eastnorth-east magnetic maps.
(Figures 11.5, 11.6, and 11.8). A mafic frag-
ment (Figure 11.8) found offshore (Korja et
al., 2001) is interpreted as the mafic core of 4. Terminology related to
an oceanic island arc or seamount attached Paleoproterozoic tectonic
to the Bothnia microcontinent. The Bothnia evolution
microcontinent is overlain by the Ume al-
lochthon (Figure 11.9B) having a low level Gal and Gorbatschev (1987) divided the Fen-
of magnetization, high conductivity, and shal- noscandian Shield into three domains the
lowly dipping reflective structures. Karelian domain (Archean), the Svecofennian
domain (Paleoproterozoic), and the Southwest
3.6. Bergslagen microcontinent and Scandinavian domain (Mesoproterozoic;
Tavastia island arc Figure 11.1). The Proterozoic orogenies are
named Svecofennian (earlier the Svecokare-
The southernmost part of the Uusimaa Belt lian; Rankama and Welin, 1972) and Gothian;
(UB) (Figures 11.2 and 11.9B) in Finland those were associated with the formation of
shows evidence for evolved crust with a long the Svecofennian and Southwest Scandinavian
crustal history (Lahtinen and Huhma, 1997; domains, respectively. The Transscandinavian
Rm et al., 2001). This part of the Uusimaa igneous belt (TIB; Patchett et al., 1987) is an
belt may be correlated with the active conti- important NS belt on the western margin of
nental margin-type crust found in Bergslagen the Svecofennian domain. It is divided by age
(e.g., Valbracht et al., 1994; Allen et al., 1996a; into three groups of granites (TIB1 through
Nironen, 1997). We call this combined evolved 3; Larson and Berglund, 1992). hll and
crustal unit with a long evolution (starting at Larson (2000) coined the 1.811.77 Ga TIB1
2.12.0 Ga) the Bergslagen microcontinent. magmatism Smlandian, representing a post-
Based on geochemical and isotope data, less Svecofennian tectonic stage, and included the
evolved and younger (< 2.0 Ga) island arc-type TIB 2 and TIB 3 age groups in the Gothian
crust dominates southern Finland in areas di- evolution. The western margin of the shield
rectly north of the Bergslagen microcontinent was further reworked during the Sveconor-
(Hakkarainen, 1994; Lahtinen, 1996; Lahtinen wegianGrenvillian orogeny (Gal and Gor-
and Huhma, 1997; Rm et al., 2001; Chapter batschev, 1987).
8). This arc-type crust loosely correlates with The complexity of the bedrock as well as
the Hme belt (HB; Figure 11.2) and it is here seismic reflection and refraction and geoelec-
called the Tavastia island arc. The boundary tric data suggest that the Svecofennian domain
between the Bergslagen evolved crust and contains several sutures, most of them lacking
the Tavastia island arc is difficult to ascertain a clear surface expression. The interpretations
because of later tectonic transport and thus of the structural history are variable, especially
little is known about the pre-1.90 Ga evolution in the southern part of the Svecofennian do-
of these units. main (see Stlhs, 1981; Ehlers et al., 1993;
The Bergslagen microcontinent is charac- Koistinen et al., 1996; Korsman et al., 1999;
terized by low values of magnetization (Fig- Nironen, 1999; Visnen and Hltt, 1999).
ure 11.3) and low Bouguer anomaly values. We propose a complex history for the Paleo-
The straightforward correlation of southern proterozoic tectonic evolution of the shield
Finland and Bergslagen may be hampered that led to a collage of several accretionary

units. We thus reject the concept of a single The Svecobaltic orogen (defined in this
long (>100 Ma) Svecokarelian/Svecofennian study) comprises areas previously affected by
orogeny and propose five orogenies for the the Fennian orogeny and new crust added to
period 1.921.79 Ga. These orogenies were the southwestern part of the shield. The Sve-
partly overlapping in age but they have sepa- cobaltic orogen is the result of a new collision
rate tectonic histories. Each of them produced in the south at 1.841.8 Ga. It has traditionally
linear belts and mountain chains, followed been included in the Svecofennian orogen but
by exhumation; these can thus be considered a definition as a separate orogenic event is war-
orogens sensu stricto. ranted by the proposed large-scale extensional
The following Paleoproterozoic orogens collapse predating a renewed compressional
are proposed: LaplandKola orogen, Lap- stage.
landSavo orogen, Fennian orogen, Sveco- The Nordic orogen (defined in this study)
baltic orogen, and Nordic orogen. The Gothian cuts across the LaplandSavo, Fennian, and
orogeny (e.g., Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987) Svecobaltic orogens in NS and SWNE
comprises a time span of ~200 Ma, including directions. It comprises, apart from the new
several collisional events, and we prefer the added crust, the reworked Paleoproterozoic
term Gothian evolution (hll and Larson, crust in the western Fennoscandian Shield, the
2000) for this period. Short descriptions are Norrbotten craton, and the western part of the
given below for each Paleoproterozoic orogen, Karelian craton in Lapland.
which then are discussed in more detail in Gothian evolution (orogeny) at 1.751.55
subsequent sections. Ga (Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987; hll and
The LaplandKola orogen (modified from Larson, 2000), partly Mesoproterozoic in age,
Daly et al., 2001) comprises the following affected the westernmost part of southern Swe-
dispersed Archean terranes and Paleoprotero- den (Figure 11.9B) and extended northwest to
zoic accreted terranes: Lapland granulite belt, western Norway. It mainly reworked crust that
Umba granulite terrane, and Tersk terrane in was formed during the Nordic orogeny.
the LaplandKola region (e.g., Daly et al.,
2001). The Belomorian mobile belt within
the Karelian craton is included in the Lap- 5. Tectonic model
landKola orogen.
The LaplandSavo orogen (defined in We present a model for the evolution of the
this study) comprises the accreted Norrbotten Fennoscandian Shield and adjacent areas at
craton, Keitele microcontinent, and allochtho- 2.061.77 Ga with the Karelian craton as the
nous Paleoproterozoic cover and reworked fixed plate. Five orogenies are identified and
Archean at the western boundary of the Kare- these partly overlap in time and space. The
lian craton. The Kittil allochthon is included key issue is the almost simultaneous amalga-
in the LaplandSavo orogen. Collision was mation of several microcontinents and island
in an EW direction. The collisional event arcs. The orogenies operated at high angle to
between the Bothnia and both Norrbotten and each other, which had important implications
Keitele microcontinents is also included in the as discussed below.
LaplandSavo orogeny.
The Fennian orogen (defined in this 5.1. Breakup of the Archean craton (or
study) is the result of a major NS collision at cratons) at 2.06 Ga
1.891.87 Ga, which accreted the Bergslagen
microcontinent and Tavastia island arc to the At the beginning of the Paleoproterozoic,
LaplandSavo orogen. a cratonic stage (2.52.1 Ga) with coeval

multiple rifting events (e.g., Vuollo, 1994; tion was active toward the southwest under
Kohonen, 1995) characterized the Karelian the LaplandKola area, and a back-arc basin
craton. Although the lithostratigraphic correla- formed, now expressed as the Lapland granu-
tion of the Paleoproterozic cover rocks across lite belt and the Umba granulite terrane. The
the shield is debatable, it is significant that the granulite belt is dominantly ensialic, whereas
craton-type, highly 13C-enriched, sedimentary the Umba terrane is associated with arc-type
carbonates deposited at 2.22.1 Ga form large crust. Back-arc rifting also extended the crust
mappable units over the entire Karelian craton. in the Belomorian mobile belt.
The subsequent trangressive shift to deep- Shortening of these back-arc basins was
water sedimentation at 2.12.06 Ga is seen caused by the collision of the Kola craton
as a sharp drop in 13C values of marginal with the Karelian craton. The initiation of
sequence carbonates at the western edge of shortening is bracketed between 1.93 and
the Karelian craton (Karhu, 1993); this may 1.91 Ga by the age of the abundant enderbites,
indicate a continent breakup during this time charnockites, and granites (Merilinen, 1976;
period (Karhu, 1993; Kohonen, 1995). Lack Glebovitsky et al., 2001). These intrusions are
of subduction-related magmatism between considered as syn- to late-tectonic relative
2.4 and 2.1 Ga in the Karelia, Norrbotten, and to the early deformation and metamorphism
Kola cratons and rare 2.52.1 Ga zircons in (e.g., Daly et al., 2001). The accretion of the
the sedimentary record (Claesson et al., 1993; Tersk terrane also took place before ~1.91 Ga
Sorjonen-Ward et al., 1994; Tuisku and Huh- (Daly et al., 2001).
ma, 1998; Daly et al., 2001; Lahtinen et al., The Lapland granulite belt is a NE-dip-
2002) also support breakdown of the precursors ping thrust wedge (conductors in Figure
of the Archean craton at 2.12.0 Ga. 11.7; Marker, 1990), whereas in the Umba
Continental breakup at 2.06 Ga along the granulite terrane a major episode of thrusting
present western margin of the Karelian craton is expressed in the gently E-dipping shearing
created marginal basins along the edge (Figure and gently SE-plunging lineation (Glebovitsky
11.10A). A large-scale, long-lived, failed EW et al., 2001). Still farther east in the Tersk
rift in Lapland, now seen as the Perpohja (PB) terrane, the major structures dip southward
and Kuusamo belts (KB; Figure 11.2), was (cf. Daly et al., 2001). We suggest that the
also active during this time period. At 1.95 Lapland granulite belt represents closure of
Ga, a Red Sea-type (Peltonen et al., 1996) an ensialic back-arc basin, and also propose
marginal basin formed close to the western that the SW-dipping structures within the
margin (Figure 11.10B) and acted as a zone of ImandraVarzugaPechenga belt (conduc-
crustal weakness during later tectonic evolu- tors in Figure 11.7; Gal et al., 1989) image
tion as well. the suture between the Inari arc complex and
the Kola craton (cross-section a-a in Figure
5.2. LaplandKola orogen 11.11; e.g., Berthelsen and Marker, 1986a).
The structures related to the same collision
In the LaplandKola area there is evidence for are also seen in the TerskUmba arc/back-arc
subduction-related arc magmatism in the Tersk pair, and in the Belomorian mobile belt (4B
terrane at ~1.96 Ga (Daly et al., 2001) and in in Figure 11.7; Mints et al., 2001).
the Inari area at 1.941.93 Ga (Barling et al., The peak of granulite-facies metamor-
1997). The main difference between these two phism (M1) in the Lapland granulite belt and
areas is that there is a substantial amount of the Umba granulite terrane occurred, at least
Archean crust attached to the arc crust in the partly, before the main shearing (Barbey and
Inari area. At 1.93 Ga (Figure 11.10B) subduc- Raith, 1990; Glebovitsky et al., 2001; Daly et

A B Kola
craton
2.06 Ga 1.93 Ga Norrbotten
mc
500 km 500 km LG IA
+T
Ka
B+
UG T
re
lia
Knaften
n
T
cr
arc
a to
n
Keitele
Bothnian mc
mc
C D a
1.91 Ga 1.90 Ga
KA IA
500 km 500 km
a
E F
1.89 Ga 1.88 Ga
500 km 500 km
b

al., 2001). The pre-1.91 Ga age of M1 is con- imply that the collision between the Kola and
strained by 1.91 Ga monazites analyzed from Karelian cratons had attained a closure stage
the Lapland granulite belt (Merilinen, 1976) at 1.91 Ga (Figure 11.10C) and a terminal
and a 1.91 Ga charnockite that postdates peak stage at 1.90 Ga (Figures 11.10C and 11.11).
metamorphism in the Umba granulite belt The main deformation in the Umba granulite
(Glebovitsky et al., 2001). We interpret this terrane took place first at constant and then at
early metamorphism to have been related to decreasing pressure (Glebovitsky et al., 2001).
the shortening and thickening of a pre-heated Metamorphic rocks south and southwest of
back-arc basin. Both advective and conduc- the Lapland granulite belt (e.g., Krill, 1985)
tive heating took place in a rapidly subsiding and the Umba granulite terrane (see Daly
back-arc basin. During the collision stage, et al., 2001) show an inverted metamorphic
thick and hot sedimentary sequences were gradient. We explain these metamorphic
stacked, leading to a high-temperature and features by early subhorizontal stacking of a
medium-pressure metamorphism. hot metamorphosed package over cold rocks.
The 1.941.87 Ga titanites in the Belo- Continuous shortening produced more upright
morian (Archean) mobile belt (Bibikova et folding and thrusting.
al., 2001) and the strong ~1.9 Ga thermal Orogenic collapse of the LaplandKola
overprinting of the Archean gneisses in the orogen is proposed to have occurred at
Inari area (Hannu Huhma, pers. comm., 2001) 1.881.87 Ga (Figures 11.10C and 11.12A).
Mostly Archean crust Active plate boundaries

Archean and Proterozoic Active terrane boundaries
crust
2.12.0 Ga crust Direction of relative plate motion
2.01.95 Ga crust Direction of compression
Direction of extension
Fig. 11.10. Tectonic model for the Fennoscandian Shield, Part I; microcontinent (mc) accretion stage
at 1.931.88 Ga. Cross-sections a-a, b-b, and c-c as in Figure 11.11, abbreviations as in Figure 11.2.
(A) Breakdown of the Archean continent at 2.06 Ga. (B) Subduction and back-arc rifting in the Lap-
landKola area, westward subduction under the Keitele mc (Savo belt) and Norrbotten mc (Kittil),
and subduction toward northeast under the Norrbotten mc (Knaften). (C) Peak of the LaplandKola
and LaplandSavo orogenies. Initial stage of collision of the Bothnia mc with the Norrbotten and
Keitele mc. (D) Docking of the Bothnia mc with the Norrbotten and Keitele mc. Differences in
relative plate motions result in a transform fault between the Keitele and Bothnia mc. Subduction
reversal and the onset of subduction toward north under the Keitele mc. (E) Subduction switch-
over and onset of subduction toward north under the Bothnia mc. Locking of subduction under the
Keitele mc. Ocean is consumed by subduction toward south under the combined Tavastia island arc
and Bergslagen mc. (F) Peak of the Fennian orogeny, a strong compressional stage. The KeiteleBerg-
slagen collision results in strong shortening within the collision zone, overthrusting at the western
margin of the Karelian craton, basin inversion in Lapland, and reactivation of the LaplandSavo suture
zone. Subduction under the Bothnia mc is still active and back-arc rifting occurs in the Skellefte dis-
trict. Eastward subduction under the Norrbotten mc commences and is followed by extension. Local
extensional domains in the Kola and Belomorian areas develop, see Fugure 11.2 for details.

This resulted in thinning of the crust under luminous deposition of turbiditic graywackes
the Lapland granulite belt, but otherwise its south of the rising orogen (Kohonen, 1995).
effects are largely unknown. A further indica- Both graywackes and ocean floor (ophiolites)
tion of the collapse is that the compressional took part in early, thin-skinned thrusting
major D1-shearing was followed by D2-exten- (Koistinen, 1981).
sion and decompression in the Umba granulite The Bothnia microcontinent approached
terrane (Glebovitsky et al., 2001). A similar the Norrbotten and Keitele microcontinents
two-stage model has also been suggested for from the west via E- to NE-directed subduc-
the Lapland granulite belt (Daly et al., 2001), tion, and collision took place at 1.90 Ga
where exhumation (decompression) may (Figure 11.10B through D). The Skellefte and
have taken place at 1.901.87 Ga (Tuisku and Norrbotten areas comprise vast amounts of
Huhma, 1998; Daly et al., 2001). We suggest 1.901.87 Ga subduction-related volcanic and
an orogenic collapse at 1.881.87 Ga as the plutonic rocks (Allen et al., 1996b; Bergman
terminal stage of the LaplandKola orogeny. et al., 2001). It is proposed that the early ~1.90
The final emplacement of the Lapland granu- Ga magmatism formed on the Knaften arc and
lite belt probably occurred later, around 1.84 Norrbotten microcontinent was related to a
Ga (Figure 11.12C). waning phase of subduction and initiation of
collision between the Bothnia microcontinent
5.3. LaplandSavo orogen and the Norrbotten craton (Figure 11.10D).
Early thrusting (possibly E- or NE-vergent) at
Subduction-related magmatism was still active the western margin of the Keitele microconti-
at 1.931.92 Ga in the island arc (Savo belt) nent (Markus Vaarma, pers. comm., 2002) and
attached to the Keitele microcontinent (Figure the early horizontal structures south of the Skel-
11.10B). Magmatism may also have taken lefte area (Rutland et al., 2001a) are associated
place on the eastern and southwestern sides of with this stage. The western boundary of the
the Norrbotten microcontinent in the Kittil Keitele microcontinent became a transform
and Knaften arcs, respectively. The Karelian fault during the oblique collision of Bothnia
craton had a curved leading edge when it col- and Keitele (Figure 11.10D). Docking of the
lided with the Norrbotten and Keitele micro- rigid Bothnia, Keitele, and Norrbotten micro-
continents (Figure 11.7C). Collision started continents prevented substantial shortening in
in the north with emplacement of the Kittil the triangle between these microcontinents,
allochthon at ~1.92 Ga (Chapter 4) and dock- and a well-preserved paleosubduction zone
ing of the Norrbotten and Karelian continents (BABEL Working Group, 1990; cover page)
(cross-section a-a in Figure 11.11). with an associated accretionary wedge is seen
Based on the age data from preorogenic as NE-dipping reflectors in Figures 11.8 and
and synkinematic intrusions (Chapter 10), 11.11 (cross-section b-b in the latter). Apart
the onset of the continentcontinent colli- from the imbrication of the accretionary
sion between the Karelian craton and Keitele wedge, the configuration of the arc system
micro-continent is bracketed between 1.92 seems to have retained much of its original
Ga and 1.89 Ga and probably occurred at shape (Figure 11.8). The frozen arc geometry
~1.91 Ga (Figure 11.10C). The characteristic is preserved in the middle and lower crust,
features of the initial stage of the collision are whereas the uppermost 1525 km of the BA-
vast amounts of homogenous graywackes with BEL 2-4 profiles represent an allochthonous
a maximum deposition age of 1.941.92 Ga unit of migmatites and plutonic rocks (Korja
(Claesson et al., 1993). Slightly earlier onset and Heikkinen, 2000). Thickening of the al-
of collision in the north could have caused vo- lochthonous unit and its final emplacement

a-a 1.90 Ga
Norrbotten craton Inari arc Kola craton
Vertical exaggeration 2:1

50 km 500 km
b-b 1.89 Ga
Bothnian mc Knaften ac
c-c 1.89 Ga
Bergslagen mc Keitele mc Karelian craton
Mostly Archean crust Mafic magmatism
Archean and Proterozoic crust Felsic to intermediate magmatism

2.12.0 Ga crust Sedimentary rocks
2.01.95 Ga crust Oceanic crust
Island arc Remnants of oceanic crust
Fig. 11.11. Crustal cross-sections pertaining to profiles a-a, b-b, and c-c in Figure 11.10.
over the now hidden island arc were related reversal caused extension, leading to subsid-
to basin inversion during the Nordic orogeny ence of the continental margin. Uplift of the
(see Section 5.9). newly formed LaplandSavo orogen caused
rapid erosion and accumulation of eroded
5.4. Subduction reversal and material in the subsiding southern margin that
switch-over: prelude to the Fennian subsequently developed into a subduction-
orogeny at 1.90 Ga related foredeep (accretionary wedge). The
short-lived 1.901.89 Ga subduction towards
Accretion of the Keitele microcontinent to the north is recorded as active continental
the Karelian craton resulted in a subduction margin volcanism and associated plutonism
reversal. The subduction toward the north in the Tampere belt.
under the mature crust of the Keitele micro- Docking of the Bothnia and Norrbotten
continent took place between 1.90 Ga and 1.89 microcontinents led to subduction switch-over.
Ga (Figure 11.10D). At the southern edge of A new subduction zone under either oceanic
the Keitele microcontinent, the subduction crust or the Bothnia microcontinent developed

A B
1.87 Ga 1.85 Ga
500 km 500 km
C D
1.84 Ga 1.82 Ga Amazonia
500 km Laurentia 500 km
Sarmatia
Unknown mc
E F
1.80 Ga 1.78 Ga
500 km 500 km

at 1.891.87 Ga (Figure 11.10E and cross-sec- b-b and c-c in Figure 11.11.
tion b-b in Figure 11.11). The initiation of a At 1.901.88 Ga, an oceanic plate was
subduction system directed to the north and subducted toward the south, north of the
and northwest is proposed, based on combined combined Tavastia island arc and Bergslagen
deep seismic reflection (Figure 11.8) and re- microcontinent (Figure 11.10C). Island arc
fraction as well as gravity data (see discussion type magmatism characterizes the Hme belt,
in Korja et al., 2001). where as back-arc magmatism is typical the
Bergslagen area. The stratigraphic sequences
5.5. Fennian orogeny: a northsouth begin with sedimentary and felsic volcanic
accretion stage at 1.891.87 Ga (1.90 Ga) rocks, followed by arkosic and
other sedimentary rocks interfingered with
The timing of tectonic events is different voluminous ~1.89 Ga felsic volcanic rocks
across the Gulf of Bothnia from Finland to in the Bergslagen area (Allen et al., 1996a;
Sweden. This apparent discrepancy is solved Kumpulainen et al., 1996). The simultaneous
in our model by a major transform fault system deposition of basement-derived quartz-rich
separating the Keitele and Bothnia microcon- sandstones and mature pelites with volcanic
tinents. To illustrate the differences, schematic rocks (Allen et al., 1996a; Lahtinen et al.,
crustal sections are shown in cross-sections 2002) indicates that weathered basement
Mostly Archean crust Direction of relative plate motion

Mostly Paleoproterozoic crust Direction of compression
Active plate boundaries Direction of extension
Active terrane boundaries
Fig. 11.12. Tectonic model for the Fennoscandian Shield, Part II; continentcontinent collision stage
at 1.871.79 Ga. The Fennoscandian continental plate, formed in the accretionary stage (cf. Figure
11.10), is divided into Archean and Paleoproterozoic parts. Cross-sections d-d, e-e, and f-f as in
Figure 11.13, abbreviations as in Figure 11.2. (A) Attempted collapse of the Fennian orogen. At the
western margin, the subduction zone migrates southward (dashed lines denote individual microcont-
inents depicted in Figure 11.10F). (B) Subduction toward southeast and northeast and NE begins at
the southern margin, and large-scale extension occurs in the hinterland. (C) The Sarmatian crustal
segment collides with the Fennoscandian crustal segment on the southeastern margin. This initi-
ates the Svecobaltic orogeny expressed as basin inversion and thrusting. Subduction in the west and
southwest is still active. Docking of Laurentia to Fennoscandia in the northeast leads to the em-
placement of the Lapland granulite belt and reactivation of the Belomorian mobile zone. (D) Peak
of the Svecobaltic orogeny and onset of the Nordic orogeny. Oblique collision of Fennoscandia with
Sarmatia results in the migration of a transform fault into the continent. This develops into a crustal-
scale shear zone that divides the Svecobaltic orogen into two different compressional regimes. A
retreating subduction zone is active in the southwest and a transpressional regime prevails in the
southeast. The Nordic orogeny starts with collision of Amazonia and Fennoscandia in the northwest
and crustal-scale thrusting takes place in the hinterland. (E) Amalgamation of Laurentia, Fennoscandia,
Amazonia, Sarmatia, and an unknown continent in the southwest comes to its end at 1.811.79 Ga,
and a Paleoproterozoic supercontinent is formed. (F) Orogenic collapse and lithospheric delamination
stabilizes the Fennoscandian Shield between 1.79 and 1.77 Ga.

was also exposed close to the active volcanic 11.10EF and cross-section in Figure 11.11).
basins. Thus we infer that the Bergslagen A low-grade 1870 2 Ma metarhyolite (Lund-
microcontinent was partly characterized by qvist et al., 1998) from the Bothnian basin
a cratonic environment and that a passive shows that magmatism lasted until 1.87 Ga.
margin existed in the southern part of the The 1.881.87 Ga volcanism in the Skellefte
Bergslagen microcontinent. district (e.g., Billstrm and Weihed, 1996;
At 1.89 Ga, migration of the subduction Allen et al., 1996b) is thought to represent
zone towards the thick lithospheric keel of back-arc volcanism linked with the N-directed
the Keitele microcontinent caused steepening subduction. Subduction terminated at about
and locking of the subducting slab. Subduc- 1.871.86 Ga, as indicated by the age of the
tion under the Keitele microcontinent ceased second major deformation episode south of the
(Figures 11.10E and 11.11) and contraction Skellefte district (Rutland et al., 2001a,b).
caused deformation and migmatization (Kil- It is suggested that another subduction
pelinen, 1998; Korsman et al., 1999) in the system developed under the Norrbotten mi-
accretionary wedge. After a short extensional crocontinent and the attached arc in the west
stage at the southern margin (Kilpelinen, (Figure 11.10F) this is to explain the 1.89
1998), the Keitele microcontinent, now as a 1.87 Ga calc-alkaline and alkaline magmatism
lower plate, collided with the Tavastia island north of the Skellefte district in northern
arc. Deformation due to NS compression Sweden; these represent subduction-related
continued until 1.87 Ga (Kilpelinen, 1998; and extensional-type magmatism, respectively
Nironen, 1999). (Bergman et al., 2001).
The NS collision also had an effect The 1.891.87 Ga period was the major
farther inland in the north, where a foreland collisional stage associated with voluminous
fold and thrust belt developed (e.g., Koistinen, continental growth in the central Fennoscan-
1981; Ward et al., 1989; Lehtonen et al., 1998). dian Shield. Molasse-type sediments accu-
NENNE thrusting at ~1.89 Ga, followed by mulated in the Keitele and Lapland areas, as
tight folding at 18851880 Ma (Koistinen, did some graywackes in the Bothnian basin
1981; Korsman et al., 1999), affected the (Claesson et al., 1993; Lehtonen et. al., 1998;
rocks of the KareliaKeitele boundary zone. Lahtinen et al., 2002).
Thrusting also involved the basement and The microcontinent accretionary assem-
cover of the Karelian craton (Kohonen, 1995). blage amalgamated to form a continent that
As the strain was partioned, strong shorten- occupies the major part of the present Fenno-
ing and thickening occurred in the former scandian Shield (Figure 11.10). The accretion-
EW rift basins in the northern part of the ary stage ended at ~1.87 Ga and was followed
Karelian craton, but otherwise the effect on by an Andean- or Himalayan-type evolution
the non-stretched, rigid Archean crust and its (Figure 11.12).
cover was minimal. For example, the Lapland
failed rift in the Karelian craton (PB and KB 5.6. Attempted orogenic collapse and
in Figure 11.2) was closed by basin inversion related magmatism at 1.891.87 Ga
and the crust was thickened at 1.891.88 Ga.
Continuous convergence activated the craton An attempt of collapse of the LaplandSavo
margin and strike-slip shear zones developed orogen occurred simultaneously with the colli-
in the suture and within the craton (Figure sion in the south (Fennian orogeny). The Kare-
11.7F; e.g., Krki et al., 1993). liaNorrbotten/Keitele continentcontinent
Subduction under the Bothnia microcon- collision during the LaplandSavo orogeny
tinent was active at 1.891.88 Ga (Figure thickened the crust and maximum shortening

occurred in areas where the crust was original- more extensive occurrence of magmatism
ly thinnest, e.g., in the proposed suture zones at the KareliaKeitele boundary correlates
(Figure 11.10). Thick-skinned stacking of with the existence of abnormally thick crust
the lithospheric plates at the KareliaKeitele (Figure 11.4A), especially thick high-velocity
boundary, associated with inversion of exten- lower crust (Korsman et al., 1999). Only a thin
sional faults, caused thickening of both crust high-velocity lower crustal layer is found at
and subcontinental lithospheric mantle. A NS the KareliaNorrbotten boundary, where the
compression at the southern margin during the overall crustal thickness increases from 41 km
Fennian orogeny inhibited large-scale exten- in the north to a maximum of 48 km along the
sion, and later-stage transtensional shearing, Fennolora profile (Guggisberg, 1986; Figures
following thrusting (see above), dominated at 11.4 and 11.5).
the KareliaKeitele boundary.
Both dry and wet magmatism character- 5.7. The end of the Fennian orogeny at
ized the KareliaKeitele boundary zone. 1.871.85 Ga: orogenic collapse
Mantle-derived magmas caused melting of
arc-affinity mafic rocks (Savo belt), produc- Northsouth trending compressional struc-
ing calc-alkaline granitoids associated with tures have been observed in the southern part
a slightly later episode of alkaline granitoids of the Bergslagen area (Stlhs, 1976), in the
(Chapter 10). The locus of mantle-derived Hme belt (<1.85 Ga; Nironen, 1999), at the
magmatism was first on the thickened suture western edge of the Keitele area (<1.87 Ga;
zone and subsequently shifted to the northeast Mkitie, 1999), and in the Finnish Lapland
and southwest. In the Karelian craton, this (<1.88 Ga; Lehtonen et al., 1998). It is not
magmatism is seen as an abundance of gran- clear whether these structures are related
itoid rocks and dikes that are 1.871.86 Ga to single or multiple events, but they imply
in age (Huhma, 1986) and in the decreasing EW compression after the Fennian orogeny.
age of the thermal peak towards the northeast In the model these structures are attributed
(Pajunen and Poutiainen, 1999). The attempted to convergence at the western margin of the
orogenic collapse in the southwest resulted in Fennoscandian Shield between 1.87 Ga and
a domain of extension and associated dry mag- 1.84 Ga (Figure 11.9 A through C).
matism at 1.87 Ga (Figure 11.12A; Nironen Subduction in the west migrated south-
et al., 2000b). ward along the western edge of the amal-
Alkalic-calcic to calc-alkaline 1.891.86 gamated continent at 1.87 Ga (see Figures
Ga magmatism is found along the Karelian 11.10F and 11.12A). Subduction reversal,
Norrbotten boundary zone (Vnnen, 1998; following the Fennian orogeny, took place at
Bergman et al., 2001). The calc-alkaline and the southern margin (Figure 11.12A, B). The
alkaline perthite monzonite suites west of the change in plate motions was associated with
boundary zone are considered to represent a a large-scale extensional stage at 1.861.84
shift from subduction-related to extensional Ga in the hinterland, causing the formation of
magmatism (Bergman et al., 2001) in a back- extensional basins (Figure 11.12B and cross-
arc region related to E-directed subduction section d-d in Figure 11.13).
(Figures 11.10F and 11.12A). The effects of the extensional stage
Magmatic activity at 1.891.86 Ga in varied depending on the nature of earlier
the colder plate (Karelian craton) was lim- structures and the temperature of the crust.
ited to a with of about 50 km and 100 km Areas involved in the LaplandSavo orogeny
at the KareliaNorrbotten boundary and the were already rather stable. Thinning caused
KareliaKeitele boundary, respectively. The by extension was concentrated in the Berg-

d-d 1.861.85 Ga Karelian
Bergslagen mc Keitele mc craton
e-e 1.82 Ga Karelian

Amazonia Knaften ac Keitele mc craton
f-f 1.811.80 Ga
Unknown mc Bergslagen mc HSZ Bothnia mc Knaften ac
Vertical exaggeration 2:1

50 km 500 km
Mostly Archean crust Mafic magmatism

Archean and Proterozoic crust Felsic to intermediate magmatism
2.12.0 Ga crust Sedimentary rocks
2.01.95 Ga crust Oceanic crust
Island arc Remnants of oceanic crust
Ume allochton Extension
Magmatic underplate
Fig. 11.13. Crustal cross-sections pertaining to profiles d-d, e-e, and f-f in Figure 11.12.
slagenHme and Bothnian areas (Figure 1871 7 Ma (Dobbe et al., 1995) and 1867
11.9B) as these were still hot after the Fennian 9 Ma (Welin, 1987) as well as mature shal-
orogeny. Thus the extension was related to a low-water quartzites with a depositional age
large-scale orogenic collapse of hot crust away of 1.871.86 Ga (Claesson et al., 1993; Lah-
from a cooler core. tinen et al., 2002) are related to this stage. The
Lithospheric extension, leading to asteno- molasse-type sediments in northern Finland
spheric upwelling and thinning of the litho- and Sweden (Bergman et al., 2001; Chapter
sphere, would rapidly increase the temperature 4) could be correlated with this stage.
in the lower and middle crust and thus provide Regional extension and crustal thinning in
a heat source for migmatization and granite southern Finland is proposed based on prelimi-
formation. Metavolcanic rocks with ages of nary data (Rod Holcombe, Nick Oliver, and

Matti Pajunen, pers. comm., 2001). Indirect southwestern margin of the Bergslagen area,
evidence of the extension is the well-preserved a NW-trending belt of 1.851.84 Ga mafic
stacking structure of migmatite complexes in rocks and granitoids has been found; these
the BABEL profiles 1, 6, and C (Figure 11.8; are interpreted to have formed in a continen-
Korja and Heikkinen, 2000). The age of this tal arc setting (Figure 11.9; Andersson and
event is poorly constrained, but <1.87 Ga is Wikstrm, 2001; hll and Larson, 2000).
proposed based on syntectonic rocks in south- Mafic rocks of more continental affinity are
ern Finland (Visnen and Hltt, 1999). also found (Andersson, 1997). We propose
that an Andean-type active margin was retreat-
5.8. Svecobaltic orogeny: Andean-type ing southwestward and caused cyclic periods
active margin and continentcontinent of subduction-type and marginal basin-type
collision at 1.841.80 Ga magmatism (Figure 11.12C).
Regional magnetic (Figure 11.3) and
The KareliaKeitele and KeiteleTavastia gravity patterns that trend northwest can be
bounda ries were stabilized at 1.851.81 followed from central and southern Sweden to
Ga and, consequently, magmatism of this Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia. The anomalies
age is lacking from these areas. Neither are are truncated by the NNE-trending disconti-
1.851.82 Ga magmatic ages common at the nuities parallel to the western edge of Sarma-
KareliaNorrbotten boundary, where the situ- tia (Skridlaite and Motuza, 2001; Mansfeld,
ation is more complex due to strong magmatic 2001). The northwesterly trend is parallel to
and thermal overprinting at 1.821.77 Ga the proposed fossil subduction zone (Figure
(Bergman et al., 2001). Collisional granites 11.5) that is seen as a dipping mantle reflec-
and migmatites were formed in the Hme tor and layer boundary in reflection seismic
belt and the Bergslagen area at 1.831.80 Ga profiles in the Baltic Sea area (Abramovitz et
(e.g., Welin, 1992; Korsman et al., 1999). The al., 1997; Ostrovsky, 1998).
available data imply that Andean-type magma- In the east, however, the Fennoscan-
tism was abundant in the southwestern part diaSarmatia suture has been proposed to dip
of the Fennoscandian Shield at 1.851.79 Ga southeast to southsoutheast (Stephenson et
(see below). Thus simultaneous subduction al., 1996). The age of volcanism and metamor-
toward northnorthwest in the southwest and phism decreases toward the northwest from the
collision toward the northwest in the southeast FennoscandiaSarmatia junction (Claesson
(Figure 11.12C through E) took place during et al., 2001). The westernmost NNE-trend-
the Svecobaltic orogeny. ing belt records metamorphism that began
In the southwestern part of the Fenno- before 1.8 Ga (Skridlaite and Motuza, 2001).
scandian Shield, volcanism related to the An- The inferred subduction direction, southeast
dean-type magmatic stage includes 1836 9 to southsoutheast, at the FennoscandiaSar-
Ma metatuffites in the center of the Bergslagen matia junction differs from the NE-directed
area (Dobbe et al., 1995) and plutonic and subduction inferred for the southwestern part
volcanic rocks in the OskarshamnJnkping of the Fennoscandian Shield from seismic
belt (OJB in Figure 11.2). The latter is situated reflection, lithologic, and geochronologic
south of the Bergslagen area and is character- data (Abramovitz et al., 1997; Balling, 2000;
ized by supracrustal rocks intruded by 1.83 hll and Larson, 2000; Beunk and Page,
Ga calc-alkaline I-type syntectonic granitoids 2001; Skridlaite and Motuza, 2001). These two
(Mansfeld, 1996). A possible continuation domains with different inferred subduction
of the belt is found in western Lithuania directions and structural grain are separated
(Skridlaite and Motuza, 2001). Along the by a 30- to 50-km-wide zone (Skridlaite and

Motuza, 2001) in which a considerable change during and after thrusting and thickening was
in crustal thickness, from 4244 km to 50 km, continuous between 1.84 and 1.80 Ga. Stlhs
is observed (EUROBRIDGE Seismic Work- (1976) regarded the E-trending fold structures
ing Group, 2001). These features probably younger than the N-trending fold structures
indicate two subduction zones with opposite in the Bergslagen area. He interpreted the
polarities and separated by a transform fault former as a result of a NS compression that
(Figure 11.12B). was simultaneous with the peak of regional
In the early stage of the Svecobaltic orog- metamorphism. Northwesterly thrusting and
eny (1.841.82 Ga), compressional structures folding in southern Finland (see Ehlers et al.,
in southern Finland and central Sweden were 1993; Korsman et al., 1999; Visnen and
related to the FennoscandiaSarmatia col- Hltt, 1999) was also associated with migma-
lision (Figure 11.12C). Later the area was tization and the emplacement of 1.841.81 Ga
divided into two segments by a crustal-scale granites (Huhma, 1986; Patchett and Kouvo,
shear zone (Figure 11.12D), now depicted as 1986; Suominen, 1991).
a magnetic lineament (Figure 11.6). Local domains of granulite-facies meta-
Oblique collision of Fennoscandia and morphism and migmatization (1.831.81 Ga)
Sarmatia in a NNW direction produced trans- are found in southwestern Finland (Visnen
pressional structures in southern Finland et al., 2000). The cyclic nature of events
(Ehlers et al., 1993; Korsman et al., 1999; caused repeated compressional peaks and
Visnen et al., 1999). The Fennoscandia ramping of earlier thrust planes; this led to
Sarmatia collision started with a N-directed a complicated stacking structure in southern
thrusting followed by thrusting toward the Finland. The final emplacement of inverted
northwest and folding during transpression. migmatite basins over the Tavastia island arc
The continuous shortening of thickened crust and farther to the north probably occurred at a
led to the development of EW shear zones late stage, between 1.82 Ga and 1.81 Ga.
and reactivation of thrust surfaces striking In the model, the areas west of the crustal-
south-southwest. Due to both SW and SE scale shear system show alternating compres-
contraction, the transform fault developed sional and neutral tectonics because of an An-
into a crustal-scale shear system striking dean-type retreating NNE-directed subduction
westnorthwest (Figure 11.12D). Dextral zone at 1.831.81 Ga (Figure 11.12C through
displacement (Hgdahl and Sjstrm, 2001) E). Beunk and Page (2001) have interpreted
transported the Bergslagen microcontinent metamorphism and deformation (18251800
to its present position at ~1.82 Ga (Figure Ma) in a back-arc environment north of the
11.12D). The crustal-scale shear system is OskarshamnJnkping belt (OJB) as hav-
responsible for the current NW-verging curved ing been caused by oblique accretion of a
shape of the suprcacrustal belts in southwest- magmatic arc onto the continental margin.
ern Finland (Ehlers et al., 1993). Compression According to Gorbatschev (2001), a WNW-
east of the crustal-scale shear system seems to to E-trending, partly gneissic 1.811.77 Ga
have been active until ~1.80 Ga. granitoid belt occurs in the southeast corner
The continentcontinent collision (Figure of Sweden. The evidence of 1.811.77 Ga
11.12C, D) led to inversion and imbrication of granitoids implies that a second (continental)
the 1.861.84 Ga extensional basins (Figure arc accreted to the Bergslagen microcontinent
11.12B). The basin inversion caused thicken- from the southwest. This late collision (Fig-
ing of the hot and extended crust and resulted ure 11.12E and cross-section f-f in Figure
in migmatization and granite magmatism. The 11.13) is seen as later cold transpressive
migmatization and melt-induced deformation shortening in a NS direction at 1.801.78 Ga

northnortheast of the OskarshamJnkping batschev and Bogdanova (1993) also included
belt (Beunk and Page, 2001). It should be the Revsund granitoids in central Sweden in
noted that, at 1.821.80 Ga, all the shortening the TIB1. We favor a model of two different
southwest of the crustal-scale shear system subduction directions followed by two con-
(Figure 11.12D) resulted from the NE-directed tinentcontinent collisions (Figure 11.12B
collisional events. through E). The NW-trending TIB1 belt in
During the Svecobaltic orogeny, crustal southern Sweden is related to the NE-directed
shortening and high-temperature shearing subduction of the Svecobaltic orogeny (see
seem to have been concentrated in the areas above) and only the NS belt in the north is
extended at 1.861.84 Ga (see above). A included in the Nordic orogen. The TIB1 rocks
notable feature is folding in Lapland with are related to the waning phase of subduction
E-striking axial planes. This event deformed and subsequent orogenic collapse.
the post-1.88 Ga molasse-type sediments A NWSE to EW collision is proposed
deposited discordantly on top of already meta- at 1.821.80 Ga (Figure 11.12D and cross-
morphosed and deformed rocks (Lehtonen section e-e in Figure 11.13). The proposed
et al., 1998). Late (post-1.87 Ga) thrusting continentcontinent collision, possibly Fenno-
of the Lapland granulite belt overprinted scandiaAmazonia (see Chapter 15), mainly
the NNE-trending folds (Korja et al., 1996; affected the northern and central parts of
Nironen and Mnttri, 2003). It is proposed Fennoscandia. Allen et al. (1996b) described
that the final thrusting and emplacement of a second major deformation phase in the Skel-
the Lapland granulite belt atop the Karelian lefte district (SD) causing N-trending, open
craton took place between 1.84 Ga and 1.81 to tight folds. Late, ~1.80 Ga, NS compres-
Ga simultaneously with the Svecobaltic orog- sional deformation zones are found in northern
eny. The emplacement resulted from the final Sweden (Bergman Weihed, 1997; Bergman
docking of Fennoscandia to Laurentia (Fig- et al., 2001). Granites and high-temperature,
ure 11.12C). The amalgation reactivated the low- to intermediate-pressure metamorphism
Belomorides (Archean), where titanite-rutile were associated with the deformation zones.
thermochronometry shows metamorphic ages Deformation zones (D5 of Lehtonen et al.,
of 1.871.82 Ga in the central parts of the 1998), probably coeval, trending approximate-
region (Bibikova et al., 2001). ly north-south, are found in the western part
of Finnish Lapland, close to the proposed su-
5.9. The Nordic orogeny: continent ture zone. Migmatization and related thermal
continent collision at 1.821.79 Ga metamorphism at decreasing pressure have
also been documented in the Central Lapland
The core of the presently exposed part of the granitoid complex (CLGC; Perttunen et al.,
Nordic orogen is the ~1400-km-long Trans- 1996). Younger metamorphism and associated
s candinavian igneous belt (TIB; Patchett S-type granites at 1.821.80 Ga (Claesson and
et al., 1987; Gorbatschev and Bogdanova, Lundqvist, 1995; Billstrm and Weihed, 1996)
1993), which is a collective term for a linear are correlated with this stage.
N-trending batholithic belt partly covered by To explain the different characteristics of
Caledonian rocks. The TIB 1 (1.811.77 Ga) the upper and lower crust in the BABEL pro-
magmatism (Larson and Berglund, 1992) files 2 (not shown) and 3&4 (Figure 11.8), a
represents magmatism in a convergent margin basin inversion followed by large-scale, thick-
environment (e.g., Wilson, 1980; Gorbatschev skin thrusting is proposed (Figure 11.12B).
and Bogdanova, 1993; Andersson, 1997; hll A migmatite complex, the Ume allochthon
and Larson, 2000). Andersson (1991) and Gor- (Figure 11.9B and cross-sections e-e and f-f

in Figure 11.13), comprising the pre-1.9 Ga 1.801.77 Ga granites are common also
sequence (Rutland et al., 2001b) and overly- in Finnish Lapland, especially in the Central
ing younger rocks in the Bothnian basin, was Lapland granitoid complex (e.g., Haapala
thrust toward the southeast at 1.831.81 Ga et al., 1987; Korsman et al., 1997; Chapter
(Figure 11.12D,E and cross-section e-e in 10). Generally, the Central Lapland granitoid
Figure 11.13). This thrust slice continues to complex, composed of granites and migma-
western Finland. The crustal-scale thrusting tites, is poorly documented. New mapping
could also explain the tectonic discordance results (Jukka Vnnen, pers. comm., 2001)
(Rutland et al., 2001a) between the Skellefte indicate that gabbros, monzodiorites, and
district and the migmatite area south of it. granodiorites are also found in the central part
The bottom of the subhorizontal conductive of the complex. A porphyritic granite that cuts
layer (Rasmussen et al., 1987; Figure 11.6C) migmatites is dated at 1770 8 Ma (Lauerma,
could also be interpreted as a basal thrust 1982) and another granite at 1843 23 Ma Ga
plane. The thickening of pre-heated crust (Huhma, 1986), but no age data are yet avail-
led to local migmatization and formation able for the other types of granitoid intrusions
of minimum-melt Hrn-type granites from in the Central Lapland granitoid complex. The
non-migmatized younger sediments. The I-type character and Nd isotope composition
I- to A-type 1.811.79 Ga TIB1 and Revsund of the granites indicate Archean crust as the
magmatism (see below), related to the waning main source (Huhma, 1986; Haapala et al.,
phase of subduction and subsequent extension, 1987), but the spatial relationships of migma-
also added heat to the system. tites and granites suggest also local derivation
from metasediments.
5.10. End of the Nordic orogeny and The close relationship between granites
orogenic collapse at 1.791.77 Ga and migmatites indicates a ~1.80 Ga age for
the latest stage of metamorphism and mig-
The TIB1 granitoids were intruded during matization, possibly related to decompres-
extension in either a convergent margin or sion (Perttunen et al., 1996). We suggest that
intracratonic setting at 1.801.78 Ga (e.g., the onset of crustal melting and 1.801.77
Andersson, 1997; hll and Larson, 2000). Ga granite formation is related to extension
The postorogenic 1.801.78 Ga Revsund (Figure 11.12F), but that a mantle-derived
granitoids are a rather homogenous group heat component is also needed to account for
of predominantly A- to I-type granitoids and melting of dry Archean lower crust. Bergman
form a linear belt of batholiths in the central et al. (2001) proposed that the granitesyenit-
part of the Nordic orogen (e.g., Claesson and oidgabbroid association rocks may be more
Lundqvist, 1995; Andersson, 1997). Farther widespread than previously known and that
to the north, two types of 1.801.78 Ga gran- they may form a large subsurface mafic intru-
itoids are found. The granitesyenitoidgab- sion. A large gravity anomaly within the Cen-
broid association (Bergman et al., 2001; tral Lapland granite complex (Ruotoistenmki
Edefors-type by hlander and Skild, 1994) et al., 1997) and distribution of mafic rocks in
has a wide compositional range and is charac- the Central Lapland granitoid complex area
terized by high alkali and Zr contents, whereas could also be interpreted in the same man-
the granitepegmatite association (Bergman et ner. It is thus suggested that mantle-derived
al., 2001; Lina-type by hlander and Skild, heat and extensional magmatism was closely
1994) shows a limited compositional variation related to the formation of the 1.801.77 Ga
and is dominated by minimum-melt granites granites.
(hlander and Skild, 1994). 1.801.75 Ga pegmatites and resetting of

the U-Pb system at 1.781.75 Ga in the Belo- margin of the Fennoscandian Shield (Figures
morian mobile belt (Bibikova et al., 2001) and 11.1, 11.2, and 11.9B); this region was further
at ~1.781.76 Ga in Finnish Lapland (Evins, reworked during the SveconorwegianGren-
2001; Corfu and Evins, 2002) mark the end villian orogeny (Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987).
of the thermal activity in the northeastern Different deformation episodes, the areal
part of the Fennoscandian Shield. Pegmatites extent of which is often unclear and interpreta-
in western and southwestern Finland define a tion controversial, have been suggested within
tectonomagmatic episode at 1.801.79 Ga (Al- the time span of 1.731.55 Ga (e.g., hll and
viola et al., 2001) and similarly, at 1.801.77 Larson, 2000; Andersson and Wikstrm, 2001;
Ga, also in Sweden (Romer and Smeds, 1994, hll and Larson, 2001). We have preferred
1997). 1.80 Ga zircons from mantle and lower not to separate this complicated period into
crustal xenoliths in eastern Finland verify different orogenic events and, consequently,
large-scale mantle activity at this time (Hltt we use the combined term Gothian evolution
et al., 2000; Peltonen and Mnttri, 2001). (cf. hll and Larson, 2000). We only review
In southern Finland, exhumation, either by the latest studies and do not propose a tectonic
erosion or extension, during 1.811.80 Ga model for the Gothian evolution that started
has been proposed (Korsman et al., 1999; in the late Paleoproterozoic and continued to
Visnen et al., 2000). The termination of duc- early Mesoproterozoic; although beyond the
tile deformation at 1.801.78 Ga (Beunk and actual scope of this study, the Mesoproterozoic
Page, 2001) and the intrusion of the youngest part is also included in the discussion.
TIB1 granites at 1.77 Ga (see hll and Lar- Several growth stages at 1.73 Ga (initial),
son, 2000) mark the end of tectonomagmatic 1.691.65 Ga, 1.621.58 Ga, and 1.561.55
activity between 1.78 Ga and 1.77 Ga also in Ga have been proposed for the Gothian
southern Sweden. evolution (hll and Larson, 2000) and the
Postcollisional metamorphism at 1.79 Ga last three were followed by rapakivi magma-
(e.g., Claesson et al., 2001) was followed by tism at a distal inboard setting (hll et al.,
cooling at 1.771.73 Ga (Bogdanova et al., 2000). These three magmatic stages and the
2001) in the southeastern part of the Fenno- intervening deformation have been modeled
scandian crustal segment (Figure 11.1). The by westward-stepping subduction (see also
intrusion of 1.791.73 Ga anorthositerapaki- Berthelsen, 1980) and periodic arc accretion
vi magmas in the Ukrainian Shield (Amelin (hll and Larson, 2000; hll et al., 2000).
et al., 1994) also indicates cratonization in the hll et al. (2000) also proposed that recurring
Sarmatian crustal segment at 1.78 Ga. subduction controlled episodic mantle melting
We conclude that, after the Nordic orog- and subsequent bimodal rapakivi magmatism
eny, a large-scale orogenic collapse took place at faraway positions (see Chapter 12).
within the Fennoscandian Shield at 1.791.77 Docking of Sarmatia and Fennoscandia
Ga (Figure 11.12F). The shield records a neu- occurred at ~1.84 Ga and the East European
tral to tensional tectonic regime from 1.77 Ga craton was thus formed. The ~1.7 Ga shearing,
to 1.73 Ga (cf. hll and Larson, 2000) before the 1.67 Ga late reactivation of deformation
the onset of the Gothian evolution. zones in central Sweden (Hgdahl, 2000),
and the 1.551.45 Ga EW shear zones in the
subsurface of the Baltic countries (Bogdanova
6. Gothian evolution at et al., 2001) indicate crustal-scale movements
1.731.55 Ga within the craton during the Gothian evolu-
tion.
Gothian evolution is recorded in the western

7. Discussion (1987) and Nironen (1997). The Banda Sea
is one example of the occurrence of micro-
The extent to which the concept of plate continents and many coeval subduction zones
tectonics can be applied to the Archean is with subduction directions at high angles to
still unclear, but a broad consensus exists re- each other or even in opposite directions. The
garding plate tectonic processes operating in current tectonic setting of the southernmost
the Proterozoic. Our model is based on plate Andes, the Scotia plate, and the northern part
tectonic-type interactions affecting the crustal of the Antarctic Peninsula is very complex
growth and assembly of the Fennoscandian (Diraison et al., 2000) and it has similarities
Shield. The model is, of course, a working to some stages in our model. Two intervening
hypothesis. Many of the proposed stages are subduction zones at high angles are the key to
difficult to verify, because they are interpreted the 1.871.81 Ga evolution of the Fennoscan-
from reflection seismic data or are based on dian Shield (Figure 11.12). They account for
isotopic-geochemical modeling of non-ex- the observed magmatic and structural grains.
posed crustal components. Some stages can be Subduction zones at high angles are found
tested and either approved or rejected, others around the Sagami Trough and Japan Trench
will probably remain hypothetical or will be offshore Japan (Tatsumi and Eggins, 1995) as
reinterpreted in future studies. well as within the Molucca Sea and Celebes
Sea in Indonesia (see Figure 16 in Lee and
7.1. Comparison with modern analogues Lawver, 1995). The curved Banda arc dis-
plays an extremely complicated subduction
The distance of the volcanic front from the system that is caused either by two separate
trench in arc systems varies normally from lithospheric slabs or by a single, rapidly
80 km to 250 km. This distance, together with eastward-retreating slab (see discussion in
the width of the volcanic arc (normally up Milsom, 2001).
to 150 km), is negatively correlated with the One critical aspect to be taken into ac-
angle of subduction (e.g., Gill, 1981; Tatsumi count when the dimensions of the structures in
and Eggins, 1995). In the model (Figures modern tectonic environments are compared
11.11 and 11.13), we have used a shallow with those in the Proterozoic is that shortening
angle (~30) of subduction for illustration during collision has changed the geometry of
purposes, but it should be noted that usually Proterozoic structures. Although 50% to 80%
the angle is more than 30 (e.g., Gill, 1981). shortening is possible in mountain building
Shallow subduction produces wider volcanic (Le Pichon et al., 1982; Coward, 1994), short-
arcs with distinct trench-side and back-arc ening has rarely been calculated. Kilpelinen
volcanic chains forming when the underlying (1998) found that upright folding had caused
subducting slab reaches the depths of ~110 km over 50% shortening of already thickened
and ~170 km, respectively. In steeply dipping crust in the Tampere belt (Keitele) accretion-
subduction zones the volcanic chains overlap ary prism and that the total amount of short-
and the volcanic arc is narrower (Tatsumi and ening must have been even higher. Maximum
Eggins, 1995). shortening and relative thickening is confined
In the model, a complex accretion of to mobile zones that are thinnest before colli-
microcontinents is suggested to explain the sion. These are plastic than rather rigid crustal
assembly history between 1.92 Ga and 1.87 indentors that either remain largely intact
Ga (Figure 11.10). This situation is similar or are thickened by crustal-scale thrusting.
to that postulated for the Banda Sea (Lee and Thrusting involving both the Paleoproterozoic
Lawver, 1995), as proposed earlier by Ward cover and the Archean basement is needed to

account for the great crustal thickness at the 1984; Krill, 1985; Daly et al., 2001) is also
ArcheanProterozoic boundary zone. Local possible. If the later hypothesis is correct, the
shortening and displacement may also occur ~1.91 Ga metamorphism occurred at the base
during shearing along strike-slip zones, as of an active continental margin. Sedimentary
proposed in Figure 11.12D. rocks would then have been transported along
a shallowly dipping slab beneath the more
7.2. Comparison with earlier studies and than 30-km-thick continental crust to account
models for the highest calculated pressures in the
granulites. The thermal peak would be more
We agree with Kohonen (1995) in that the final difficult to explain, but could be linked with
breakup of the Karelian craton took place at arc-forearc magmatism. Subduction of a hot
~2.06 Ga. This is based on observations such mid-ocean ridge could also have contributed
as basin formation and abundant volcanism heat or, actually, produced the thermal peak.
at ~2.1 Ga at the present western margin, the Most of the tectonic models for the central
~2.0 Ga ancient oceanic lithosphere within the Fennoscandian Shield have focused on the
Kittil allochthon, and the profound change nature of the ArcheanProterozoic boundary.
in carbon isotope ratios at 2.06 Ga. Peltonen These models can be divided into three differ-
et al. (1996) favored the later age of 1.95 ent concepts: (a) continentarc/continent col-
Ga for the continental breakup on the basis lision (favored), (b) back-arc/retro-arc basin
of the absence of rift sedimentation and the related to NE-directed subduction occurring
presence of deep-water sediments above the farther in the southwest, and (c) a strike-slip
Jormua ophiolite. We suggest that the 1.95 model with all the Proterozic parts consid-
Ga ophiolites are related to a marginal basin ered exotic. Structural evidence of thrusting
rather than breakup. (Koistinen, 1981; Kohonen, 1995; Tuisku and
Paleomagnetic data indicate that the Ka- Laajoki, 1990) favors the first two models, but
relian and Kola cratons were probably at least an earlier separate thrusting event is needed in
1000 km apart at 2.4 Ga (Fedotova et al., 1999; the strike-slip model. Refraction seismic stud-
Mertanen and Pesonen, 2000). This can be ies (Luosto and Heikkinen, 2001) indicate a S-
interpreted in two ways: either the Kola and to SW-dipping mantle reflector underneath the
Karelian cratons were separate cratons at 2.4 ArcheanProterozoic boundary zone, favoring
Ga or they were distant parts of a supercon- a continentarc/continent collision model. The
tinent that broke up at 2.1 Ga. In the latter 1.95 Ga Jormua ophiolite is interpreted as a
case, the difference in the paleomagnetic poles fragment of marginal basin crust and there is
could be explained by the relative rotation of no evidence for a back-arc origin of the Jor-
the Kola nucleus before the accretion of the mua ophiolite (Peltonen et al., 1996). Thus,
Kola and Karelian cratons. we consider that there is a substantial amount
Our model for the evolution of the Lap- of data in favor of the continentarc/continent
landKola orogen has many similarities with collision model. We suggest that the two mi-
the model proposed by Berthelsen and Marker crocontinents Norrbotten and Keitele, both
(1986a) and Marker (1990). It explains both having a juvenile island arc attached, collided
the opposite vergences found along the Lap- with the Karelian craton. In the early stages,
landKola orogen and the felsic nature of the collision was continentarc collision that
granulites that indicates a continental back- subsequently developed into continentconti-
arc rather than a trench setting. An opposite nent collision (LaplandSavo orogen).
subduction polarity with a suture zone located Traditionally, the ArcheanProterozoic
under the Lapland granulite belt (Barbey et al., boundary and the western edge of the Karelian

craton have been placed along a NWSE line belts between TB and HB and within BA and
continuing from Finland to Sweden. Although BB (Figure 11.2). The migmatites between TB
an ArcheanProterozoic boundary in this and HB show subvertical structures, indicat-
direction is observed in Sweden (hlander ing higher rates of shortening compared with
et al., 1993), we propose that in the north, the more shallowly dipping structures in the
the western margin of the Karelian craton is belt between BA and BB in central Sweden
parallel to the NS megashear (BBZ) (Berth- (Figure 11.8).
elsen and Marker, 1986b). This is based on the We propose that the 1.881.87 Ga volca-
reinterpretation of BABEL reflection seismic nism in the Skellefte district and south of it
and potential-field data (Figure 11.4B). If our resulted from N-directed subduction under
model for the NS suture is wrong, it would the Bothnia microcontinent (Figure 11.10E).
indicate more complicated northeastward The Skellefte district volcanism represents
transportation of the Kittil allochthon. back-arc volcanism or extensional arc vol-
Ward et al. (1989) and Sorjonen-Ward et canism, as proposed by Allen et al. (1996b).
al. (1997) proposed that the N-verging struc- Simultaneous eastward subduction under the
tures and N- to NE-trending folds in central Norrbotten nucleus at ~1.88 Ga is suggested
Lapland were formed by interference between to explain the N-trending lithologic grain and
deformations caused by the coeval Sveco- magmatism in the Norrbotten area (Figures
fennian and LaplandKola orogenies. This 11.10F and 11.12A).
contradicts our model that supposes the early An attempt of orogenic collapse at the Ar-
SW-verging thrusting to have been associated cheanProterozoic boundary of the Lapland
with the LaplandKola orogeny and the NS Savo orogen caused voluminous magmatism at
compression and NS to NESW structures 1.891.87 Ga. Full collapse was inhibited by
having been associated with different col- coeval compression from the south (Fennian
lisional stages. orogeny). The net result was the stabilization
The reinterpretation of BABEL reflection of a thick crust, a characteristic feature of the
seismic (Figure 11.8) and potential-field data central Fennoscandian Shield.
combined with the observed lithologic and One of the key stages in the model is the
structural grain have led us to propose a com- large-scale orogenic collapse of hot crust
plex history to preserve the paleosubduction far from the old core at the end of the Fen-
zone noticed by the BABEL Working Group nian orogeny around 1.861.84 Ga. The
(1990). The fossil arc margin with an attached regional extent of the extensional collapse
accretionary prism is located in the middle and is still poorly constrained and there are con-
lower crust, whereas the uppermost 15 km to troversial interpretations on the nature of
25 km are interpreted to image the crustal- the subhorizontal structures (Visnen and
scale Ume allochthon (Figures 11.8, 11.9B, Hltt, 1999; Korsman et al., 1999). Exten-
and 11.12D, F, and cross-sections e-e and f-f sion could explain the heat source needed for
in Figure 11.13). Critical to the preservation the early migmatization, granite magmatism,
of the convergent margin geometry is docking and continued migmatization and granite
of rigid microcontinents and development of formation during crustal thickening of the
a transform fault (Figure 11.10D through F). 1.841.80 Ga Svecobaltic orogeny. Korsman
The transform fault further divided the colli- et al. (1999) favored magmatic underplating
sional collage into two separate units and thus and extensional collapse as a cause for this
explains the different tectonic evolution of second high-temperature metamorphism.
Finland and Sweden (Figure 11.7D through F). According to Visnen et al. (2000; see also
The differences are displayed in the migmatite Visnen and Hltt, 1999), thickening and

shortening of the upper crust and the exten- and Bogdanova, 1993). A more recent inter-
sion and mantle upwelling in the lower crust pretation is that NW-trending magnetic and
occurred at the same time. They proposed that gravity patterns can be followed from Sweden
the post-collisional magmatism (e.g., Eklund to Lithuania, Latvia, and Estonia (Svecobaltia
et al., 1998) caused voluminous intraplating in Figures 11.3, 11.6, and 11.9B) and that they
that increased crustal temperatures and led are truncated by the discontinuities trending
to the observed metamorphism and crustal northnortheast along the western edge of
anatexis in southern Finland. Postcollisional Sarmatia (Skridlaite and Motuza, 2001).
magmatism is volumetrically insignificant at We propose an oblique collision and a
the present level of erosion; it is evidenced as transform fault between Sarmatia and south-
small plutons that crosscut the surrounding western Fennoscandia to explain the differ-
metamorphic rocks. The proposed genesis ent inferred subduction polarities and the
of these rocks involved small percentage different structural grain of these areas. The
melting of fluid-rich metasomatized parts of oceanic transform fault further developed into
the mantle (see discussion in Visnen et al., a continental one (Figure 11.12B through D
2000). It is unlikely that such a melting could and cross-section f-f in Figure 11.13) that
have formed a significant volume of high- separated collisional events in the east from a
temperature magmas at the lowerupper crust subduction system in the west. In central Swe-
interface. We include these postcollisional den, north of the transform fault, the 1.861.85
rocks into the earliest stage of the collapse of Ga granitoids are largely undeformed, whereas
the Svecobaltic orogen. 1.851.84 Ga granitoids south of it are pene-
On the basis of paleomagnetic data, El- tratively deformed and metamorphosed to
ming et al. (2001) proposed that the Ukrainian amphibolite facies (Hgdahl, 2000; Hgdahl
Shield was not in its present position relative and Sjstrm, 2001). Our interpretation of
to Fennoscandia between 2.01.72 Ga. Bog- a large-scale displacement along this shear
danova et al. (2001) proposed that the final system implies that the granitoids south of the
docking of Fennoscandia and the combined shear system were strongly deformed during
Sarmatia and VolgoUralian crustal segments the Svecobaltic orogeny and that they were
occurred between 1.71 Ga and 1.66 Ga along later juxtaposed with well-preserved north-
zones trending north and northnortheast. A ern granitoids at 1.82 Ga (Figure 11.12D;
pre-docking common history, where Sarmatia Hgdahl and Sjstrm, 2001).
and Bergslagen were juxtaposed and erosion One of the key items in our model is two
of Sarmatia produced sedimentary material subduction zones at high angles and opera-
for the Bergslagen microcontinent at 1.9 Ga, tional between 1.86 and 1.81 Ga. E-directed
has also been proposed (Lahtinen et al., 2002). subduction has long been proposed as a source
These interpretations of 1.711.66 Ga dock- of the TIB1 magmatism (see discussion in
ing conflict with our model as we propose hll and Larson, 2000), but the NW-oriented
that the SarmatiaFennoscandia collision magmatic grain in southern Sweden and in the
caused a NNW transpression at 1.841.80 Baltic countries indicates subduction toward
Ga. The ~1.7 Ga shear zones that trend north the northeast.
and northnortheast can be interpreted to be A collision starting in the north at ~1.82
linked with the Gothian evolution. Ga (Nordic orogeny) is proposed to explain
Earlier interpretations from the Baltic the 1.821.80 Ga metamorphism and crustal
countries favor a dominant NE to NNE trend anatexis in central and northern Sweden. This
for all belts west of Sarmatia, although with a stage was also responsible for the basin inver-
turn to the northwest in Estonia (Gorbatschev sion leading to the transportation of the Ume

allocthon towards the east (Figure 11.12D). 8. Concluding remarks
Extension and mafic magmatism (mantle up-
welling) that led to large-scale melting of the Gorbatschev and Bogdanova (1993) empha-
Archean lower crust is proposed as the cause sized that orogeny in Fennoscandia cannot
for the abundant magmatism and decompres- be described in terms of a series of repetitive
sion-type migmatization in northern Fenno- cyclic orogenies succeeding each other and
scandia at 1.801.77 Ga. they proposed that the term Svecofennian
Simultaneously with the Nordic orogeny, should be used for a semi-continuous crustal
another collision along the southwestern mar- formation period. Although we agree about the
gin took place, as an unknown microcontinent complexity of the Svecofennian evolution,
(cf. Abramovitz et al., 1997) was added to we disagree in that it cannot be separated into
the Svecobaltic orogen (Figure 11.12E). We succeeding orogenies. We believe that new
suggest that a large-scale orogenic collapse data, especially from crustal-scale studies,
occurred within the Fennoscandian Shield at justify an actualistic plate tectonic concept.
1.791.77 Ga. The 1.791.72 Ga anorthosites We propose that there were several collisions
and rapakivi granites farther east in the Ukrai- from different directions and that these can-
nian Shield (Amelin et al., 1994) could indi- not be related to one long-lived Andean-type
cate stabilization of both Fennoscandia and margin that would produce a lithologic grain
Sarmatia. This stable stage was followed by only in one orientation. The orogens record
the Gothian, possibly Andean-type, evolution both collisional and extensional tectonics as
at the southwestern margin of Fennoscandia in modern orogens. The time frame of the
between 1.73 Ga and 1.55 Ga (see hll and Paleoproterozoic orogenies was similar to that
Larson, 2000). of the Phanerozoic orogenies.
Crustal growth by accretion is generally We propose, for the time period between
accepted as the cause for the Paleoproterozoic 1.92 Ga and 1.79 Ga, five orogenies, with
evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield (e.g., partly overlapping ages and different structural
Park et al., 1984; Gal and Gorbatschev, 1987; grains. The associated tectonic evolutionary
Baker et al., 1988; Gorbatschev and Bogda- model varies from less to more tentative, de-
nova, 1993; Lahtinen, 1994; Nironen, 1997; pending on the available information. From a
hll and Larson, 2000). Although more com- uniformitarian standpoint, our tectonic model
plex, our model of the microcontinental accre- is feasible and does not disagree with modern
tionary stage at 1.921.87 Ga (Figure 11.10) tectonic processes. This does not validate the
can be regarded as a continuum of these earlier model but it makes it possible; our primary in-
models. Rutland et al. (2001a, b) proposed a tention has been to discuss possible geological
different model where a large and long-lived processes that operated during the Paleopro-
2.11.9 Ga back-arc basin existed in central terozoic time in the Fennoscandian Shield, and
Fennoscandia. In particular, they considered a to produce a model for further testing.
back-arc basin model to be more plausible than
an accretionary model for generation of thick
mature crust by 1.89 Ga. Rutland et al. (2001a, Acknowledgments
b) also suggested that a synformal structure
can explain both the paleosubduction-type We are indebted to geoscientists, past and
pattern in the BABEL data (Figure 11.8) and present, who have been working on the Fen-
the conductivity anomalies of the area. noscandian Shield. We are especially grateful
to Per Weihed for doing the tough job of criti-
cally reviewing the first manuscript and giving

valuable comments on the Swedish part of M., 2001. Svecofennian rare-element gra-
the shield. Moreover, Hugh OBrien and Yrj nitic pegmatites of the Ostrobothnia region,
Khknen made valuable suggestions that western Finland; their metamorphic envi-
improved the manuscript. The editorial com- ronment and time of intrusion. In: H. Mki-
ments improved the clarity and legibility of tie (Ed.), Svecofennian granitic pegmatites
(1.86-1.79 Ga) and quartz monzonite (1.87
the text. Juha Korhonen and Pekka Heikkinen
Ga), and their metamorphic environment in
kindly provided geophysical images. the Seinjoki region, western Finland. Geol.
Surv. Finland, Spec. Pap. 30, 929.
Amelin, Yu.V., Heaman, L.M., Skobelev, V.M.,
1994. Geochronological constraints on the
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Chapter 12
RAPAKIVI GRANITES
O.T. Rm, I. Haapala
533
Cover page: Wiborgite, Wiborg batholith, southeastern Finland.
Photo: Archives of the Geological Survey of Finland.
534
Rm, O.T., Haapala, I., 2005. Rapakivi granites. In: Lehtinen,
M., Nurmi, P.A., Rm, O.T. (Eds.), Precambrian Geology of
Finland Key to the Evolution of the Fennoscandian Shield.
Elsevier B.V., Amsterdam, pp. 533562.
The classic Finnish rapakivi granite intrusions are found as four large batho-
liths (Wiborg, land, Laitila, Vehmaa) and several smaller plutons that sharply
crosscut the Paleoproterozoic metamorphic bedrock of southern Finland. They
belong to a mid-Proterozoic (1.671.47 Ga) anorogenic magmatic province
that extends to central Sweden in the west, the Baltic countries in the south,
and Russian Karelia in the east. The rapakivi granite intrusions are composed
of a series of granitic rocks ranging from primitive fayalite-hornblende granite
through hornblende granite, biotite-hornblende granite, and biotite granite to
alkali-feldspar granite, the latter characterized by accessory magmatic topaz
and associated tin mineralization. Geochemically, the Finnish rapakivi granites
are aluminous (metaluminous to marginally peraluminous) A-type granites
(high Fe/Mg, K/Na, Ga/Al, Zr, F, and LREE except Eu) and they do not include
significant volumes of sodic silicic rocks. They show a bimodal magmatic as-
sociation with temporally and spatially associated leucocratic gabbroic bodies
(e.g., leucogabbronorite, anorthosite) and tholeiitic diabase dike swarms. Inter-
mediate magmatic rocks (jotunite, ferrodiorite) are found only locally. Evidence
for volcanic or subvolcanic lithologic units is present but sparse.
The major rapakivi intrusions are associated with thinned crust and seismi-
cally complex, bulging upper mantle. This is particularly well established for
the 1.651.62 Ga Wiborg batholith of southeastern Finland. The Nd isotope
composition of the Finnish rapakivi granites (slightly negative initial Nd values)
complies with the evolution path of the surrounding Paleoproterozoic crust,
whereas the composition of the associated mafic rocks is, on average, somewhat
more radiogenic than that of the granites. The genesis of the rapakivi granite
melts is related to magmatic underplating and resultant anatexis of deep crust
in an extensional tectonic regime that did not favor wholesale mixing of the
mantle- and crust-derived melts. The cause of the mid-Proterozoic thermal
perturbations is debated possible scenarios include deep mantle plumes and
distant convergent processes. The rapakivi texture (characterized by ovoidal
plagioclase-mantled alkali feldspar megacrysts) is considered magmatic in
origin and may relate to abrupt decrease of pressure during the emplacement
of the intrusions and to hybridization processes.
C H A P T E R 1 2 R A PA K I V I G R A N I T E S 535
1. Introduction the locus classicus rapakivi granites as we
now know them after more than 100 years of
The Paleoproterozoic Svecofennian bedrock continuous research. We will also point out
of southern Finland formed during a multi- issues that still are inadequately deciphered
phase convergence and collision of litho- and need to be focused on in the future.
spheric plates ~1900 Ma ago. The next event to
strongly reshape the Finnish bedrock was the 2. What is rapakivi granite?
emplacement of the rapakivi granites ~1600
Ma ago, when the Svecofennian mountain The characteristic feature of the rapakivi gran-
chain had already been eroded down to its ites is the presence of large (diameter 25 cm)
roots. At this time changes occurred in the rounded alkali feldspar crystals or ovoids that
Earths mantle within Fennoscandia, which are surrounded by a grayish or geenish mantle
led to rearrangements within the bedrock and of plagioclase feldspar. This is the rapakivi
the crystallization of rapakivi granites and ac- texture. In his study on the rapakivi granites
companying mafic and intermediate rocks in of Fennoscandia, Vorma (1976) summarized
the upper and middle parts of the continental a more detailed definition of the rapakivi
crust. texture:
Sauna and rapakivi are the only Finnish
words known in their original form in all (1) The alkali feldspar phenocrysts are
civilized languages. The common people in ovoidal;
Finland have applied the word rapakivi to de- (2) Most (not all) ovoids are mantled by a
scribe the way certain rock outcrops weather rim of oligoclaseandesine;
into an easily crumbling rock or gravel (Figure (3) Both alkali feldspar and quartz have
12.1). In literature, rapakivi is mentioned for crystallized in two generations, the early
the first time in 1694 in Urban Hjrnes guide quartz generation as drop-like high quartz.
for mineral recognition and ore prospecting
En kort Anledning till tskillige Malm och However, all granites classified as rapakivi
Bergarters, Mineraliers etc. efterspriande granites do not contain alkali feldspar ovoids.
och angifvande (in Swedish). If the rapakivi texture is well developed, the
The first scientific study on the Finn- rapakivi granite is called wiborgite (Figure
ish rapakivi granites is the dissertation of J. 12.2A). If most or the majority of ovoids do
Moliis, Om Finska Sielffrtsten, from 1798, not posses plagioclase mantles, the rock is a
which reported the regional distribution of the pyterlite (Figure 12.2B). In addition to wiborg-
Finnish rapakivi granites and their mineral ite and pyterlite, many porphyritic and even-
composition. J.J. Sederholm brought the term grained granites (Figure 12.2C) are considered
rapakivi granite into international geological rapakivi granites, and can be identified by the
literature in 1891 with his study Ueber die presence of drop-like quartz. A typical feature
finnlndischen Rapakiwigesteine. From then of the Finnish rapakivi granites is also their
on, southern Finland has been regarded as the massive texture they do not exhibit a penetra-
worlds type area for rapakivi granites. Seder- tive fabric caused by orogenic movements.
holms work in solving geological problems Granitic rocks of ~17001500 Ma age
involving rapakivi granites has been success- that have crystallized close to Earths surface,
fully carried on e.g., by Walter Wahl, Pentti sharply cross-cut the bedrock, and generally
Eskola, Victor Hackman, Th.G. Sahama, Antti exhibit rapakivi texture have in Finland been
Savolahti, Atso Vorma, and Matti Vaasjoki. regarded as rapakivi granites sensu stricto
This chapter is a state-of-the-art review of (Vorma, 1976). Granites of any age contain-
536 CHAPTER 12 R A PA K I V I GRANITES
-
thus proposed a new definition for rapakivi
granites that takes into consideration their
special attributes but does not pose an age
limit:
Rapakivi granites are A-type granites
characterized by the presence, at least in the
larger batholiths, of granite varieties showing
the rapakivi texture.
3. Distribution, mode of
occurrence, and age
On a global scale, rapakivi granites are
particularly abundant within a zone that ex-
tends from the Ukraine to Fennoscandia and
onwards via Greenland accross the North
American continent to California (Rm and
Haapala, 1995). Many rapakivi granites are
also known in South America, with associated
rich tin occurrences (particularly in Brazil).
Other rapakivi granites are known at least in
Sudan, Tanzania, Botswana, the Ural Moun-
tains, India, China, Siberia, Australia, and the
Fig. 12.1. Weathered rapakivi granite (moro in Queen Maud Land in Antarctica.
Finnish) in the Wiborg rapakivi batholith at Kymi. Rapakivi granites are found typically
Photo: Ilmari Haapala. within or close to Paleo- or Mesoproterozoic
continental crust formed 20001500 Ma ago
and they are clearly younger than the sur-
ing alkali feldspar ovoids with plagioclase rounding crust. For example, the Finnish
mantles have been called rapakivi granites rapakivi granites are 16501540 Ma old and
sensu lato. are surrounded by the ~1900 Ma Svecofennian
Rapakivi granites were studied intensively orogenic crust of southern Finland. Figure
during the 1990s in different parts of the 12.3 shows that there are four large rapakivi
world. It has been established that rapakivi batholiths in southern Finland (Wiborg, land,
granites are found on every continent and have Laitila, Vehmaa) and a number of smaller
formed at least during the last ~3 billion years bodies (Suomenniemi, Ahvenisto, Onas, Bo-
and that they almost exclusively represent an dom, Obbns, Peipohja, Mynmki, Eurajoki,
anorogenic evolution phase of the continental Reposaari, Siipyy, Fjlskr, Kkarsfjrden).
crust in any one area (Haapala and Rm, In addition to these, on the northern shore of
1999, and references therein). In addition to Lake Ladoga in Russian Karelia lies the Salmi
their characteristic mode of occurrence, they rapakivi granite area, of which a considerable
exhibit a bimodal rock association consisting portion was part of Finland before World
of both felsic and mafic rocks, and show the War II. Associated with the rapakivi plutons
petrographic and mineralogic features typical are quartz-feldspar porphyry dikes, which
of A-type granites. Haapala and Rm (1992) compositionally correspond to the rapakivi
A B
C D
E F
G H

granites, and often cross-cut, in addition to magmas through the continental crust.
the surrounding bedrock, the rapakivi granites The Finnish rapakivi granites and the
themselves. associated mafic and intermediate rocks are
Mafic rocks temporally and spatially as- more than 150 Ma younger than the surround-
sociated with the rapakivi granites include ing Svecofennian rocks. At present, there are
gabbroanorthosite plutons within or at the abundant U-Pb data from various rapakivi
fringes of rapakivi granite areas and diabase areas (e.g., Suominen, 1991; Vaasjoki et al.,
dikes that form several dike swarms cross-cut- 1991). They demonstrate that rapakivi granites
ting the Svecofennian bedrock (and, locally, may be divided into two age groups (Figure
the rapakivi granites). Several studies (e.g., 12.4). The rapakivi plutons in southeastern
Rm, 1991; Eklund, 1993; Salonsaari, 1995) Finland (Wiborg, Suomenniemi, Ahvenisto,
have shown that the felsic and mafic rocks Onas, Obbns, Bodom) are 16501620 Ma
of the rapakivi areas form also composite old. From the Hme diabase dike swarm
dikes and hybrid rocks. This means in effect westnorthwest of the Wiborg batholith (Fig-
that felsic and mafic melts coexisted in the ure 12.3) there also exists a somewhat higher
crust during the emplacement of the rapakivi age of 1665 Ma (Vaasjoki and Sakko, 1989).
granites. In addition to felsic and mafic rocks, The southwest Finnish plutons (land, Laitila,
subordinate intermediate monzodioritic rocks Vehmaa, Peipohja, Mynmki, Reposaari,
(jotunite, ferrodiorite) are found within the Siipyy, Eurajoki, Fjlskr, Kkarsfjrden) are
rapakivi areas. about 50 Ma younger, with ages ranging from
Geophysical studies indicate that the Finn- 1590 to 1540 Ma.
ish rapakivi granites form thin, maximally
10-km-thick plate-like intrusive masses in
the upper part of the continental crust (e.g., 4. Lithologic association
Korja and Elo, 1990). According to the pres-
ent opinion, rapakivi granite melts formed in Typical of the rock association within the
the lower parts of the continental crust and rapakivi areas is its bimodality the vast
intruded into higher crustal levels (by caul- majority of the rock types are either felsic
dron subsidence and magmatic stoping) in an (> 66 wt.% SiO2) or mafic (< 52 wt.% SiO2)
extensional tectonic setting. Deep shear zones in composition. Intermediate rocks are rare
and faults, formed already before the forma- within the rapakivi areas. In this context, we
tion of the rapakivi plutons, guided the way discuss the felsic, mafic, and intermediate
of the rapakivi melts and the associated mafic plutonic rocks as well as the dikes and volcanic
Fig. 12.2. (facing page) Different rock types of Finnish rapakivi granites, associated dikes, and mafic
and intermediate rocks. (A) Wiborgite within the Wiborg batholith. Summa, Hamina; (B) Pyterlite
within Obbns intrusion west of Helsinki; (C) Weakly porphyritic variety of the so-called Vkkr
granite within the Eurajoki stock (cf. Figure 12.6) in western Finland; (D) A large plagioclase crystal
(diameter 10 cm) in olivine leucogabbronorite at Suopelto in the northeastern part of the Ahvenisto
rapakivi area; (E) A pillow-like structure formed by a dark monzodiorite and granitic material at
Prnjrvi, Jaala, in the southeastern part of the Ahvenisto rapakivi area; (F) An alkali feldspar diabase
dike cross-cutting Svecofennian rocks on Kirkkovuori, Mntyharju, northwest of the Suomenniemi
rapakivi area; (G) A close-up on the Kirkkovuori alkali feldspar diabase; (H) A quartz-feldspar porphy-
ry dike with abundant angular alkali feldspar phenocrysts at Taivaannaapuri, Heinola, southwest of the
Ahvenisto rapakivi area. Photos: A, B, and D through H by O. Tapani Rm, C by Ilmari Haapala.
Finland Russia
62 Ahvenisto
Siipyy 16431632 Ma Salmi
15471530 Ma
Reposaari Suomenniemi
Bothnian 16401635 Ma
Sea Eurajoki Peipohja
land Laitila
15761568 Ma 15701540 Ma Lake Ladoga
Kymi
Vehmaa
1570 Ma
Bodom
Wiborg
60 Fgl 16461615 Ma
swarm Onas
Suursaari
Obbns 100 km
Fjllskr 24 Gulf of Finland 30
Archean crust Paleoproterozoic crust Gabbro, anorthosite

Monzodiorite Rapakivi granite Diabase dikes
Phanerozoic sedimentary rocks
Fig. 12.3. A generalized bedrock map of southeastern Fennoscandia. The ages of the most significant
rapakivi areas (cf.Vaasjoki, 1996) are given. Modified from Rm and Haapala (1995).
rocks separately. silicates are hornblende (hastingsite), iron-rich

biotite (annite, siderophyllite), and fayalite
4.1. Felsic plutonic rocks (sometimes also ferroaugite, orthoferrosilite,
and pigeonite); later phases are characterized
The felsic plutonic rocks of the rapakivi by granites with biotite as the sole major mafic
areas are granites sensu stricto and they are mineral. Typical wiborgite contains biotite
distinguished from other granitic rocks in and hornblende as the main mafic silicates,
Finland by, e.g., their mode of occurrence whereas pyterlite contains only biotite. The
and magmatic association. Compared to the presence of fayalite together with quartz and
Paleoproterozoic calc-alkaline granites typi- magnetite in the more mafic rapakivi granite
cal of the Svecofennian continental crust, the indicates reducing conditions.
rapakivi granites are compositionally more The most common mineral in rapakivi
homogeneous, contain more alkali feldspar, granites is alkali feldspar, which usually forms
and their mafic silicates exhibit a higher Fe/Mg ~50% of the rock and is found as euhedral
ratio (Simonen and Vorma, 1969; Rieder et al., or subhedral, often ovoidal crystals. In some
1996; Elliott, 2001). dark, early rapakivi phases (e.g., the tirilite in
The felsic plutonic rocks within the Finn- the Wiborg batholith and the Tarkki granite
ish rapakivi areas have crystallized in many of the Eurajoki stock), plagioclase is more
stages and and several different intrusive abundant than alkali feldspar and is euhedral
phases cross-cut the older ones within the in respect to it.
rapakivi plutons (Figures 12.5 through 12.7). A typical feature of the rapakivi granites is
The early and main intrusive phases are repre- that the mafic silicates (biotite, hornblende) fill
sented by granites in which the principal mafic the interstices between feldspars and quartz,

30
SW Finland SE Finland
25
Number of age determinations
20
15
10
0
1500 1550 1600 1650 1700
Age (Ma)
Felsic plutonic rocks Felsic dikes

Mafic plutonic rocks Mafic dikes
Intermediate plutonic rocks
Fig. 12.4. The distribution of zircon and baddeleyite U-Pb ages determined from Finnish rapakivi
granites and associated mafic and intermediate plutonic rocks as well as felsic and mafic dike rocks.
The diagram is based on 71 age determinations (Suominen, 1991;Vaasjoki, 1996; Alviola et al., 1999).
which have crystallized earlier. In granites or porphyritic texture, but do not contain
forming the early and main intrusive phases, mantled alkali feldspar ovoids. The major
accessory minerals are fluorite, zircon, apatite, minerals are quartz, microcline perthite, and
ilmenite, magnetite, anatase, and allanite; albite. The dark mica (generally less than 5%)
monazite is found instead of allanite in the is lithium-bearing siderophyllite. Accessory
varieties dominated by biotite. Plagioclase- minerals include topaz, fluorite, monazite,
mantled alkali feldspar ovoids are common in bastnsite, xenotime, ilmenite, cassiterite,
the three largest rapakivi batholiths (Wiborg, columbite, and thorite. Zircon, apatite, and
land, Laitila), but are relatively rare in the magnetite, typical of the early and main rapa-
others. kivi phases, are rare.
The latest crystallizing phases of rapakivi The topaz-bearing granites contain often,
granites are leucocratic topaz-bearing alkali especially in the upper parts on the intrusions,
feldspar granites (Figure 12.2C) with frequent miarolitic cavities, which indicates that mag-
associated greisen-type tin-beryllium-tung- mas of the late granite phases were saturated
sten-zinc-lead mineralization (Haapala, 1977b, with water. At times the upper contact of the
1997; Edn, 1991; Lukkari, 2002; Figures 12.6 topaz-bearing granites exhibits a pegmatite
and 12.7). These granites cross-cut the other zone (stockscheider), which also demonstrates
rapakivi varieties. They can be of even-grained the concentration of volatile matter in the up-
Ahvenisto
Suomenniemi
FINLAND
Lappeenranta
Jaala-Iitti
61
Kouvola
RUSSIA
Hamina
Kymi
6030
Kotka
Onas Gulf of Finland
Someri
25 km
Suursaari v
26
Svecofennian bedrock Porphyry aplite Monzodiorite

Wiborgite Even-grained granite Diabase dikes
Dark wiborgite Hornblende or biotite- Quartz-feldspar
hornblende granite porphyry dikes
Pyterlite Biotite granite v Volcanic formation
Porphyritic granite Topaz-bearing granite
Coarse-grained granite Gabbro, anorthosite
Fig. 12.5. Petrological map of the Finnish part of the Wiborg rapakivi batholith and its satellitic
intrusions (Ahvenisto, Suomenniemi, Onas). The JaalaIitti complex that was investigated in detail by
Salonsaari (1995) is shown in purple on the northwestern flank of the Wiborg batholith. Dashed line
denotes the margin of the Wiborg batholith in the Gulf of Finland. Based on Vorma (1980), Rm
(1991), and Salonsaari (1995).

Eurajoki Kymi
6115
Sn, Be
H H 60
30
Sn Sn, Be
Sn Be
Sn, W, Be Be, W
Pb, Zn, Cu
Sn, W 2 km 1 km
A B
Topaz-bearing granite Even-grained topaz-bearing granite

Biotite granite Porphyritic topaz-bearing granite
Faylite-biotite-hornblende granite Marginal pegmatite (stockscheider)
Quartz porphyry dike (H = hybrid) Quartz porphyry dike

Greisen and quartz veins Greisen and quartz veins
Rapakivi granite (Laitila batholith) Rapakivi granite (Wiborg batholith)
Crystalline basement (Paleoproterozoic)
Fig. 12.6. Petrological maps of the (A) Eurajoki and (B) Kymi stocks (cf. Figure 12.3), which contain
tin, tungsten, beryllium, zinc, and copper mineralization. According to Haapala (1977a, b).
per fringe of the magma reservoir. An excel- Simonen and Vorma (1969) made a distinction
lent example of this is the Kymi stock (Figure between normal wiborgite and dark wiborgite,
12.6B), where the zoned granite cupola is the latter containing plagioclase megacrysts in
rimmed by a pegmatite zone containing topaz, addition to wiborgitic ovoids. Both wiborgite
tourmaline, beryl, arsenopyrite, molybdenite, and dark wiborgite contain hornblende in ad-
and columbite (Haapala and Ojanper, 1972; dition to biotite, but dark wiborgite contains
Kaartamo, 1996; Haapala and Lukkari, 2005). more of it as well as fayalite.
Ore formation associated with the topaz-bear- According to Simonen and Vorma (1969)
ing granites is linked to greisen veins and ~80% of the Wiborg batholith in Finland con-
irregular greisen lenses that contain topaz, sists of wiborgite or dark wiborgite. The rest is
chlorite, cassiterite, wolframite, sulfides, and formed by pyterlite, porphyritic rapakivi gran-
beryllium minerals (beryl, genthelvite, ber- ite (biotite-dominated granite with angular al-
trandite; Haapala, 1977a,b). kali feldspar phenocrysts), dark even-grained
The bedrock map of the Wiborg rapakivi rapakivi granite (fayalite-hornblende granite,
area is presented in Figure 12.5. Most of the e.g., tirilite), even-grained biotite granite and
Finnish part of the pluton consists of wiborgite. porphyry aplite (leucocratic biotite granite
Ahvenisto
Fennoscandia
Wiborg
batholith
30 km Lake Juolasvesi
Lake Enonvesi
Lake Vuohijrvi
5 km
Ahvenisto complex
Quartz-feldspar
Hornblende granite porphyry dike Leucogabbronorite
Hornblende-biotite granite Greisen veins Uralite gabbro
Biotite granite Monzodiorite Olivine diabase
Topaz-bearing granite Anorthosite Svecofennian rocks
Porphyritic aplite and aplite Olivine-bearing gabbroids Granitoids

Schists
Fig. 12.7. Petrological map of the Ahvenisto rapakivi granitegabbroanorthosite complex. Location
relative to Fennoscandia and the Wiborg rapakivi granite batholith is indicated. After Alviola et al.
(1999).

with rare large alkali feldspar crystals). norites, leucotroctolites) with plagioclase,
The second largest rapakivi area in Finland pyroxenes, and locally olivine as the major
lies in the land archipelago, and comprises minerals. There is also some anorthosite with
likewise many different types of granites, plagioclase in excess of 90%.
which also represent granites crystallized The mafic plutonic rocks of the rapakivi
from rapakivi melts during different phases. association are found either as inclusions
Bergman (1981) has recognized the follow- within the rapakivi plutons or as small intru-
ing plutonic rocks from the land batholith: sions on their margins. U-Pb ages do not show
(1) quartz-feldspar porphyry (the oldest), (2) any measurable differences (in excess of a few
porphyritic hornblende rapakivi, (3) wiborgite, million years) between the felsic and mafic
(4) pyterlite, (5) even-grained rapakivi granite, plutonic rocks of the rapakivi areas (Suomi-
and (6) aplitic rapakivi granite (the young- nen, 1991; Vaasjoki et al., 1991; Alviola et
est). Most of the land batholith consists of al., 1999).
wiborgite and pyterlite. The most significant occurrence of mafic
The third largest rapakivi area in Finland, plutonic rocks is the Ahvenisto gabbroanor-
the Laitila batholith consists principally of a thosite complex at Mntyharju northwest of
pyterlite, where alkali feldspar ovoids are well the Wiborg rapakivi area (Figure 12.7). The
developed, but generally without a plagioclase complex has the shape of a horse-shoe and
mantle (Vorma, 1976). In addition to pyterlite, surrounds the Ahvenisto rapakivi granite plu-
several hornblende, hornblende-biotite, and ton. Most of the gabbroanorthosite complex
biotite granites are found. Northwest of the consists of coarse-grained leucogabbronorite,
Laitila batholith lies the Eurajoki stock, which which contains scattered large (up to 10
contains a relatively low-silica fayalite-bear- cm in diameter) plagioclase crystals. In the
ing hornblende granite (Tarkki granite) and northwestern part of the complex, there are
a leucocratic, topaz-bearing alkali feldspar olivine-bearing mafic plutonic rocks, olivine
granite (Vkkr granite, Figure 12.2C; Haa- leucogabbronorite and leucotroctolite, also
pala, 1977a and 1997). containing large plagioclase crystals and rep-
A characteristic feature of the other rapa- resenting an earlier phase in the evolution of
kivi granite plutons in Finland is that they usu- the mafic magma (Figure 12.2D). Anorthosite
ally consist of at least a few types of granites, within the Ahvenisto complex is found as
ranging from hornblende- to biotite-bearing lens-shaped, maximally 200-m-long bodies
varieties (often also topaz-bearing granites). in the more mafic rock types of the complex.
Detailed descriptions, in addition to those of The contact between the anorthositic bodies
the Laitila (Vorma, 1976) and Eurajoki (Haa- and the surrounding mafic rocks is sharp.
pala, 1977a) plutons, have been published The most typical minerals in the rocks of the
from the Vehmaa (Kanerva, 1928; Lindberg Ahvenisto gabbroanorthosite complex are
and Bergman, 1993), Ahvenisto (Savolahti, plagioclase (An4570), orthopyroxene, olivine,
1956; Johanson, 1984; Edn, 1991; Alviola et augite, titanian magnetite, and ilmenite.
al., 1999), Suomenniemi (Rm, 1991), and In addition to Mntyharju, rapakivi-asso-
Jaala-Iitti (Salonsaari, 1995) areas. ciated gabbros and anorthosites are found in
Ylmaa in the central part of Wiborg batho-
4.2. Mafic plutonic rocks lith (Figure 12.5). Several mafic inliers, their
dimensions ranging from a few hundreds of
The majority of the mafic plutonic rocks are meters to a few kilometers, occur within the
leucocratic gabbros (leucogabbronorites, ol- rapakivi, their plagioclase being iridescent an-
ivine leucogabbronorites, leucogabbros, leuco- desinelabradorite. Small gabbroanorthosite
bodies are also known at Vrlampi on the In addition to Ahvenisto, intermediate plutonic
northern flank of the Suomenniemi pluton, at rocks associated with rapakivi granites have
Kolinummi southeast of the Laitila batholith, also been reported from the land batholith
and in the western and southwestern parts of (Eklund et al., 1994).
the land batholith (Figure 12.3).
In areas where the continental crust has 4.4. Dikes and volcanic rocks
been eroded to a deeper section than in Fin-
land, a much larger proportion of gabbros and The present level of erosion in southern
anorthosites is present. This is the case for Finland represents a section of the Mesopro-
example in Labrador, where roughly equal terozoic bedrock at an estimated depth of a
amounts of felsic and mafic plutonic rocks few kilometers and dike rocks related to the
are found. Significantly, recent seismic studies rapakivi granites are found rather widely in
indicate that a considerable gabbroanortho- the bedrock of southern Finland. Volcanic
site pluton probably lies beneath the Wiborg rocks, however, are rare. Within the Wiborg
batholith at a depth of 1015 km (Korja, 1995). batholith itself, dike rocks are few (Figure
Recent magnetic and gravimetric surveys (Elo 12.5). The best known are the quartz porphyry
et al., 1996) suggest that the Ahvenisto gab- dikes around Hamina in the central part of the
broanorthosite complex is a small outcrop- batholith (Simonen, 1987). Rapakivi-associ-
ping part of this pluton. ated volcanism is probably represented by the
Ruoholampi (and possibly also Taalikkala)
4.3. Intermediate plutonic rocks roof pendant near Lappeenranta, in which
amygdaloidal porphyritic diabase has been
Although the magmatic association of the observed (Vorma, 1975). In the Ruoholampi
rapakivi granites is clearly bimodal, some in- roof pendant there also is a felsite porphyry
termediate rocks are also present. These have interpreted as a volcanic rock.
been described in detail from the Ahvenisto The best evidence for volcanic activity
gabbroanorthosite complex (Johanson, 1984; assosiated with the Wiborg batholith is found
Alviola et al., 1999). The intermediate rocks on the Island of Suursaari (Hogland), which
of the Ahvenisto complex are monzodiorites lies on the southern margin of the pluton
and quartz monzodiorites, which contain (Figure 12.3). The bedrock of Suursaari
distinctly more alkali feldspar than the mafic was studied before World War II by Ramsay
rocks of the complex. They are found as dikes (1890), Kranck (1929), and Wahl (1938).
within the complex and at its margins (Figure The lowermost formation on the island is the
12.7). The intermediate dikes cross-cut the Paleoproterozoic Svecofennian bedrock and
gabbros and anorthosites, whereas rapakivi its erosion surface. The latter is covered by a
granites generally cut the monzodiorites and quartzose conglomerate with no evidence for
quartz monzodiorites; locally also mingling later deformation. Volcanic activity in the area
of monzodiorites and granite has occurred started with an eruption that formed a thin
(Figure 12.2e). The monzodioritic rocks of the layer of ash and ejecta on the conglomerate.
Ahvenisto complex are medium-grained, often After this, basaltic and andesitic lavas flowed
porphyritic and darker than the gabbros and into the valleys and tephra with tuffaceous
anorthosites. Their major minerals are plagio- breccia structure was deposit atop of them.
clase (An3550), hypersthene, and hornblende. The tuffaceous breccias and lavas of the first
Accessory minerals are alkali feldspar, quartz, eruption phase are overlain by locally over
iron-titanium oxides, apatite, zircon, bad- 100-m-thick quartz-feldspar porphyries.
deleyite, and, in some cases, Fe-rich olivine. The dikes around the Suomenniemi

5m
Quartz-feldspar porphyry Mixed rock

Diabase Svecofennian gneissic granite
Diabase with alkali feldspar and quartz xenocrysts
Fig. 12.8. Schematic diagram of a zoned diabasequartz-feldspar porphyry dike cross-cutting Paleo-
proterozoic Svecofennian rocks at Korpijrvi, Mntyharju, northwest of the Suomenniemi rapakivi
pluton. Silicic magma has first intruded a crack in the Svecofennian bedrock and has been followed
by diabase magma in a manner that the melts have partly intermingled (Rm, 1991). Dashed lines
indicate the probable continuation of the different zones.
rapakivi pluton are exceptionally varied in and quartz-feldspar porphyry magmas were
character (Rm, 1991). Northwest of the melts at the same time, as both have entered
pluton is a NW-trending tholeiitic diabase dike the same fissures with resultant local mingling
swarm that extends over 80 km away from the structures (Figure 12.8). The Suomenniemi
Suomenniemi pluton (Figure 12.5). A number pluton is also cut by a dike swarm that con-
of dikes have passed through a silicic magma sists of peralkaline alkali feldspar syenite and
chamber and have taken with them abundant alkali feldspar quartz syenite (Rm, 1991).
alkali feldspar ovoids, some with a plagioclase The dikes are generally a few meters wide,
mantle (Figure 12.2F, 12.2G). In the same NW-striking, and of variable dip. The major
swarm with the diabases, but only to a distance minerals are mesoperthite and aegirine-augite.
of about 12 km from the pluton, there are also Alkali amphibole, titanite, titanian andradite,
quartz-feldspar porphyry dikes. The diabase zircon, and quartz are some of the accessory
minerals. (Lindqvist and Laitakari, 1980).
Between the Suomenniemi and Wiborg The dike-like JaalaIitti complex at the
rapakivi batholiths is the ~1645 Ma Lovasjrvi northwestern margin of the Wiborg batholith
mafic intrusion that is slightly older than the was studied in detail by Salonsaari (1995).
granitic batholiths. It is a 5.4-km-long and The complex is arcuate, 22 km long, the width
8001500-m-wide vertical sheet-like intru- varying from 0.1 to 1.5 km, and it sharply
sion and consists of diabase, olivine diabase, cross-cuts the granite of the Wiborg pluton
and melatroctolite (Alviola, 1981; Siivola, and the surrounding Svecofennian bedrock.
1987). This mafic intrusion represents an early, By its composition the complex is hybrid rock
internally differentiated tholeiitic magma and has, according to Salonsaari (1995), been
chamber related to the diabase magmatism formed through mingling of basaltic and rhyo-
of the area. litic melts in a magma chamber deeper in the
Northwest of the Wiborg rapakivi batho- crust at temperatures between 950 and 750 oC.
lith is the Hme diabase dike swarm (Figure The JaalaIitti complex contains indications
12.3) with two sets of diabase dikes deviating of both end members (mafic basaltic inclu-
from each other in direction, age, and compo- sions, granites) and of the hybrid rock types
sition. The older of them strikes west-northeast (monzogranites, quartz monzonites) resulting
and is ~1665 Ma old (Vaasjoki and Sakko, from magma mixing and mingling.
1989), ~100 km long, and consists of me- In addition to the dike rocks associated
dium-grained diabase with abundant olivine with the Wiborg batholith, both quartz-feld-
(Laitakari, 1987). Plagioclase is not present as spar porphyry and diabase dikes have been
phenocrysts or large fragments in these dikes found around the small rapakivi plutons (Onas,
(Laitakari and Leino, 1989). The younger set Bodom, Obbns) in the vicinity of Helsinki
of dikes within the swarm is ~1645 Ma old (e.g., Trnroos, 1984; Kosunen, 1999). Their
(Laitakari, 1969). It strikes towards northwest strike is almost parallel to that of the more
and is ~150 km long. In the vicinity of the Ah- northerly Hme swarm. In the rapakivi areas
venisto rapakivi granite complex, also quartz- of southwestern Finland, dike rocks are pres-
feldspar porphyry magmas have invaded the ent between land and Turku (Ehlers and
same system of cracks. In the Hme swarm, Ehlers, 1977; Suominen, 1987, 1991), in the
the largest diabase dikes lie in the eastern end southwestern part of the land rapakivi batho-
of the swarm close to the Ahvenisto complex. lith (Eklund, 1993), in the Laitila batholith
The dikes become narrower towards the west (Haapala, 1977a), and near the town of Pori
and, e.g., at Kuru in the central part of the north of Laitila (Pihlaja, 1987). The dikes in the
swarm, the widest of them measures no more land and Turku areas comprise pyroxene dia-
than 10 m (Laitakari, 1987). base, amphibole diabase, and quartz-feldspar
The dikes of the younger set of the Hme porphyry. Of the pyroxene diabases, the best
swarm are mainly of olivine tholeiites, but known is the 35-km-long Fgl swarm (Figure
they contain clearly less olivine than those 12.3) between the land and Kkarsfjrden
of the older set; some dikes are quartz tholei- rapakivi plutons. It consists of several diabase
itic. The pyroxene is principally augite, but dikes emplaced in an en echelon manner. The
orthopyroxene has been met with occasion- Fgl swarm is not known to cross-cut the
ally. Plagioclase is found as phenocrysts, rapakivi granites, but the association is clear as
sometimes even as ~20-cm-long megacrysts its isotopic ages (~15701540 Ma) correspond
that are concentrated in the central parts of the to the age of the land rapakivi granites. Many
dikes. In the thinnest, only a few centimeters of the Fgl dikes contain large plagioclase
wide dikes basaltic glass has been preserved fragments, even several tens of centimeters

in diameter. (early intrusive phases) to marginally peralu-
In association with the Eurajoki rapakivi minous (late intrusive phases). Typical features
pluton (Figures 12.3 and 12.6) are felsic, lo- of the rapakivi granites are also high Fe/Mg,
cally topaz-bearing quartz porphyry dikes and K/Na, and Rb/Sr ratios. These geochemical
more mafic, dark porphyry dikes. The dark traits are evident in Table 12.1 that shows the
dikes contain plagioclase (An5560), quartz, area-weighted average chemical composi-
alkali feldspar, and ilmenite mega crysts tions of the Wiborg and Laitila batholiths in
(Haapala, 1977a). The plagioclase and quartz comparison to the granite average of Turekian
megacrysts are usually strongly resorbed, and Wedepohl (1961). The area-weighted
whereas the alkali feldspar megacrysts are means of the two rapakivi batholiths can be
more euhedral. The ground mass of the dikes considered as fair estimates of the composition
consists of plagioclase, biotite, hornblende, of their initial magmas (Rm and Haapala,
alkali feldspar, quartz, and apatite. The dark 1995). The two batholiths are close to each
porphyry dikes are the result of mingling other compositionally, save for the Wiborg
of mafic and felsic magmas typical of the batholith being slightly more mafic (higher
rapakivi association (Haapala, 1997). Mg, Fe), calcic, and sodic. Comparison to
It is quite probable that the present level the average granite of Turekian and Wedepohl
of erosion of the Finnish bedrock represents (1961) shows that, at the roughly similar SiO2
at the land batholith a shallower section than values of ~70.5 wt.%, the rapakivi batholiths
around the plutons in southeastern Finland have higher FeO* (~3.7 vs. 2.8 wt.%), K2O
(cf. Bergman, 1986). Subvolcanic complexes, (~5.6 vs. 4.1 wt.%), and F (0.24 vs. 0.07 wt.%)
the evolution of which is constrained by the as well as lower Al2O3 (13.8 vs. 14.6 wt.%),
bimodal magmatism typical of rapakivi as- MgO (0.32 vs. 0.91 wt.%), and Na2O (2.8 vs.
sociations and local hybridization processes 3.7 wt.%).
(e.g., Eklund, 1993; Eklund et al., 1994), have Figure 12.9 depicts the chemical compo-
been described in conjunction with the land sition of the Finnish rapakivi granites on the
batholith. Also an ignimbrite-like lithologic discrimination diagrams from Pearce et al.
unit has been described from the area (Eklund (1984) and Whalen et al. (1987). The Finn-
et al., 1996). ish rapakivi granites plot within the field of
the within-plate granites (Figure 12.9A) and
have the characteristics of the A-type granites
5. Chemical composition (Figure 12.9B). Chondrite-normalized REE
abundances of the main rapakivi granite types
In addition to their singular texture and mode (e.g., wiborgite, pyterlite) indicate strong
of occurrence, the rapakivi granites also overall enrichment in the LREE and a small
exhibit a singular chemical composition that Eu minimum; the late-stage topaz-bearing in-
sets them apart from many other granites. trusive phases have flat chondrite-normalized
The rapakivi granites contain more Si, K, F, patterns and a very pronounced Eu minimum
Rb, Ga, Zr, Hf, Th, U, Zn, and REE but less (Figure 12.10). In the classification scheme
Ca, Mg, Al, P, and Sr than granitic rocks in of Frost et al. (2001), the Finnish rapakivi
general (Rm and Haapala, 1995). In the late granites mostly comply with the ferroan alkali-
topaz-bearing intrusive phases of the rapakivi calcic granitoids (Figure 12.11).
plutons, Sn, F, Ga, Rb, Sn, and Nb are espe-
cially abundant and contents of Ba, Sr, and Zr
are very low. In terms of aluminum saturation,
the rapakivi granites range from metaluminous
Table 12.1. 10000
A
Area-weighted mean compositions of the Wi-
syn-
borg (Finnish part) and Laitila rapakivi batholiths COLG
compared to average granite composition. 1000 WPG
Rb (ppm)
Area-weighted meansa Granite averageb 100
Wiborg Laitila
SiO2 (wt.%) 70.41 70.68 70.71 VAG
TiO2 0.45 0.43 0.38 10 ORG
Al2O3 13.66 13.98 14.55
FeOTOTAL 3.93 3.54 2.82
1
MnO 0.05 0.04 0.06 100 1000 10000
MgO 0.37 0.28 0.91 Y+Nb (ppm)
CaO 1.96 1.59 2.13 100
B
Na2O 2.95 2.61 3.65 A-type
K2O 5.57 5.63 4.05
(K2O+Na2O)/CaO
P2O5 0.13 0.08 0.17
F 0.22 0.26 0.07
FG
Total 99.70 99.12 99.50 10
O=F2 0.09 0.11 0.03
Total 99.61 99.01 99.47
A/CNK c 0.95 1.05 1.02
OGT
Fe*/(Fe*+Mg) d 0.91 0.93 0.76
K/Na 1.89 2.16 1.11 1
Rb/Sr 2.23 2.50 0.52 100 1000 10000
Zr+Nb+Ce+Y (ppm)
Rb (ppm) 252 265 140
Sr 113 106 270 Fig. 12.9. The geochemical composition
Ba 1062 1175 630 of the Finnish rapakivi granites (data from
Zr 367 344 158 Rm and Haapala, 1995) on (A) a (Y+Nb)
a
Based on the areal percentage and mean composition vs. Rb diagram (Pearce et al., 1984) and (B) a
of the granite types present in each batholith (Rm and (Zr+Nb+Ce+Y) vs. (K2O+Na2O)/CaO diagram
Haapala, 1995). (Whalen et al., 1987). Abbreviations for the
b
After Turekian and Wedepohl (1961).
c
Molecular Al2O3/(CaO+Na2O+K2O).
fields: FGextensively fractionated felsic granites;
d
Weight ratio, Fe* denotes total iron.
OGTunfractionated M-, I-, and S-type granites;
syn-COLGgranites associated with collisions
of tectonic plates; WPGwithin plate granites;
6. Origin of the rapakivi texture ORGocean ridge granites;VAGvolcanic arc
granites.
The rapakivi texture, especially the alkali feld-
spar ovoids mantled with plagioclase, has been
subject to many studies and interpretations, but Magmatic origin is supported by the fact that
no generally accepted model for its origin has the alkali feldspar crystals are at times broken
emerged so far. Models worth consideration and the plagioclase mantle is either thinner
should be able to explain both the roundish or totally lacking on the broken surface. This
form of the feldspar crystals and the mecha- demonstrates that the plagioclase mantles have
nism of the mantle formation. Most models grown on surfaces of alkali feldspars existing
propose that the rapakivi texture was formed in a partly crystallized granite magma.
during crystallization of the rapakivi melt. The main theories on the origin of the

1000 1.0
A
Finnish rapakivi granites 0.9
A-type
FeO*/(FeO*+MgO)
100 0.8 ferroan
Sample/Chondrite
0.7
magnesian
10 0.6
Selected granite types from the 0.5 Finnish rapakivi

Wiborg batholith: granites
1 Wiborgite 0.4
Pyterlite 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Topaz-bearing granite 12
10 B A-type
0.2
La Ce Pr Nd Sm EuGd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu 8
6
Fig. 12.10. The rare earth element (REE) con- alkalic
Na2O+K2OCaO
4
tents of the Finnish rapakivi granites (gray field 2
data from Rm and Haapala, 1995) relative cic
0 -cal
to the chondritic composition. Compositions of a l kali
-2 ali
three selected rapakivi granites from the Wiborg -alk
-4 calc
batholith are also shown (data from Haapala et -6
al., 2005). -8
50 55 60 65 70 75 80
SiO2 (wt.%)
rapakivi texture can be grouped in the fol- Fig. 12.11. The composition of the Finnish rapa-
lowing manner: kivi granites (Rm and Haapala, 1995) in (A)
FeO*/(FeO* + MgO) vs. SiO2 and (B) (Na2O +
K2O CaO) vs. SiO2 classification diagrams of
(1) Exsolution in a solid state, with the
Frost et al. (2001). Composition range of ~500
exsolving plagioclase migrating to the rims of
A-type granites (as referred to in Frost et al.,
grains (Elders, 1968; Dempster et al., 1994). 2001) is also shown.
(2) Crystallization from a viscous gran-
ite melt with few nuclei for crystal growth.
Because of the slow rate of diffusion, (a) the
alkali feldspar crystals grow roundish and (b) lizing granitic melt (crystal mush) with mafic
a potassium-depleted and calcium-enriched melt can lead to the resorption of alkali feld-
boundary layer is created around the alkali spar and quartz crystals and the crystallization
feldspar crystals, which causes the crystal- of plagioclase on surfaces of alkali feldspar
lization of the plagioclase shell (Sederholm, (Hibbard, 1981; Stimac and Wark, 1992).
1928; Savolahti, 1962). Of these hypotheses, the exsolution theory
(3) A rapid decrease of pressure coupled (1) cannot be applied as a general model, as
with a slow decrease in temperature may plagioclase mantles are in some cases found
stabilize plagioclase at the expense of al- around granite inclusions, but there is no
kali feldspar (and quartz); alkali feldspar and mantle on the alkali feldspar crystals within
quartz crystals are resorbed and rounded, and the inclusions (Figure 12.12). Neither is the
plagioclase starts to crystallize on the surfaces slowness of diffusion in a viscous magma (2)
of the alkali feldspar while the orientation of generally applicable, because, for example,
the crystal structure is retained (Nekvasil, the high fluorine content typical of rapakivi
1991). magma very effectively decreases viscosity
(4) Mingling and mixing of the crystal- and increases rates of diffusion. Models (3)
sist of a micrographic plagioclase-quartz in-
tergrowth (thus not a normal rapakivi texture),
sometimes of plagioclase, and were formed
at a temperature of 850 oC to 750 oC and a
pressure under 2 kb. According to Salonsaari
there is, however, no evidence of large-scale
magma mingling within the Wiborg rapakivi
pluton, although 80% of its area is covered by
rapakivi granites containing mantled ovoids.
Thus he did not regard hybridization as the
principal formation mechanism for rapakivi
texture, but concluded that a temperature rise
caused by mafic magmas resulted in the for-
mation of rapakivi texture in a granitic crystal
mush. It may also be envisaged that hot mafic
magmas retard the decrease of temperature
in a rising, partly crystalline magma and thus
allow rapakivi texture to develop according to
the model of Nekvasil (1991). By comparing
mineral chemical, pressure, and temperature
determinations of rapakivi granites and experi-
mental data, Eklund and Shebanov (1999) con-
Fig. 12.12. Plagioclase-mantled granite autolith cluded that subisothermal pressure decrease in
in wiborgite. Erratic boulder from the Wiborg ascending magma is a viable mechanism for
rapakivi granite area. Photo: O. Tapani Rm. the formation of the rapakivi texture.
and (4) are based on petrological observa- 7. Origin of the rapakivi magma
tions and experiments and are both possible
mechanisms for the origin of rapakivi texture. The rapakivi granites in Finland are about
They require that pressure, temperature, water 350150 Ma younger than the surrounding
fugacity, and chemical composition within Paleoproterozoic Svecofennian rocks. The
the rapakivi magma change in a manner that large age difference justifies the opinion that
renders alkali feldspar unstable (resorption, the rapakivi granites are anorogenic in respect
rounding) but plagioclase stable, and thus to the Svecofennian orogeny. This conclusion
allow plagioclase to crystallize on the alkali is supported by the discordant mode of oc-
feldspar megacrysts. currence, bimodal magmatic association, and
Salonsaari (1995) showed that rounded the mineralogical and geochemical (A-type)
mantled alkali feldspar ovoids were formed characteristics of the rapakivi granites.
in the JaalaIitti complex (Figure 12.5) as a Studies carried out at the Institute of
result of magma mingling and mixing (hy- Seismology, University of Helsinki (e.g.,
bridization). In this process, alkali feldspar Luosto et al., 1990; Korja et al., 1993; Luosto,
crystals from the granitic crystal mush were 1997) demonstrate that the rapakivi plutons
enclosed by more mafic magma, with which are found in areas where continental crust
they reacted and became resorbed on their is thinner than in the surroundings, i.e., the
edges. The mantles of the ovoids usually con- mantle bulges upwards in a dome-like fash-

A B C D E
Rapakivi granite km 6.0 6.1
6.2 6.1
10 6.2
6.5 6.4
E
6.45 HVL 6.45
6.6
6.65
Wiborg 30 6.7
D batholith 7.0 6.8
7.2 7.0
C 8.0
50 8.2 M1
8.4 M2
7.3
B 8.5
70
A
Gulf of Finland
0 50 100 150 200 250 km
Fig. 12.13. Vertical section based on seismic studies (Luosto et al., 1990) through the continental
crust and upper mantle in the western part of the Wiborg rapakivi batholith and north of it. The
dashed lines indicate changes in the velocities of seismic longitudinal waves, HVL is a high velocity
layer (most likely gabbro and anorthosite), and M1 and M2 indicate Moho discontinuities at crust-
mantle boundary and within the uppermost mantle. Modified from Rm and Haapala (1996).
ion (Figures 12.13, 12.14). In the areas of the ing of the deep parts of the Paloproterozoic
domes there is in the uppermost parts of the Svecofennian crust (Figure 12.15), in the case
mantle a zone, where the velocities of seismic of the Suomenniemi pluton possibly by partial
longitudinal waves are lower than in mantle melting of intermediate-felsic rock material.
peridotite in general, but clearly higher than In contrast, a large part of the material of the
in the lower parts of continental crust. Appar- Salmi rapakivi batholith lying in the border
ently this zone consists of a mixture of mantle zone between the Archean and Proterozoic
peridotite, mantle-derived mafic rock, and par- domains (cf. Figure 12.3) represents remelted
tially melted crustal rocks. The lower part of Archean crust (Figure 12.15; Rm, 1991;
the crust has thinned in the area of the domes Neymark et al., 1994). The diabase dikes and
(Figure 12.13). The swarms of subparallel other mafic rocks (gabbros and anorthosites)
diabase dikes around rapakivi complexes are have a Nd isotope composition that partly
indicative of an extensional tectonic regime overlaps that of the granites, but is slightly
at the time of rapakivi magmatism (Haapala, more radiogenic (higher Nd values) on aver-
1988). Similarly, an extensional environment age (Figure 12.15). This suggests that they
is demonstrated by some normal faults and were crystallized from mantle melts that were
shallow-dip listric faults (Korja and Heik- variably contaminated by crustal material
kinen, 1995). (Rm, 1991).
Isotope geological and geochemical stud- The results of the studies presented above
ies (e.g., Rm, 1991, 2001) have demon- can be collected to a model depicting the
strated that the parent magmas of the Finnish origin of the rapakivi magmatism as follows
rapakivi granites formed through partial melt- (Figure 12.16):
51 43
47
45
51
NORDIN-
GR 43
55 53
53
46 59 41
49
55
Finland 63
57
RAGUNDA 1.551.53
61
57 AHVENISTO
SUO-
Bothnian MENNIEMI SALMI
1.531.47
59
Sea
41 LAND Lake
TIB Ladoga
43 WIBORG 47
Gulf of 41
Sweden 43 Finland 43
47 Baltic 45
45
Sea
North 16 45 47 Russia
Atlantic 1.67
4
68 68
Estonia 1.62 9
43 57 0 100 200 km
41
53
1.59
55
51
A 1.54 Rapakivi granite complexes
16
400 km RIGA Rapakivi-age mafic intrusions
and dikes
Archean SW Scandina-
43
vian domain
Paleoprotero-
Phanerozoic 45 49 Latvia 57 59 Moho depth contours
zoic
Fig. 12.14. Map showing the 1.671.47 Ga rapakivi granite complexes and contours of crustal thick-
ness of the south-central part of the Fennoscandian Shield. The complexes delineate four age clusters
from west to east: 1.531.47, 1.591.54, 1.671.62, and 1.561.53 Ga; the latter three are indicated
with blue lines (cf. Haapala et al., 2005). The inset shows the area relative to the major crustal do-
mains of the shield. TIB is the 1.851.7 Ga Transscandinavian igneous belt. The green area marked
by A in the inset denotes 1.691.55 Ga magmatic arcs in southwesternmost Sweden (Ahl et al.,
1997; hll et al., 2000). Note that the area south of the Gulf of Finland is covered by Phanerozoic
sedimentary rocks (not shown in principal map). Compiled mainly after Koistinen (1994), Rm et al.
(1996), Andersson (1997), Korja et al. (2001), Korsman et al. (1999), and Persson (1999).
(1) Mafic magma created by partial melt- lavas; granitic magmas formed quartz-feldspar
ing of the upper mantle caused magmatic porphyry dikes, rapakivi granite plutons, and
underplating and thus led to partial melting rhyolitic supracrustal rocks. Magma mingling
of the lower continental crust to form granitic and mixing occurred locally at varying depths.
rapakivi magma. The emplacement of all the large plutons and
(2) Mafic magmas that rose along deep many of the smaller stocks occurred as a result
fissures in the crust formed diabase dikes, gab- of several sequential magma pulses. The lower
broanorthosite plutons, and layers of basaltic part of the continental crust thinned in the pro-

1.9 Ga Svecofennian crust
Depleted Mantle
+5
Finnish rapakivi granites
CHUR
0
Evo nd
zoic lution o
crus f Pa
t leop
rote
ro-
Evolution of the source of
the Finnish granites
5
Russian Karelian
rapakivi granites 10
Evo (mixed source)
luti
on
of A
rch
ean c
Mafic rocks as- rus
sociated with the
t
Finnish rapakivi
granites 15
2.0 1.5
Age (Ga)
Fig. 12.15. An Nd vs. age diagram illustrating the Nd isotope evolution of the rapakivi granites, Sve-
cofennian crust, Archean crust, and upper mantle depleted in the LREE from 2.1 to 1.1 Ga ago. Data
points of the Finnish rapakivi granites (Rm, 1991) are marked by capital F, those of the associated
mafic rocks by blue dots. The diagram shows that the Finnish rapakivi granites probably represent re-
melted Svecofennian crust. In contrast, the material of the rapakivi granites in Russian Karelia (Rm,
1991; Neymark et al., 1994; Amelin et al., 1997: cf. Figure 12.3) is a mixture of two sources (Paleopro-
terozoic and Archean crust). CHUR indicates the evolution of undifferentiated Earth (DePaolo and
Wasserburg, 1976).The evolution path of the depleted mantle is from DePaolo (1981), that of the
Svecofennian crust from Huhma (1986) and Patchett and Kouvo (1986), and that of the Archean crust
from Rm et al. (1996).
cess because of the shift of material rapakivi from extension.

granite melts were extracted from this domain The bimodal rapakivi granite magmatism
and because of plastic stretching resulting occurred at different times in different places
Present level
of erosion
Upper crust
Middle crust
Crust Lower crust

Mantle peridotite +
mantle gabbro
Mantle peridotite
Basic magma or pluton Quartz-feldspar porphyry dike

Diabase dike Composite dike
Silicic magma or pluton (rapakivi granite) Silicic/basic volcanic rock
Fig. 12.16. A two-stage model of the formation of rapakivi granites according to Haapala (1989) and
Rm and Haapala (1996). For detailed explanation, see the text.
(Figure 12.14): the Wiborg rapakivi batholith 12.14) form four age-associated clusters. The
with its satellitic plutons and diabase dikes batholiths are found as relative thin (~510
was emplaced at 16701620 Ma, the rapakivi km) sheet-like bodies in the upper part of
intrusions in southwestern Finland (the land, the crust, and the Moho contours depicted
Laitila, and Vehmaa batholiths and associ- in Figure 12.14 indicate particularly steep
ated intrusions) at ~15901540 Ma, and the ovoid thinnings in the crust associated with
Salmi rapakivi complex in Russian Karelia the rapakivi intrusions (Elo and Korja, 1993;
at 15501530 Ma. This shows that diapiric Luosto, 1997). The crust hosting the rapakivi
mantle upwelling and resultant crustal melt- intrusions is also characterized by listric seis-
ing occurred below and within the cratonized mic reflectors and thinned lower crust (Korja
Paleoproterozoic crust of southeastern Fen- et al., 2001). These observations fit well the
noscandia during more than 100 Ma without magmatic underplating model and they can
a regular age-locality pattern. also explain the extensional tectonic setting
and the bimodal nature of the magmatism.
The ultimate cause of the underplating is
8. Tectonic scenarios controversial, however. Plausible mechanisms
include active or passive rifting, extensional
There is nowadays a wide consensus that the collapse of orogen, and deep mantle plumes
heating effect of mafic magmatism of mantle (Haapala and Rm, 1999, and references
origin formed the rapakivi magmas via melt- therein). Furthermore, petrologically unstable
ing of the deep crust and that the rapakivi domains in the lithospheric mantle (related to
granites crystallized from these magmas (Haa- earlier or contemporaneous distant subduction
pala and Rm, 1999, and references therein). zones) could have controlled the loci of mag-
However, the cause for the partial melting of matism (Haapala and Rm, 1992; Rm and
the mantle is yet unsolved. Overall, the Fen- Haapala, 1995). The Fennoscandian rapakivi
noscandian rapakivi granite batholiths (Figure granites have recently been related to intermit-

tent subduction events on the southwestern Acknowledgments
flank of the Fennoscandian Shield (hll et al.,
2000). Roughly NS-trending magmatic arcs We are indebted to the late Matti Vaasjoki for
related to this postulated process are located translating an early version of the manuscript
within a thin sliver of crust on the eastern flank from Finnish to English and to Brent A. El-
of the southwestern Scandinavian domain liott (Alabama) and Stephen Frindt (Namibia)
(Figure 12.14 inset). This inboard model is, for assisting with the illustrations. Editorial
however, unable to account for the non-linear comments from Martti Lehtinen are highly
age distribution of the Fennsocandian rapakivi appreciated.
granite complexes.
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Geological Survey of Finland. Current age determinations of intrusive rocks in the
Research 1988. Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec. Ragunda rapakivi complex, central Sweden.
Pap. 10, 78. In: I. Haapala, O.T. Rm (Eds.), Rapakivi
Lindberg, B., Bergman, L., 1993. Vehmaan kartta- granites and related rocks. Precambrian
alueen kallioper. Summary: Pre-Quater- Res. 95, 109127.
nary rocks of the Vehmaa map-sheet area. Pihlaja, P., 1987. Porin seudun subjotuniset dia-
Geological map of Finland 1:100 000, baasit. The Subjotnian diabases of the
Explanation to the maps of Pre-Quaternary Pori region, southwestern Finland. K. Aro,
rocks, Sheet 1042. Geol. Surv. Finland, I. Laitakari (Eds.), Suomen diabaasit ja
Espoo, 156. muut mafiset juonikivilajit. Diabases and
Lindqvist, K., Laitakari, I., 1980. Glass and amyg- other mafic dyke rocks in Finland. Geol.
dules in Precambrian diabases from Orivesi, Surv. Finland, Rep. Invest. 76, 133150.
southern Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland (in Finnish with English abstract and figure
52, 221229. and table captions)
Lukkari, S., 2002. Petrography and geochemistry of Rm, O.T., 1991. Petrogenesis of the Proterozoic
the topaz-bearing granite stocks in Artjrvi rapakivi granites and related basic rocks of
and Sksjrvi, western margin of the Wi- southeastern Fennoscandia: Nd and Pb iso-
borg rapakivi granite batholith. Bull. Geol. topic and general geochemical constraints.
Soc. Finland 74, 115132. Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 355, 1161.
Luosto, U., 1997. Structure of the earths crust in Rm, O.T., 2001. Isotopic composition of pyterlite
Fennoscandia as revealed from refraction in Vyborg (Viipuri), Wiborg batholith, Rus-
and wide-angle reflection studies. In: L.J. sia. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland 73, 111115.
Pesonen (Ed.), The lithosphere in Finland Rm, O.T., Haapala, I., 1995. One hundred years
a geophysical perspective. Geophysica of rapakivi granite. Mineral. Petrol. 52,
33, 316. 129185.
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Burmin, V., Buyanov, A., Kosminskaya, I., magmatism: A global review with em-
Ionkis, V., Sharov, N., 1990. Crust and up- phasis on petrogenesis. In: D. Demaiffe
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profile in SE Finland. Geophys. J. Intern. magmatic suites of rocks in the continental
101, 89110. and oceanic crusts. A volume dedicated to
Nekvasil, H., 1991. Ascent of felsic magma and Professor Jean Michot. Universit Libre
formation of rapakivi. Am. Mineral. 76, de Bruxelles, Royal Museum for Central
12791290. Africa. 177200.
Neymark, L.A., Amelin, Yu.V., Larin, A.M., 1994. Rm, O.T., Huhma, H., Kirs, J., 1996. Radiogenic
Pb-Nd-Sr isotopic constraints on the origin isotopes of the Estonian and Latvian rapa-
on the 1.54-1.56 Ga Salmi rapakivi gran- kivi granite suites: new data from the con-
ite-anorthosite batholith (Karelia, Russia). cealed Precambrian of the East European
Mineral. Petrol. 50, 173194. Craton. Precambrian Res. 79, 209226.

Rm, O.T., Korja, A., Haapala, I., Eklund, O., Savolahti, A., 1956. The Ahvenisto massif in Fin-
Frjd, S., Vaasjoki, M., 2000. Evolution of land. The age of the surrounding gabbro-
the Fennoscandian lithosphere in the Mid- anorthosite complex and the crystallization
Proterozoic: the rapakivi magmatism. In: of rapakivi. Bull. Comm. gol. Finlande
L.J. Pesonen, A. Korja, S.-E. Hjelt (Eds.), 174, 196.
Lithosphere 2000: a Symposium on the Savolahti, A., 1962. The rapakivi problem and the
Structure, Composition and Evolution of rules of idiomorphism in minerals. Bull.
the Lithosphere in Finland. Espoo, Ota- Comm. gol. Finlande 204, 33112.
niemi, October 4-5, 2000, Programme and Sederholm, J.J., 1891. Ueber die finnlndischen
Extended Abstracts. Institute of Seismol- Rapakiwigesteine. Tscherm. Mineral.
ogy, University of Helsinki, Report S-41. Petrograph. Mitth. 12, 131.
129136. Sederholm, J.J., 1928. On orbicular granites,
Rm, O.T., Mnttri, I., Vaasjoki, M., Upton, spotted and nodular granites etc. and on
B.G.J., Sviridenko, L., 2001. Age and sig- the rapakivi texture. Bull. Comm. gol.
nificance of Mesoproterozoic CFB magma- Finlande 83, 1105.
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Geol. Soc. Am. Abstr. Progr. 33, A-139. The mafic intrusion of Lovasjrvi. In: K.
Rm, O.T., DallAgnol, R., Macambira, M.J.B., Aro, I. Laitakari (Eds.), Suomen diabaasit
Leite, A.A.S., de Oliveira, D.C., 2002. 1.88 ja muut mafiset juonikivilajit. Diabases and
Ga oxidized A-type granites of the Rio other mafic dyke rocks in Finland. Geol.
Maria region, eastern Amazonian craton, Surv. Finland, Rep. Invest. 76, 121128.
Brazil: Positively anorogenic! J. Geol. 110, (in Finnish with English abstract and figure
603610. and table captions)
Rm, O.T., Mnttri, I., Kohonen, J., Upton, Simonen, A., 1987. Kaakkois-Suomen rapakivi-
B.G.J., Vaasjoki, M., Luttinen, A.V., Lind- massiivin kartta-alueiden kallioper. Sum-
qvist, V., Lobaev, V., Cuney, M., Sviridenko, mary: Pre-Quaternary rocks of the rapakivi
L.P., 2004. The Lake Ladoga basin; prelimi- massif in southeastern Finland. Geological
nary insights into geochronology, igneous map of Finland 1:100 000, Explanation to
evolution, and tectonic significance. In: C. the maps of Pre-Quaternary rocks, Sheets
Ehlers, O. Eklund, A. Korja, A. Kruuna, 3023+3014, 3024, 3041, 3042, 3044,
R. Lahtinen, L.J. Pesonen (Eds.), Litho- 3113, 3131, and 3133. Geol. Surv. Finland,
sphere 2004 Third Symposium on the 149.
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the Lithosphere in Finland. Institute of biotite from rapakivi. Bull. Comm. gol.
Seismology, University of Helsinki, Report Finlande 238, 128.
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Ramsay, W., 1890. Om Hoglands geologiska byg- on sanidine in silicic lavas, Clear Lake,
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12, 471490. the rapakivi texture. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull.
Rieder, M., Haapala, I., Povondra, P., 1996. 104, 728744.
Mineralogy of dark mica from the Wiborg Suominen, V., 1987. Lounais-Suomen mafiset juo-
rapakivi batholith, southeastern Finland. nikivet. Mafic dyke rocks in southwestern
Eur. J. Mineral. 8, 593605. Finland. In: K. Aro, I. Laitakari (Eds.), Suo-
Salonsaari, P.T., 1995. Hybridization in the men diabaasit ja muut mafiset juonikivilajit.
subvolcanic Jaala-Iitti complex and its Diabases and other mafic dyke rocks in Fin-
petrogenetic relation to rapakivi granites land. Geol. Surv. Finland, Rep. Invest. 76,
and associated mafic rocks of southeastern 151172. (in Finnish with English abstract
Finland. Bull. Geol. Soc. Finland 67 (1b), and figure and table captions)
1104. Suominen, V., 1991. The chronostratigraphy of
southwestern Finland with special reference rapakivi graniteanorthositediabase dyke
to Postjotnian and Subjotnian diabases. association of southeastern Finland. In: I.
Geol. Surv. Finland, Bull. 356, 1100. Haapala, K.C. Condie (Eds.), Precambrian
Trnroos, R., 1984. Petrography, mineral chemistry granitoids. Petrogenesis, geochemistry and
and petrochemistry of granite porphyry metallogeny. Special Issue, Precambrian
dykes from Sibbo, southern Finland. Geol. Res. 51, 227243.
Surv. Finland, Bull. 326, 143. Vorma, A., 1975. On two roof pendants in the Wi-
Turekian, K.K., Wedepohl, K.H., 1961. Distribu- borg rapakivi massif, southeastern Finland.
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the Earths crust. Geol. Soc. Am. Bull. 72, Vorma, A., 1976. On the petrochemistry of rapakivi
175192. granites with special reference to the Laitila
Vaasjoki, M., 1996. Explanation to the geochro- massif, southwestern Finland. Geol. Surv.
nological map of southern Finland: The Finland, Bull. 285, 198.
development of the continental crust with Vorma, A., 1980. The Wiborg rapakivi massif. In:
special reference to the Svecofennian K. Hytnen (Ed.), Precambrian bedrock
orogeny. Geol. Surv. Finland, Rep. Invest. of southern and eastern Finland, Guide to
135, 130. excursions 001 A+C, 26th International
Vaasjoki, M., Sakko, M., 1989. The radiometric Geological Congress Paris 1980. Geol.
age of the Virmaila diabase dyke: Evidence Surv. Finland. 68.
for 20 Ma of continental rifting in Padas- Wahl, W., 1938. Ngra iakttagelser frn Wiborgs-
joki, southern Finland. In: S. Autio (Ed.), rapakiviomrdets sdra grnsgebiet. Geol.
Geological Survey of Finland. Current Fren. Stockholm Frhandl. 60, 8896.
Research 1988. Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec. (in Swedish)
Pap. 10, 4344. Whalen, J.B., Currie, K.L., Chappell, B.W., 1987.
Vaasjoki, M., Rm, O.T., Sakko, M., 1991. New A-type granites; Geochemical character-
U-Pb ages from the Wiborg rapakivi area: istics, discrimination, and petrogenesis.
constraints on the temporal evolution of the Contrib. Mineral. Petrol. 95, 407419.

Chapter 13
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS,
DIABASES, AND LATE
CRATONIC EVOLUTION
J. Kohonen, O.T. Rm
563
Cover page: Mesoproterozoic fluvial sandstone with dendrite. Panelia, Kiukainen,
southwestern Finland.
Photo: Erkki Halme.
Kohonen, J., Rm, O.T., 2005. Sedimentary rocks, diabases,
and late cratonic evolution. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A.,
The late evolution of the shield area is envisioned as an overall dynamic pro-
cess, in part linked to the Sveconorwegian and Caledonian orogenies, and is
divided into six phases, each with a characteristic rock record and tectonic
significance:
(1) The intracratonic rift basin stage (~16001300 Ma). After the emplace-
ment of the locus classicus ~1.671.54 Ga rapakivi granites and related rocks,
thick fluvial deposits began to fill the developing intracratonic rift basins. These
rock sequences (e.g., the Satakunta and Muhos Fms.) are preserved in tectonic
depressions and graben structures delineated by reactivated fracture zones.
(2) Crustal extension episodes and the Sveconorwegian orogeny (~1300900
Ma). ~1265 and 11001000 Ma basaltic dikes record minor juvenile additions
to the shield. These ages correspond to the initial extension and final closing
stages, respectively, of the Sveconorwegian orogeny in the southwest.
(3) The Neoproterozoic exhumation stage (~900600 Ma). In the late
Precambrian, the crystalline basement became exposed over large areas in
northern Europe. Very little is known, however, about the timing and causes of
this uplift and exhumation.
(4) The stage of platform sedimentation (~600420 Ma). In response to
the opening of the Iapetus Ocean, a shallow marine continental margin was
created. Siliciclastic sediments (mainly Cambrian) and platform carbonates
(mainly Ordovician) are preserved in the Bothnian Bay area, while minor cover
remnants (e.g., the Lauhanvuori and Hailuoto Fms. and the Dividal Group) and
other scattered indications (e.g., clastic dikes) are found in the mainland. The
Finnish kimberlites were emplaced during the onset of this platformal stage.
(5) The Caledonian foreland stage (~420350 Ma). Minor rock units belong-
ing to the Scandinavian Caledonides are present in the far northwest part of the
country. Recent fission track studies indicate that mainly Devonian Caledonian
foreland sediments once also covered other parts of Finland. However, none
of these strata have survived. The Sokli and Iivaara alkaline complexes were
formed at this stage.
(6) Final exhumation and birth of the shield (~3505 Ma). The final exhuma-
tion of the shield is not well constrained; several distinct phases can, however, be
distinguished. In the late Paleozoic and early Mesozoic (at ~200 Ma), denudation
and isostatic uplift of the Caledonides resulted in almost total peneplanation.
The mainly Paleozoic sedimentary cover of Finland was probably removed only
during the Paleogene to Neogene uplift of western Scandinavia.
CHAPTER 13 S E D I M E N TA RY ROCKS, DIABASES, AND... 565

1. Introduction the Fennoscandian shield per se, whereas the
late Neoproterozoic (Vendian) sedimentary
In Finland, the emplacement of the classic units have been associated with the Paleozoic
1.651.54 Ga rapakivi granites was the latest platform cover sequence (e.g., Laitakari et al.,
major crustal increment to the Fennoscandian 1996; Koistinen et al., 2001). For this rea-
Shield. In the later Mesoproterozoic as well son, the Mesoproterozoic units are normally
as the Neoproterozoic and Paleozoic eras, included in the bedrock. In order to make
both the supracrustal record and evidence for a difference between the bedrock and the
igneous activity are sparse, and Mesozoic and depositional basement of the Mesoprotero-
Cenozoic record is virtually absent (Figure zoic sediments, crystalline basement is here
13.1). In this chapter, the unmetamorphic sedi- employed to describe the latter, while cover
mentary cover, igneous rocks younger than sequence is used for all unmetamorphosed
1500 Ma, and the Finnish Caledonides are re- supracrustal rocks regardless of age.
viewed. First we describe these rock units and In Finland, the general chronostratigraphic
their geologic settings, and thereafter propose division of the Proterozoic cover sequence has
a model for the tectonic and basin evolution followed the traditional (e.g., van Eysinga,
for Mesoproterozoic through Cenozoic. 1975) terminology scheme employing the
The Meso- to Neoproterozoic and Paleo- concepts of Riphean (1600650 Ma)
zoic supracrustal sequences in Finland are and Ven dian (650570 Ma). The term
local remnants resting atop the ArcheanPaleo- Eocambrian has been used especially by
proterozoic crystalline basement. All these microfossil specialists in a sense more or less
supracrustal units consist of unmetamorphos- synonymous with Vendian. In addition, such
ed, subhorizontally layered strata, which define traditional terms as Jotnian, Subjotnian,
a prominent angular unconformity towards and Postjotnian are still widely adhered to.
their regionally metamorphosed and multiply Originally, the term Jotnian was introduced
folded basement. by J.J. Sederholm (1897) for unmetamorphic
The most important Mesoproterozoic sandstones and associated igneous rocks in
magmatic event after 1500 Ma was the forma- the Precambrian of Fennoscandia. Currently
tion of diabase sills and dikes in southwestern the term is poorly defined and only used infor-
Finland (Figure 13.2). These form the eastern mally for certain ~15001300 Ma sedimentary
part of a ~1270 Ma mafic igneous province units. Subjotnian and Postjotnian refer to
that also comprises much of central Sweden. diabases regarded, respectively, as older and
In the Lake Ladoga region of Russian Karelia, younger than these sediments (e.g., Laitakari
however, a clearly older system of diabase et al., 1996).
sills is recognized, whereas in northern Fin- To avoid confusion, the IUGS (2000)
land scattered 11001000 Ma mafic dikes recommendations have been employed in
are found. In the far northwest part of the this paper. Accordingly, the Mesoprotero-
country, the allochthonous units of the Finn- zoic (16001000 Ma) and Neoproterozoic
ish Caledonides include ~435 Ma gabbroic (1000540 Ma) eras have the following sub-
and ultramafic rocks. A separate chapter in divisions:
the present volume is devoted to the ~600 Ma
kimberlites and Devonian alkaline intrusions MP1 (16001400 Ma), MP2 (14001200
in northeastern Finland. Ma), MP3 (12001000 Ma), and
In most previously published reviews and NP1 (1000850 Ma), NP2 (850650 Ma),
map compilations, the Mesoproterozoic sedi- NP3 (650540 Ma).
mentary rocks have been regarded as part of
566 C H A P T E R 1 3 S E D I M E N TA RY R O C K S , D I A B A S E S , A N D. . .
SVECOFENNIAN
OROGENY Rapakivi granites/
Mafic intrusions
FINLAND
Mafic dikes Kimberlites Alkaline
Intrusions intrusions
Supracrustal rocks
3200 Ma 2500 Ma 1600 Ma 1000 Ma 540 Ma

ARCHEAN PROTEROZOIC PHANEROZOIC
Paleoproterozoic Mesoproterozoic Neoproterozoic
Mafic dikes
FENNOSCANDIA GOTHIAN SVECONORWEGIAN CALEDONIAN
IN GENERAL OROGENY OROGENY OROGENY
SVECOFENNIAN
OROGENY
THIS CHAPTER
Fig. 13.1. Geological time scale with a sketch diagram of igneous activity and the presence of supra-
crustal rocks. Major orogenic events are also indicated.
As implicit in the IUGS (2000) scheme, tary sequences including arkose, siltstone,
the term Tertiary has been discarded, Paleo- shale, and conglomerate have been described
gene and Neogene being used instead. All from some ten localities in the Fennoscan-
the other chronostratigraphic terms are infor- dian Shield. All these occupy shallow basins,
mal and are marked by italics. At present there tectonic depressions or grabens bordered
exists no comprehensive lithostratigraphic by fractures or fault zones many of which
code for Mesoproterozoic and younger cover trend northwest. The largest occurrence is
of Finland, the employed litostratigraphic no- in central Sweden where the Dala (Dalarna)
menclature having been adapted mainly from sandstones cover an area of about 50 km by
Kousa and Lundqvist (2000). 150 km. These dominantly continental sedi-
ments (e.g., Lundqvist, 1979, and references
therein; AlDahan, 1985) are preserved in the
2. Mesoproterozoic sedimentary core of an open, NS-oriented syncline. The
sequences Nordingr (Welin and Lundqvist, 1984) and
Gvle sandstone areas are seemingly tied to
2.1. Regional setting the Satakunta sandstone in Finland (Figure
13.3). Other Swedish occurrences described
The best known Mesoproterozoic sedimentary as Jotnian are in the Svartlven, Mlaren,
rock units in Finland are the sandstones of the and Almeskra farther south. In Russia, the
Satakunta Formation and the Muhos Forma- Mesoproterozoic supracrustal units cluster in
tion. Both have submarine extensions beneath the Lake LadogaSalmi and White SeaTersk
the Gulf of Bothnia (Winterhalter et al., 1981; regions and along the northernmost edge of
cf. Figure 13.2). A sea-bottom occurrence area the Kola Peninsula (Figure 13.3).
is also known from the land Sea southwest Many of these cover sequences are spa-
of the land Islands. tially associated with the rapakivi granites
Mesoproterozoic (Jotnian) sedimen- and the 16701550 Ma (Subjotnian) mafic

NORWAY
Kautokeino
Laanila
Sokli
CENTRAL LAPLAND
Siurunmaa Savukoski Naruskajrvi
Pelkosenniemi Akanvaara
Salla
Kuusamo
Iivaara
Saarijrvi
Hailuoto Oulu RUSSIA
Bothnian Bay
MUHOS
SWEDEN KAINUU
Kuhmo
nia
oth
FINLAND
fB
lf o
Gu
Vaasa Lappajrvi
Nordingr
Sderfjrden Karstula
Suvasvesi
Lauhanvuori Karikkoselk Iso-Naakkima Paasselk
Virtasalmi
Bothnian Sea
Pori
Sksjrvi Salmi
Finngrundet
Gvle Vstra banken SATAKUNTA Lake Ladoga
Lumparn
land
Sea
inland
Gulf of F
0 100 km
ESTONIA Uljaste
dikes and also with the ~1265 Ma (Postjot- west elongated, fault-bounded area about 15
nian) diabases. In Finland, the latter define km by 100 km in size. The only direct evidence
the minimum deposition age of the Satakunta regarding its minimum thickness comes from
sandstones. In the Lake Ladoga region, a sill in a drill hole south of the town of Pori; this
the upper part of the local sedimentary cover penetrated 591 m of sandstone without reach-
sequence (Amantov et al., 1996) has a U-Pb ing its base. According to gravimetric surveys
age of ~1460 Ma (Rm et al., 2001). This (Elo, 1976, 1982), the maximum thickness of
indicates that, at least in that region, basin the Satakunta Formation may be more than
formation commenced relatively rapidly after 1500 m. Along its southwestern edge, the
or maybe even during the emplacement of sandstone forms a step-like structure (Lau-
the LadogaSalmi rapakivi granite plutons at rn, 1970), gradually thickening towards the
~15601530 Ma. northeast. It has a subvertical, faulted contact
against the Svecofennian basement in the
2.2. The Satakunta Formation and its northeastern. A few inliers of Svecofennian
submarine extensions rocks in the fringe area probably represent
fault blocks and irregular basement along the
The Mesoproterozoic bedrock in western Fin- edge of an ancient rift valley.
land is dominated by 15801540 Ma rapakivi The Satakunta Formation exhibits grain
granites and associated mafic rocks (Vaasjoki, sizes varying from conglomeratic to siltstone
1977; Suominen, 1991), the Satakunta sand- and mudstone, but various kinds of sandstone
stone, and olivine tholeiitic diabase dikes form the bulk of these strata. In outcrop,
(Figure 13.4). In Satakunta, Subjotnian coarse-grained, purplish sandstones prevail,
diabase dikes are considered to be older than but the deep drill core consist dominantly of
the rapakivi granites of the region (~1650 Ma; medium-grained sandstone, thin mudstone
Pihlaja, 1987). interlayers, and coarse sandstone in its low-
The Satakunta sandstone covers a northermost and uppermost parts (Kohonen et al.,
Alkaline intrusions ~360 Ma Mafic dikes ~1.11.0 Ga
Sedimentary rocks (PZ) Mafic dikes ~1.461.22 Ga

Allochthonous Caledonian rocks Mafic dikes ~1.671.47 Ga
Sedimentary rocks (NP3) Impact site
Mafic intrusions ~1.461.22 Ga Sandstone dike province

Sedimentary rocks (MP1MP2) Kimberlite province
Rapakivi granites ~1.651.54 Ga
Crystalline basement (Paleoproterozoic)

Crystalline basement (Archean)
Fig. 13.2. Simplified geological map of Finland highlighting the Mesoproterozoic to Phanerozoic rock
units. Map data mainly according to the Geological Map of the Fennoscandian Shield (Koistinen et al.,
2001; Pesonen et al., 2000). The boxes refer to Figures 13.4 and 13.14. Localities mentioned in the
text are indicated with black dots.

Kola Peninsula
SWEDEN Tersk
t n
fro
White Sea
ian
on Bothnian Bay
led
Ca
nia
oth
NORWAY RUSSIA
fB
Nordingr lf o
Gu
Dala FINLAND
Bothnian Sea
Svartlven
Gvle
front
Lake Ladoga
land
To
egian
rnq Mlaren
ui
st
norw
lin ESTONIA
e Almeskra
Sveco
Baltic Sea
0 200 km
Mafic dikes (NP3 to Cambrian) Mafic dikes (~1.671.47 Ga)

Mafic dikes (~1.11.0 Ga) Sedimentary cover (NP3 and PZ)
Mafic dikes (~1.461.22 Ga) Sedimentary cover (MP1MP2)
Fig. 13.3. Distribution of Mesoproterozoic to Cambrian sedimentary rocks and mafic dike swarms
in the central Fennoscandian Shield to the east of Sveconorwegian and Caledonian tectonic fronts.
Dikes and other rock units simplified from Koistinen et al. (2001) and Mertanen et al. (1996a).
1993). Basal quartz-pebble conglomerates arenites. Petrographical studies (Simonen and

have been observed along the southwestern Kouvo, 1955; Marttila, 1969) indicate that the
contact of the formation. detritus had been derived from the Svecofen-
Lithologically, the sandstones are, in order nian basement, not from the adjacent rapakivi
of abundance, arkoses, subarkoses, and quartz granites. Also, an isotope study of detrital zir-
Reposaari
Pori
Sksjrvi
Vammala
Luvia
Harjavalta
Kokemki
BOTHNIAN SEA
Eurajoki
Rauma
Skyl
Pyhjrvi
Laitila
20 km Uusikaupunki
Sandstone Crystalline basement; supracrustal/igneous

Diabase Impact structure
Rapakivi granite
Diabase dikes Paleocurrent direction
Fig. 13.4. Map of the Satakunta sandstone area in southwestern Finland. The paleocurrent directions
are according to Kohonen et al. (1993). For location, see Figure 13.2.
cons and monazite (Vaasjoki and Sakko, 1987) cross-bedding, ripple marks, mud cracks, clay
excluded rapakivi granites as a major source galls, and raindrop imprints (Figure 13.5).
and indicated a Svecofennian provenance. All the reported primary features and fa-
Typical sedimentary structures in the Sa- cies associations are in accord with a fluvial
takunta sandstone include planar and trough depositional environment (e.g., Kohonen et al.,

B
A
Fig. 13.5. Primary structures in the Satakunta
sandstone. (A) Ripple marks at Knapernummi,
Luvia; (B) Cross-bedding at Lammaistenkoski
power station Harjavalta; (C) Rain drop imprints.
Metskulma, Pori; (D) Desiccation cracks in
sandstone. Power station Harjavalta. The length
of index plate is 16 cm. Photos: Hannu Kujala.
1993). However, the presented fluvial models Nevertheless, the filling of the Satakunta basin
are based mainly on outcrops representing the may have had a long and complex history. The
uppermost part of the preserved rock sequence major trend of both of the mafic dike swarms
in contrast, a major part of the Jotnian (~1650 Ma and ~1265 Ma) is subparallel to the
Dala sandstone in Sweden has been interpreted axis of the Satakunta basin (see Figures 13.2
as eolian in origin (Pulvertaft, 1985). and 13.4), but there is no conclusive evidence
Observed paleocurrent patterns and grain in regard to the age relationship between the
size distribution indicate that during the de- older dikes and the sandstone. It would thus
position of the presently exposed, uppermost appear that the upper part of the sandstone
sediments, the distal part of the basin was situ- was deposited ~14001300 Ma ago (e.g.,
ated in the northwest (Kohonen et al., 1993). Simonen,1960; Neuvonen, 1973; Pesonen
et al., 1989), but it may still be possible that Lundqvist, 2000).
the basin history extends all the way back to The typical rocks of the Muhos Forma-
initial rifting at ~1650 Ma. The final preservation are interlayered reddish siltstones and
tion and the present margins of the sandstone mudstones. Interbeds of arkosic sandstone are
were plausibly controlled by local subsidence present throughout the sequence, but other-
related to the emplacement of basaltic magma wise sandstones become more abundant and
at ~1265 Ma. coarse-grained only towards the base of the
According to Winterhalter et al. (1981), formation. In the type section at Muhos town-
the Satakunta sandstone continues into the ship (a 527m drill core), the lowermost 20 m
Bothnian Sea and links together the Mesopro- consist of conglomerate interbedded with ar-
terozoic sandstone areas of the Satakunta gra- kosic sandstone. Lithostrathigraphic sections
ben, Gvle Valley, and the Nordingr area, the and more detailed rock descriptions can be
latter two in Sweden (Figure 13.3). The areal found in Simonen and Kouvo (1955).
extent of the submarine sandstones has been Cross-bedding is common in the sand-
interpreted from seismic profiles. The inter- stones of the Muhos Formation, and a flood-
pretation has been confirmed by the presence plain environment of deposition was advo-
of red arkosic sandstone (Winterhalter, 1972). cated by the pioneer researchers (Simonen
The thickness of the sandstone formation and Kouvo, 1955). While there are no recent
probably exceeds 1000 m (cf. Axberg, 1980), detailed sedimentological investigations, the
but a thickness of no less than 3 km to 4 km overall nature of the sequence appears to be
has been suggested for the Mesoproterozoic compatible with an alluvial plain or a flood-
sedimentary rocks in the northern part of the plain depositional model.
Bothnian Sea (Korja et al., 2001). A special rock type exposed in the only
The land Sea depression contains a sepa- outcrop representing the Muhos Formation
rate submarine occurrence of the rocks of the is the Kieksi conglomerate at the northern
sedimentary cover (Winterhalter et al., 1981; edge of the area. The conglomerate consists
Sderberg, 1993). A major part of that se- of subangular pebbles of granite, gneiss, and
quence probably consists of Mesoproterozoic schist in a sandy matrix with some carbonate
arkosic sandstone with a maximum thickness cement (Kesola, 1985). The stratigraphic
~1200 m (Sderberg, 1993). position of the conglomerate is not obvious,
but it has been correlated with the basal units
2.3. The Muhos Formation and its of the type section (Brenner, 1944).
submarine extensions Red arkosic sandstones, mudstones, and
conglomerates (cf. Veltheim, 1969), tentatively
The Muhos Formation occupies a fault-bound- correlated with the Muhos Formation, are also
ed, SE-trending basin south of Oulu, extending observed in drillings at the Hailuoto Island
~50 km inland from the coast (Figure 13.2). near the town of Oulu (Figure 13.2). Here,
Its rocks are very poorly exposed and observa- the Muhos Formation is overlain by the Neo-
tions have mainly been made in drill cores. The proterozoic (NP3) Hailuoto Formation (see
age estimate for the Muhos Formation is poor below). According to seismic data, a major
and the assumption of a Mesoproterozoic age part of the bottom of the Bothnian Bay is oc-
is based on a rather old K-Ar dating (~1300 cupied by sedimentary rocks (Winterhalter et
Ma for the diagenesis of shale; cf. Simonen, al., 1981). The distribution of the Mesoprotero-
1960) and microfossil data (Tynni, 1978; Tynni zoic sediments in the Bothnian Bay area has
and Uutela, 1984). A thickness of 895 m was been summarized by Winterhalter (2000).
observed in diamond drilling (cf. Kousa and

2.4. Minor occurrences Ma mafic dikes in the northern part of the
country. We also compare the Postjotnian
The Lappajrvi impact crater (Figure 13.2) is ~1265 Ma dikes to the corresponding dikes of
surrounded by an angular graben representing central Sweden and to the ~1460 Ma mafic sill
the terrace zone of the structure (Pesonen et exposed in the Lake Ladoga basin.
al., 2000). The age of the impact is ~73 Ma
(Mnttri and Koivisto, 2001). In places, rem- 3.2. The ~1265 Ma magmatism
nants of a pre-impact sedimentary cover have
been preserved together with down-faulted Regional setting
blocks of crystalline basement (Pipping and The ~1265 Ma (Postjotnian) hypabyssal
Lehtinen, 1992; Vaarma and Pipping, 1997). rocks of southwestern Finland have been de-
The presence of these sedimentary rocks was scribed in several reconnaissance-type works
disclosed by the Lappajrvi drilling program. (e.g., Aro and Laitakari, 1987; Amantov et al.,
The thickness of the observed siltstonesand- 1996) and unpublished theses (e.g., Inkinen,
stone sequence (the Pokela Formation) is 1963; Hmlinen, 1985). These mafic rocks
around 18 m, these sedimentary rocks being are found in large amounts in the Satakunta
underlain by strongly weathered Paleoprotero- region of southwestern Finland (Figure 13.2)
zoic schist. According to microfossil studies where they comprise extensive, vertical to
(Uutela, 1990) the depositional age plausibly subhorizontal dikes that cut all the other rock
corresponds to that of the Muhos Formation. units of that region, i.e., the Svecofennian
The abundance and distribution of glacial granitoids and metamorphic rocks, the rapa-
sandstone boulders resembling the Satakunta kivi granites, and the Satakunta sandstone.
sandstone have inspired many authors to spec- Apart from Satakunta, mafic hypabyssal rocks
ulate on the presence of unexposed Mesopro- of this age group are found in the land re-
terozoic rock occurrences (cf. Salonen, 1991). gion in the far southwest part of the country
Such remnants may well be preserved, but (Hausen, 1964; Bergman, 1979) and in the
none have been verified so far. Vaasa region farther to the north (Ervamaa,
1962; Aro, 1987); most of the latter are hidden
beneath the sea.
3. Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks The crystallization age of the mafic dikes
is well-constrained. Suominen (1991, cf. also
3.1. Introduction Vaasjoki, 1996) reported U-Pb zircon/badde-
leyite ages from eight samples in four different
Late Mesoproterozoic igneous rocks in the localities (Figure 13.6), with upper intercept
Finnish part of the Fennoscandian Shield are ages averaging 1265 7 Ma (2). Thus the
scarce and comprise ~1265 Ma to 1000 Ma dikes probably represent a relatively short igne-
mafic dikes and sills in the southwestern and ous episode; such conditions are, in general,
northern parts of the country. These hypabys- typical of Phanerozoic continental flood basalt
sal rocks, the older ~1265 Ma dikes and sills associations and Precambrian dike swarms that
in particular, have counterparts in Sweden are considered to represent the feeder dikes
and Norway. Comparable, but older, lithologic for flood basalts (Basaltic Volcanism Study
units are also found in the Lake Ladoga region Project, 1981). The age established for the
of Russian Karelia. Here we describe the mode Postjotnian dikes of southwestern Finland
of occurrence, petrography, and geochemistry has also been assumed as the crystallization
of the ~1265 Ma mafic hypabyssal rocks of age of corresponding, mostly lopolithic intru-
southwestern Finland and the 11001000 sions in central Sweden (Figure 13.6; Patchett
+2.0, +2.7
+2.7
+1.6
+2.2
+3.3 1268
13 Ma
+3.7 FINLAND Valamo diabase: SALMI

+3.0 Nd (at 1460 Ma) 9
+3.3
Bothnian Sea 126412 Ma
+3.3
+2.3
1258 +1.6 Lake Ladoga
13 Ma WIBORG
+2.2
LAND
60 +3.5
1265 RUSSIA
6 Ma Gulf of Finland
SWEDEN 100 km
30
ESTONIA
Caledonides Paleoproterozoic rocks
Mesoproterozoic diabase Archean rocks

Mesoproterozoic cover rocks +3.3 Nd (at 1265 Ma) value
Rapakivi granite complexes 12656 Ma U-Pb age
Fig. 13.6. Map showing the distribution of the Mesoproterozoic diabase dikes, cratonic sedimentary
cover, and rapakivi granite intrusions in southern Finland and surrounding areas. Initial Nd values of
the diabase dikes (Rm, 1990; Patchett et al., 1994; this work) are indicated, as are the U-Pb zircon/
baddeleyite ages for the Finnish dikes (Suominen, 1991).
et al., 1994). In addition, a lamproite dike with amounts magmatic zircon for U-Pb isotope
a comparable age (~1250 Ma; U-Pb on perovs- analysis (e.g., Suominen, 1991).
kite) has been described from the Kuhmo area Geochemically, the ~1265 Ma rocks
in eastern Finland (Peltonen et al., 2000). are transitional tholeiites and are relatively
evolved. Their SiO2 and MgO contents range
Petrography and geochemistry from 45 to 48 wt.% and 3.0 to 7.7 wt.%, re-
The Postjotnian dikes and sills of south- spectively, and Mg numbers are intermediate
western Finland are typically subophitic, to low (~60 to 40; Hmlinen, 1987; Rm,
equigranular, medium- to coarse-grained, 1990; Upton et al., 1998). The trace element
homogeneous rocks with calcic plagioclase, patterns of the dikes suggest OIB affinity, save
intermediate olivine, augite, and Fe-Ti oxides for prominent negative Th and Nb spikes in
as the main minerals. The individual sub- mantle-normalized diagrams (Figure 13.8).
horizontal dikes can be several tens of meters Nd isotope data are available for four
thick, some of them containing megaophitic localities in Satakunta (Rm, 1990). For this
parts (Figure 13.7). The latter are geochrono- work, we also analyzed two additional dikes,
logically valuable as they often contain ample one from the land Islands (Mrket) in the far

1000
~1265 Ma diabases,
southwestern Finland MORB
EMORB
OIB
IAT
100
Mantle normalized
10
Rb Ba Th K Nb La Ce Sr Nd P Sm Zr Ti Y
Fig. 13.8. Multielement diagram showing the

composition of the ~1265 Ma diabases from the
Satakunta region, southwestern Finland (data
from Rm, 1990). The normalizing values and
compositions of mid-ocean ridge basalt (MORB),
enriched mid-ocean ridge basalt (EMORB), oce-
anic-island basalt (OIB), and island arc tholeiite
(IAT) are from Sun (1980).
Source characteristics and

magmatic evolution
The Postjotnian diabases of southwestern
Fig. 13.7. ~1265 Ma tholeiitic diabase from the
Island of Sppi, offshore Pori, southwestern Fin- Finland were crystallized from relatively
land. Medium- to coarse-grained diabase shows evolved basaltic magmas that obviously had
to the left, megaophitic diabase to the right. undergone a long fractionation history before
Photo: Pekka Pihlaja. reaching their present level in the crust. Thus
they may not provide a direct indication of the
composition of the Mesoproterozoic subcon-
southwest part of the country and the other from tinental mantle in the region. The initial Nd
the Vaasa archipelago (Korsns) somewhat values are, however, clearly positive and indi-
farther north (Figures 13.2 and 13.6); these cate that the magmas were originally derived
data are shown in Table 13.1. All of the six from at least mildly LREE-depleted sources.
analyzed dikes have relatively radiogenic Nd Nevertheless, the dikes are less radiogenic
isotope compositions. The Satakunta samples (Nd ~ +2 to +3) than the contemporaneous
have Nd (at 1265 Ma) values between +1.3 depleted mantle of the DePaolo (1981) model
and +3.3 and those of the Mrket and Korsns (Nd +5; Figure 13.9). Whether the lower Nd
diabases are +3.5 and +2.2, respectively. The values of the dikes are due to crustal contami-
depleted mantle model ages (DePaolo, 1981) nation associated with low-pressure fractional
range from 1.71 to 1.44 Ga. Whole-rock and crystallization (cf. Rm, 1990) or reflect
feldspar Pb isotope data on the Satakunta dikes interaction of lithospheric and asthenospheric
indicate relatively unradiogenic compositions, mantle domains (cf. Patchett et al., 1994), is
intermediate between the growth curves for yet to be determined.
crustal and mantle lead (Rm, 1990). In this respect, it is interesting to examine
Table 13.1.
Nd isotope data for two Mesoproterozoic (1265 Ma) diabases, southwestern Finland.
147 143
Sample Location Sm Nd Sm/ Nd/ Ndc TDMd
144 a 144 b
(Map sheet; Grid coordinates) (ppm) (ppm) Nd Nd (Ma)
Mrket, Ecker, land archipelago
A562 0043 07; 6688.200562.80 17.03 73.07 0.1409 0.512354 7 + 3.5 1436
Norrgrynnan, Korsns,Vaasa archipelago
A732 1242 03; 6978.471500.72 8.07 32.57 0.1498 0.512362 9 + 2.2 1615
a
Estimated error for 147Sm/144Nd is less than 0.5%.
b 143
Nd/144Nd normalized to 146Nd/144Nd = 0.7219. Within-run error expressed as 2 in the least significant digits.
c
Initial Nd values, calculated using 143Nd/144Nd = 0.512638 and 147Sm/144Nd = 0.1966. Maximum error is 0.40 -units.
d
Depleted mantle model ages according to the model of DePaolo (1981).
Description of analytical methods: Analyses were performed by O.T. Rm at the Unit for Isotope Geology, Geological Sur-
vey of Finland. Rock powders (~200 mg) were dissolved in Teflon beakers at 180 oC in a mixture of HNO3 and HF, dissolved
in HCl, and spiked with a 149Sm-150Nd tracer. Light REE were separated using standard cation exchange chromatography
and Sm and Nd were purified by and on quartz columns (Richard et al., 1976). The total procedural blank was <300 pg for
Nd. Isotope ratios of Sm and Nd were measured on a VG Sector 54 mass spectrometer. Repeated analyses of La Jolla Nd
standard gave 143Nd/144Nd of 0.511845 0.000009 (mean and external 2 error of 14 measurements); external error in the
reported 143Nd/144Nd is thus better than 0.002 %.
the isotope composition of the samples ana- 3.3. The 11001000 Ma magmatism
lyzed from the entire ~1.26 Ga dike suite of
southwestern Finland and north-central Swe- Regional setting
den (Figure 13.6). The dikes in central Sweden The bedrock of northernmost Finland includes
are quite radiogenic (Nd +1.6 to +3.7) and several unmetamorphosed basaltic dikes that
this is also true for the dikes of southwestern cut all the Paleoproterozoic and Archean
Finland (Nd +1.6 to +3.5). As the diabases of rock types of the region. In the SallaPelko-
north-central Sweden are on the radiogenic senniemi region, a 100-km-long swarm of
side, this rules out crustal contamination as a WNW-trending olivine tholeiitic dikes is
major factor in the petrogenesis of the dikes, found (Figure 13.2). These dikes are up to 100
because this particular section of the Swedish m wide and show distinct symmetric differen-
bedrock is presumably underlain by a major tiation patterns (Figures 13.10, 13.11). Zircon
Archean source component in the lower crust and titanite fractions from three samples of the
(Andersson et al., 2002; see also Chapter Salla swarm have yielded an upper intercept
12). age of 1122 5 Ma (Lauerma, 1995).
Conversely, the ~1460 Ma diabase sills Other, presumably slightly younger
intercalated with the sedimentary rocks of swarms of basaltic dikes are found in the far
the Lake Ladoga basin (Figure 13.6) show a northern part of the country and in adjacent
clear Archean source component with initial Norway (Figure 13.2). In the LaanilaRisti-
Nd values of 9.2 to 8.6 and depleted mantle jrvi region, these dikes run in a northnorth-
model ages of 2.58 to 2.55 Ga (Figure 13.9; east, show an en-echelon pattern, are up to
Upton et al., 1998; Rm et al., 2001, 2004). 200 m wide, and can be followed for more
The Lake Ladoga basin was developed just than 100 km along strike (Pihlaja, 1987).
south of the Archean Karelian craton (Figure Typically, these rocks are medium-grained
13.6) and the sills probably tapped a Neoar- and ophitic with calcic plagioclase, augite,
chean enriched lithospheric mantle source and serpentinized olivine as the main minerals.
(Rm et al., 2001). In aeromagnetic maps, the dikes are charac-
terized by negative anomalies. Nd isotopic

+7
Kautokeino diabase
+6
TLE
DEPLETED MAN +5
Laanila
diabase Ristijrvi +4
diabase
+3
+2
+1
CHUR
0 Nd
Key to the ~1265 Ma diabases:
1
E1
E4 2
E7 Southwestern Finland
(Rm, 1990; this
A691c paper) 3
A562
A732 4
R72b Central Sweden 5

R120a (Andersson, 1997)
84076 6
P1131
Central Sweden 7
Valamo diabase, P1150 (Claesson, 1987)
Russian Karelia 73108
&73109 8
J-18 Central Sweden
J-58 (Patchett et al., 1994) 9
10
1500 1400 1300 1200 1100 1000 900
Age (Ma)
Fig. 13.9. The initial Nd isotope compositions (Nd values) of the ~1460 Ma Valamo diabase in the
Lake Ladoga region, Russian Karelia (Rm et al., 2001), the ~1265 Ma Postjotnian diabases of
southwestern Finland (Rm, 1990; this work) and central Sweden (Andersson, 1997; Claesson,
1987; Patchett et al., 1994), and the 11001000 Ma diabase dikes in northern Finland (Mertanen et
al., 1996b). CHUR is the Chondritic Uniform Reservoir (DePaolo and Wasserburg, 1976), depleted
mantle evolution is according to DePaolo (1981).
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 m
Olivine basalt Porphyritic pyroxene diabase

Banded pyroxene diabase Quartz-bearing diabase
Fig. 13.10. Sketch cross-section of the Salla diabase dike showing pronounced internal differentiation
(after Vnnen, 1965).
studies (Mertanen et al., 1996b) have yielded 4. Neoproterozoic and early

whole-rockmineral ages of 1042 50 Ma and Paleozoic sedimentary sequences
1013 32 Ma for dike samples from Laanila
and Ristijrvi, respectively. Mertanen et al. 4.1. Regional setting
(1996b) also reported a 1066 34 Ma age for
a similarly oriented swarm ~150 km west of Within the mainland area of Finland, only
the LaanilaRistijrvi dikes in Kautokeino, minor remnants of Neoproterozoic/early
northern Norway (Figure 13.2). Paleozoic deposits are known, but a major oc-
currence of preserved Paleozoic cover is found
Geochemistry and source beneath the Gulf of Bothnia (e.g., Winterhalter
characteristics et al., 1981). In Estonia and northwestern Rus-
Geochemical data for the 11001000 Ma sia, the extensive Paleozoic cover sequence
mafic dikes are relatively few. According to (Figure 13.3) is typically underlain by Vendian
Pihlaja (1987), the 1042 50 Ma Laanila (NP3) clastic sediments.
dike is an olivine tholeiite with 46 to 49 wt.% An obvious reference for correlations
SiO2 and 5.4 to 6.8 wt.% MgO. This dike is is the cover succession in northern Estonia
thus quite similar to the 1265 Ma Satakunta (Figure 13.12). Here, the NP3 sequence is
diabases in southwestern Finland. The Sm-Nd conformably overlain by Cambrian sedi-
whole-rockmineral data of Mertanen et al. mentary rocks. Both the Vendian (NP3) and
(1996b) indicate markedly positive initial Nd Cambrian strata comprise sandstone, siltstone,
values (+4.8 to +5.8) for the LaanilaRisti- and mudstone, whereas the NP3Cambrian
jrvi and Kautokeino dikes. The initial values boundary is lithologically not well marked.
cluster about the model depleted mantle curve This, in part, explains the apparent difficulty
(Figure 13.9). Given that the diabase magmas of correlating the corresponding sedimentary
transected a PaleoproterozoicArchean crustal remnants in Finland lithostratigraphically, and
domain with a distictly unradiogenic Nd iso- creates uncertainty in regard to their ages of
tope composition (Huhma, 1986; Figure 13.6), deposition.
the mafic magmas probably experienced little,
if any, crustal contamination on their way from
the mantle to upper crustal levels.

deposition remains uncertain, but the overall
lithology and some reported details (e.g.,
cross-bedding) suggest fluvial plain as the
most probable environment of deposition.
According to map compilations based on
seismic data (Winterhalter et al., 1981; Lund-
qvist et al., 1996; Koistinen et al., 2001), sedi-
mentary deposits comparable to the Hailuoto
Formation cover a large part of the bottom
of the Bothnian Bay. In addition, it has been
suggested that also remnants of Cambrian
Fig. 13.11. Photograph of banded pyroxene dia-
base in a marginal part of the Salla diabase (see sedimentary rocks are preserved in that area
Figure 13.10). Photo: Tuomo Manninen. (e.g., Winterhalter et al., 1981; Wanns, 1989;
Winterhalter, 2000).
4.2. The Hailuoto Formation and its 4.3. The Lauhanvuori Formation
submarine extensions
The hill of Lauhanvuori in western Finland
On the Hailuoto Island, the Mesoproterozoic (Figure 13.2) is a geomorphological peculiar-
Muhos Formation is conformably overlain by ity inasmuch as these unmetamorphosed sedi-
the Neoproterozoic (NP3) Hailuoto Formation mentary rocks form a topographic high. The
(HlF). The available age estimates are based reasons for the preservation of Lauhanvuori
solely on microfossil studies and lithologic sequence are not fully understood, but ex-
correlations, while Tynni and Donner (1980) ceptionally weak Quarternary glacial erosion
pointed out that such comparisons do not (Sderman et al., 1983) was presumably one
justify any precise ages for these deposits. important control.
However, if the proposed estimates are even The main occurrence of Lauhanvuori sand-
close to correct, the disconformity between the stone covers an area of ~15 km by 5 km (Sim-
Muhos and Hailuoto Formations must repre- onen and Kouvo, 1955) with some outliers
sent a time gap of 500 to 600 Ma. The Hailuoto farther to the north. The age of that formation
sedimentary sequence has been intersected by is not finally resolved but, on a petrographical
drillings at three localities near the western basis, Simonen and Kouvo (1955) correlated
shore of the island. The boundary between Lauhanvuori with the Cambrian dikes of
the Mesoproterozoic and the Neoproterozoic clastic sandstone in southwestern Finland. The
is by no means distinctive. Tynni and Donner only direct age indication comes from fossil
(1980) suggested that at the site of drillhole R2 traces of crawling annelids (Figure 13.13) rec-
(cf. also Veltheim, 1969) the uppermost 60 m ognized in local sandstone boulders by Tynni
represent the HlF, whereas the underlying 160 and Hokkanen (1982). These authors therefore
m belong to the Muhos Formation. concluded that the Lauhanvuori Formation is
The Hailuoto Formation consists of inter- younger than 700 Ma. In recent regional map
bedded sandstone, siltstone, and mudstone compilations (e.g., Korsman et al., 1997),
(Veltheim, 1969; Tynni and Donner, 1980). the sandstone is regarded as Neoproterozoic
The dominant rock type is a medium-grained, (NP3), but a Cambrian or even younger age
pale pink or light greenish subarkose. As of deposition cannot be excluded.
the sedimentological features have not been The maximum thickness of the Lauhan-
reported systematically, the environment of vuori Formation has been estimated as some
N Quaternary S
Gulf of Finland
50 m
Ordovician
Sea level
Cambrian
-100 NP3 (Vendian)
-200 Crystalline basement

(Paleoproterozoic)
100 m
Limestone Sandstone Siltstone to mudstone
Fig. 13.12. Cross-section showing the uniform thickness of the cover units in northern Estonia to
the north of Uljaste (for location see Figure 13.2). Simplified from Puura et al. (1996).
ten meters (Simonen and Kouvo, 1955), while grain size several millimeters. The clasts are
a drilling at Tiiliharju, near the northern mar- dominantly quartz with some fragments of
gin of the main occurrence area, penetrated 11 strongly altered feldspar. In addition, pebbles
m of sandstone (Sderman et al., 1983). That of purplish siltstone (cf. Sderman et al.,
sandstone is underlain by a deeply weathered 1983) are present. Upwards, the remaining
Paleoproterozoic granite. The age of the local 10 m of the drillcore consists of medium- to
kaolinitic weathering is not known, but as feld- coarse-grained subarkosic to quartz-arenitic
spar clasts in the sandstone have been strongly sandstone with scattered, well-rounded quartz
altered, it appears to be coeval or even younger clasts up to five mm in size. The color of the
than the deposition of the sandstone. sandstone varies from light brownish yellow
The composition of the sandstone is to pale pink in the uppermost part. The whole
quartz-arenitic. However, part of the matrix sequence is small-scale cross-bedded. Asym-
plausibly represents alteration products of metric ripple marks and lensoid siltstone
clastic feldspar, and in places the original interbeds have been reported from boulders
composition has probably been nearly subar- (Tynni and Hokkanen, 1982). A fluvial depo-
kosic. The median grain size typically ranges sitional environment appears most probable
between 0.2 and 0.5 mm, but conglomeratic (cf. Sauramo, 1916).
interbeds with rounded quartz pebbles are also
common (Simonen and Kouvo, 1955). 4.4. The bottom of the Bothnian and
The type section of the Lauhanvuori land seas
Formation is defined by the Tiiliharju drill-
core. It begins with a very coarse-grained, The geology of the Bothnian Sea is known in
conglomeratic sandstone. The maximum size considerable detail (Winterhalter et al., 1981,
of the clasts is around 20 mm and the average and references therein). The Mesoproterozoic

al., 1997), but in the present text the Dividal
Group is separated from the Caledonides.
This is done to emphasize that its deposition
was hardly related to the Caledonian orogeny
but rather to the sedimentation of the other
coeval autochtonous cover sequences in Fenno-
scandia. Nevertheless, the boundary towards
the structurally overlying Jerta Nappe is not
sharp and sedimentary units comparable to
the Dividal Group are also present within that
nappe (Lehtovaara, 1988, 1989).
Fig. 13.13. Creeping tracks of worm-like anne-
lids in the Lauhanvuori sandstone. The length of
The name of the Dividal Group has been
the sample is ~30 cm. Photo: Helena Halme. adopted from adjacent areas in Norway. In
Finland, the sequence is exposed along the
Caledonide front (Figures 13.2, 13.14). The
maximum thickness of the basal conglomerate
sandstone is here unconformably overlain by unit is 10 m and that of the whole group ~200
Cambrian to Ordovician strata. However, in m. Based on fossil studies, the major part of
places (e.g., Finngrundet and Vstra Banken), the Dividal Group is considered Cambrian, but
the Paleozoic rocks lie directly on the crystal- the deposition of lower parts may have taken
line basement (Thorslund and Axberg, 1979). place already during the latest Precambrian
The youngest preserved rocks in the Bothnian (cf. Lehtovaara, 1988, and references therein).
Sea area are Upper Ordovician calcilutitic In Finland, the crystalline basement of the Di-
limestones (the Baltic limestone of Thors- vidal Group is Archean in age and mostly con-
lund, 1960). The maximum thicknesses of the sists of gneissose granites and granodiorites.
Cambrian mudstonesandstone sequence and The nonconformity between the sedimentary
the carbonate-dominated Ordovician sequence sequence and the unweathered basement is
are around 200 m and 350 m, respectively sharp, while the contact dips gently (24o)
(Winterhalter et al., 1981). beneath the Caledonides in the northwest. The
Based on seismic data, Sderberg (1993) following rock descriptions are according to
suggested that Paleozoic sedimentary rocks Lehtovaara (1982a, 1988, 1995).
are also present in the land Sea area. The The lowermost Dividal rocks are conglo-
total thickness of the inferred Cambrian and merates and sandstones. In the conglomerates,
Ordovician strata was estimated at 120 m and well-rounded quartz and quartzite pebbles and
230 m, respectively. cobbles are characteristic, but there are also a
few angular basement-rock fragments in the
4.5. The Dividal Group of northwestern basal parts. The amount of sandy matrix varies
Lapland and cross-bedded sandstone interbeds are lo-
cally present. The uppermost sandstones of the
A small remnant of Neoproterozoic (NP3) basal conglomerate unit contain interbeds of
to Cambrian sedimentary cover has been mudstone. With decreasing amounts of sand-
preserved immediately beneath the basal stone, the sediment grades into mudstone in
thrust of the Finnish Caledonides. In most the upper unit (the sandstoneshale sequence)
previous reviews, these autochtonous rocks of the group. In that unit, shales (originally
have been classified as part of the Caledonides mudstones and siltstones) predominate over
(e.g., Lehtovaara, 1988, 1995; Korsman et sandstones. Ripple marks and current bedding
FINNISH CALEDONIDES
NORWAY
N
FINLAND
SWEDEN 0 10 km
Vaddas Nappe: Cumulates/sills Nalganas Nappe

Nabar Nappe; lower/upper part Dividal Group and Jerta Nappe
Fig. 13.14. Simplified sketch map of the Finnish Caledonides (after Lehtovaara, 1989). For location,
see Figure 13.2.
are common primary features in the quartz- ered Paleoproterozoic crystalline basement.
arenitic sandstones. A near-shore to tidal-flat Its lowermost units consist of conglomerate
depositional environment in a regionally trans- and quartz arenite. Upwards, the type section
gressive regime has been suggested for the continues with siltstone, sandstone, and, fi-
Dividal rocks in Finland (Lehtovaara, 1988). nally, red or purplish mudstone (shale). On the
basis of microfossil studies (Elo et al., 1993),
4.6. Minor occurrences a Neoproterozoic (NP1 to NP2) depositional
age has been suggested.
The meteorite impact structure of Iso- The rather small impact structure of Saari-
Naak kima (Figure 13.2) has preserved a jrvi, with a diameter of ~1.5 km, also includes
100-m-thick sequence of unmetamorphosed remnants of a sedimentary cover. The base-
sedimentary rocks (Elo et al., 1993). That ment of the 156-m-thick sequence consists of
sequence was deposited on a deeply weath- Archean gneisses. The succession comprises

an interbedded system of siltstone, mudstone, are Lower Cambrian, while some have been
and sandstone. The bed thicknesses of the assumed to be Lower Ordovician in age. The
different units vary substantially. A Neopro- sandstone dikes and their origins have been
terozoic (NP3) to Cambrian age estimate is discussed in detail by Bergman (1982) and
based on microfossil data (Tynni and Uutela, Donner (1996).
1985; hman et al., 2000). In the impact crater of Karikkoselk,
The circular depression of Sderfjrden is sedimentary rocks are found as blocks and
currently also considered an impact structure fragments within an allochthonous breccia.
(Lehtovaara 1984, 1992; Abels et al., 2000). The major part of the observed siltstones,
Drilling and other investigations have shown sandstones, and mudstones are interpreted as
that this structure is filled by a ~240-m-thick Cambrian or Precambrian, but also Ordovician
sequence of Cambrian sedimentary rocks microfossils have been reported (Uutela, 2001).
(Lehtovaara, 1982b; Tynni, 1982a). Mudstone The overall setup of the crater, age estimates,
(shale) dominates the succession, but also and detailed rock descriptions can be found
sandstone, siltstone, and conglomerate are in Arkonsuo (2000).
present. The crystalline basement consists A remarkable concentration of sandstone
of a Svecofennian migmatitic granodiorite boulders is known from Karstula, some 150
(Lehtovaara, 1982b). km eastnortheast of Lauhanvuori and a local
The carbonate rock occurrence in Lum- source is probable (e.g., Sauramo, 1916; Simo-
parn Bay in the land Islands has been known nen and Kouvo, 1955; Lehtovaara, 1982a).
since the early 1900s. It comprises sedimen- This sandstone resembles that of Lauhanvuori,
tary cover rocks with a maximum thickness of but its age of deposition is unknown.
~120 m (Lehtovaara, 1982b), preserved in a
fault bounded depression. The greatest part of
the deposit is beneath the sea (cf. Winterhalter, 5. Allochthonous rocks of the
1982). The lowermost sediments have been Finnish Caledonides
deposited atop of a weathered erosional sur-
face of rapakivi granite. The sequence consists 5.1. Introduction and regional setting
of Lower Cambrian siltstone and sandstone,
Lower Ordovician glauconitic limestone, The Caledonide orogenic belt represents a
and Middle Ordovician limestone (Tynni, continentcontinent collision of Laurentia and
1982b; Lehtovaara, 1982a, and references Baltica at the closure of the Iapetus Ocean.
therein). The origin of the down-faulted block Thrust tectonics characterize the Scandina-
of Lumparn Bay is still controversial. The vian Caledonides, and stacks of detached and
first to propose an impact origin was Merrill tectonically transported nappes (thrust sheets)
(1979). That idea was initially rejected (e.g., with a prevailing southeastern sense of move-
Lehtovaara, 1982a; Winterhalter, 1982), but ment are typical. The Caledonide frontal thrust
the impact hypothesis has been re-established marks the border of the Caledonides towards
as shock features were recognized (Svensson, the Fennoscandian Shield and its autochtonous
1994; Abels et al., 1998, 2000, 2002). cover (the Dividal Group).
In southwestern Finland, clastic sandstone In Scandinavia, the main Scandian phase
dikes have been observed in many localities (see Roberts and Gee, 1985) of Caledonian
(cf. Figure 13.2), where sandstone is found as compressional deformation and metamor-
fissure fillings in cracks of the unweathered phism took place during the late Silurian and
crystalline basement. According to microfos- early Devonian. Particularly in northern Scan-
sil studies (Tynni, 1982b), most of these dikes dinavia, an earlier Finnmarkian phase with
deformation in the late Cambrian and the early 5.3. The Middle Allochthon (Nalganas
Ordovician has been identified (e.g., Sturt et and Nabar Nappes)
al., 1978; Ramsay et al., 1985).
Most of the rocks belonging to the Lower The sharp lower contact of the Middle Al-
and Middle Allochtons represent the tectoni- lochthon plausibly represents the Caledonian
cally telescoped and shortened ancient western sole thrust in Finland. According to the cor-
continental margin of Baltica, whereas the relation by Lehtovaara (1988), the main thrust-
Upper Allochton consists of rocks from the ing occurred during the Finnmarkian phase,
transition zone between the continental margin but reactivation during the Scandian phase
and the oceanic crust, and terranes derived may also have taken place. All the tectono-
from areas outboard Baltica (e.g., Roberts and stratigraphic units of the Middle Allochthon
Stephens, 2000). in Finland correspond to the indigenous rocks
The Scandinavian Caledonides of Finland of the Kalak Nappe complex in Norway (cf.
occupy the extreme northwest part of Finnish Lehtovaara 1989, 1995; Zwaan, 1988).
Lapland (Figures 13.2 and 13.14). The alloch- The Nalganas Nappe comprises most of
thonous rocks of the Finnish Caledonides the Finnish Caledonides (Figure 13.14) and the
have been classified (Lehtovaara, 1989, 1995) strongly foliated, greenish or grayish arkosic
by applying the tectonostratigraphic scheme quartzite of the Nalganas Nappe is their most
developed in Norway by Zwaan and Roberts typical rock type (the Feldschiefer of Haus-
(1978) and Zwaan (1988). In the following, the en, 1942). The main minerals are quartz, alkali
allochthons and their suddivision are depicted feldspar, and plagioclase. The tectonic fabric
according to Lehtovaara (1995); the rock de- is striking and protomylonitic to mylonitic
scriptions are mainly adopted from Lehtovaara textures are characteristic of the quartzite.
(1988, 1989, 1995). The lower contact of the Nabar Nappe is
far less distinctive than that of the Nalganas
5.2. The Lower Allochthon (Jerta Nappe) Nappe and is in the field recognized mainly by
the first appearance of amphibolite. The Nabar
The parautochtonous rocks of the Jerta Nappe, unit is lithologically heterogeneous, except
except for the dolomites, correspond litho- for its upper parts. Rock types include seric-
logically to those of the autochtonous Dividal ite quartzite, muscovite gneiss, mica gneiss,
Group. Structurally, the Jerta Nappe is consid- amphibolite, and granite pegmatite. Owing
ered to be an imbrication fan below the major to strong deformation and amphibolite facies
sole thrust (Lehtovaara, 1995). The maximum metamorphism, the protolith of the gneisses
thickness of this nappe has been estimated at is ambiguous in most cases, but a Proterozoic
500 m (Lehtovaara, 1988). to Archean age has tentatively been suggested
Typical rock types are bluish quartzite and (Lehtovaara, 1988). The top third of the Nabar
slate, which represent recrystallized sandstone Nappe consists solely of a banded, garnetifer-
and shale, respectively. Dolomite occurs as ous gneiss.
a solitary bed near the upper contact of the
Jerta Nappe. It displays a remarkable amount 5.4. The Upper Allochthon (Vaddas
of shearing, and due to this deformation, the Nappe)
bed thickness varies from zero to some tens
of meters. The Vaddas Nappe consists mostly of ultra-
mafic to mafic rocks of the HaltiRidnitsohkka
igneous complex (Sipil, 1992). The lower
thrust of this allochthon is marked by strongly

sheared rocks of that igneous complex (Lehto- line rocks and the thickness of the weathering
vaara, 1995) and intense refolding of the band- profile typically reaches 3040 m (~100 m at
ed gneiss of the Nabar Nappe (Sipil, 1992). maximum). K-Ar dating of authigenic illite
The igneous complex consists of two parts: has yielded an age of 1180 Ma, and a Meso-
layered dunitetroctoliteolivine gabbro cu- proterozoic age of the weathering is further
mulates (Halti cumulates) and an interlayered supported by indications of saprolite beneath
system of tholeiitic sills and sillimanite-garnet Neoproterozoic sediments of the nearby Iso-
gneisses (Ridnitsohkka gabbro sills). These Naakkima sequence (Sarap, 1996; see also
have been considered to represent two mag- above).
matic phases first the intrusion of the tholei- Significant occurrences of weathering
itic sills and, somewhat later, the emplacement crusts are scarce in central Finland. In ad-
of the layered complex (Sipil, 1992; Vaasjoki dition to the Lauhanvuori area, saprolite
and Sipil, 2001). Vaasjoki and Sipil (2001) patches are only preserved along the coast of
reported a U-Pb baddeleyite age of 434 5 the Gulf of Bothnia (Sderman et al., 1983).
Ma for the tholeiitic sills of Ridnitsohkka. From Kainuu, eastern Finland, a few kaolinitic
Accordingly, this tectonostratigraphic unit has occurrences are known. The parent rock of
been correlated with the Vaddas Nappe of the the saprolite there is often a Paleoproterozoic
Upper Allochton representing the Scandian feldspathic quartzite and the preserved weath-
phase of orogenic evolution (Sipil, 1992; ering profiles are up to 35 m thick (Sarap,
Lehtovaara, 1995). 1996). The age of weathering is not known.
Kaolin occurrences similar to those in Kainuu
are also present in northern Finland (e.g., at
6. Paleosols and Cenozoic Siurunmaa, Savukoski, and Kuusamo).
sedimentary remnants In central Lapland, northern Finland, the
weathering crust is semi-continuous over wide
Deep chemical weathering probably played a areas and saprolites have been developed on
major role in the MesozoicCenozoic evolu- crystalline bedrock. These crusts are typically
tion of Finland. Preserved in situ weathering some meters thick, but also tens of meters
crusts are valuable indications of ancient land thick weathering profiles have been reported
surfaces and paleoclimate. Nevertheless, the (e.g., Hirvas, 1991; Aario and Peuraniemi,
geological interpretation of paleosols is often 2000). The weathering crust apparently en-
difficult, because dating of the weathering velops the recent topography; thus saprolite
products is a cumbersome task and the results has been observed in lowlands, on hill slopes,
are often far less than precise. Paleosols are and also atop of summits (Hirvas, 1991). This
known in various parts of the country and they indicates that Quarternary glacial erosion has
are especially common in northern Finland. been relatively weak in central Lapland. Ac-
Only paleosols directly overlain by Qua- cording to Aario and Peuraniemi (2000), the
ternary glacial deposits are described here; saprolite compositions in Lapland point to
the paleosols associated with sedimentary tropical or subtropical weathering conditions.
cover (e.g., Lauhanvuori) have been discussed These authors tentatively suggest a Cretaceous
above. to Tertiary age for the saprolite formation.
In southern Finland, several localities In general, the preglacial chemical weath-
with minor indications of weathering are ering history is poorly known in Finland. In a
known, but the only major occurrence is the recent review (Mign and Lidmar-Bergstrm,
Virtasalmi kaolin deposit. At that locality, the 2001), the main stage of chemical weathering
saprolite developed on Svecofennian crystal- in Finland and northern Sweden was consid-
ered late Mesozoic. In Finland, however, an extension and rifting leading to the forma-
older weathering component is present (e.g., tion of new continental margins and episodes
Sarap, 1996) and saprolites younger than of accretion along the western margin of the
Mesozoic (Paleogene to Neogene) may be craton.
present as well. The traditional models concerning the
The only indications of Cenozoic sedi- Neoproterozoic and Phanerozoic evolution of
mentation in Finland are from eastern Lap- the Finnish part of the Fennoscandian Shield
land. The following description is according maintain that this area had remained tectoni-
to Hirvas and Tynni (1976) and Tynni (1982c). cally stable and that only minor sedimentation
At Akanvaara (205 m above sea level; Figure had occurred. These ideas have presumably
13.2), unweathered bedrock is overlain by a arisen from the lack of an extensive preserved
0.8-m-thick layer of stiff, symmictic clay that sedimentary record. Nevertheless, it is evident
contains kaolinite and montmorillonite and that in particular the western part of the craton
is compositionally different from Quaternary underwent major tectonic reworking at about
clays of Finland. It is covered by a few meters 1100900 Ma (during the Sveconorwegian
of Quaternary till. On the basis of microfos- orogeny) and again at about 450350 Ma (dur-
sils, a marine depositional environment and ing the Caledonian orogeny). The latter was
a Paleogene age have been suggested (Tynni, preceded by the opening of the Iapetus Ocean
1982c; Fenner, 1988). at ~600 Ma and succeeded by the opening of
Some 70 km northeast of Akanvaara, at the North Atlantic in late Mesozoic and early
Naruskajrvi (270 m above sea level), a depos- Cenozoic times. The scattered 11001000
it of diatomaceous earth with Neogene fresh- Ma dikes in northern Finland, dikes of similar
water microfossils is present. The deposit is ages in Scandinavia, the ~600 Ma kimber-
found as an interlayer in a gravelsandsilt lites (Chapter 14), and the Devonian alkaline
deposit overlain by glacial till. complexes of the Kola province (Chapter 14)
An in situ nature of the deposits (no major can all be considered magmatic consequences
glacial transport and redeposition) has been fa- of these tectonic episodes and show their
vored for both occurrences. Thus the observed prominent effects also in the eastern part of
remnants bear very significant information the Fennoscandian Shield.
concerning the late geological evolution of The MesoproterozoicPhanerozoic burial-
northern Finland. exhumation history of the shield can be as-
sessed using (1) the sedimentary record; (2)
other indications of ancient land surfaces,
7. Tectonic evolution from the such as paleosols and impact structures; (3)
Mesoproterozoic to the Cenozoic the erosion depths of Paleozoic intrusions; and
(4) isotope and fission track studies.
7.1. Introduction A fundamental question related to the
remnants of the sedimentary record is whether
In this section, we place the Mesoproterozoic these reflect original basin configurations
to Phanerozoic geological features of Finland (e.g., Van Balen and Heeremans, 1998) or
into a regional tectonic context. The signifi- the selective preservation of originally more
cance of the preserved sedimentary record and extensive cover sequences due to later tectonic
the dated igneous events (cf. Figures 13.1 and movements (e.g., Cederbom et al., 2000). That
13.2) are considered in the light of the evolu- question can be assessed, at least to a certain
tionary history of Fennoscandia. Especially extent, by analyzing the original variations
important are major tectonic events, such as of thickness and sedimentary facies and their

overall mode of occurrence (i.e., the amounts when the rapakivi association was formed. The
of folding, the nature of bordering faults, etc.). existence of such a thermal head is compat-
The usefulness of paleosols in such recon- ible with a mantle plume model (cf. Haapala
structions is limited by difficulties in dating, and Rm, 1992; Rm and Korja, 2000),
several possible successive stages of weather- but that model has been challenged by hll
ing, and possible confusion with epigenetic et al. (2000) who related the Fennoscandian
hydrothermal alteration products. Reliably rapakivi magmatism to successive subduction
dated impact structures, like Lappajrvi and events along the southwestern edge of the
Sksjrvi in Finland, are valuable piercing shield. This inboard model cannot, however,
points marking the ancient erosional surface. explain the non-linear age distribution of the
In addition, remnants of pre-impact and/or rapakivi granite batholiths (cf. Rm et al.,
post-impact cover may be preserved within 2000; Chapter 12).
such structures (cf. Kohonen and Vaarma, Whatever the ultimate tectonic explana-
2001; Abels et al., 2002). tion of the magmatism, the following features
During the last fifteen years, fission track (cf. also Rm and Korja, 2000) are charac-
analysis in the Fennoscandian Shield (e.g., teristic of the rapakivi stage:
Zeck et al., 1988; Tullborg et al., 1996; Lar-
son et al., 1999a; Cederbom, 2001; Murrell major tectonothermal activity with mantle
and Andriessen, 2001) has raised questions upwelling, mafic underplating, and
concerning the role of the Sveconorwegian emplacement of rapakivi granites;
and Caledonian orogenies and, especially, crustal thinning and formation of
the original extent of foreland basins. It has intracratonic basins.
been suggested (Larson et al., 1999b) that
the Caledonide foreland sediments covered The alluvial deposits (e.g., the Satakunta
large parts of Finland during the Late Paleo- sandstone) are well compatible with an overall
zoic and Mesozoic. Murrell and Andriessen intracratonic setting. An eolian origin of the
(2001) have further indicated that the final Dala sandstone in central Sweden (Pulvertaft,
exhumation of the shield occurred not earlier 1985) would indicate that sedimentation may
than during the Cenozoic. These models are have occurred also outside of major rift val-
in obvious conflict with the traditional ideas leys. For the Satakunta sandstone, a minimum
of only minor Phanerozoic deposition and the age of 1265 Ma is well constrained, whereas
absence of a major sedimentary cover. recent results from the Lake Ladoga area
(Figures 13.2 and 13.6) indicate that graben
7.2. The intracratonic rift basin stage formation and sedimentation of arkosic sand-
(~16001300 Ma) stones occurred there shortly after or perhaps
concomitantly with the emplacement of the
While detailed modeling of the mid-Protero- 15601530 Ma Salmi rapakivi granite com-
zoic tectonic evolution is beyond the scope of plex (Amelin et al., 1997; Rm et al., 2001).
this chapter (cf. Chapter 12), a brief discussion In general, however, the depositional age of
is included in order to delineate the deposi- the Mesoproterozoic sequences is poorly con-
tional history of the supracrustal rocks. The strained. It is possible that the preserved strata
extensive geophysical evidence of crustal thin- represent multiple depositional stages and the
ning and mafic underplating, the long duration basin histories may thus be longer and more
of magmatism, and the substantial volume complex than previously envisaged.
of crust-derived magmas all require a major The original extent of the intracratonic
thermal source in the subcontinental mantle basin system (MP1 to MP2) and the primary
thicknesses of the sediments are difficult to MP2). Their emplacement plausibly occurred
estimate reliably. However, comparisons with along pre-existing (MP1) crustal ruptures. It is
the assumed scales of Mesoproterozoic (Rip- also possible that initial subsidence related to
hean) basins in the Russian platform (e.g., this stage of evolution triggered the deposition
Kumpulainen and Nystuen, 1985; Bogdanova of the upper parts of the Satakunta and Muhos
et al., 1996; Nikishin et al., 1996) suggest that formations. The down-faulting related to the
deposition had been more widespread than final events of this extensional stage was ap-
what is indicated by the preserved basins. parently the main control of the preservation
This is supported also by the presence of of the Satakunta Formation (Laitakari, 1983;
Mesoproterozoic sedimentary rocks within Kohonen et al., 1993), perhaps also that of the
the Lappajrvi impact structure. Similarly, the Muhos Formation.
the abundance and scattered occurrence of The kaolinitic Virtasalmi saprolite (~1180
sandstone glacial boulders is best explained by Ma; Sarap, 1996) lying directly on the crys-
assuming that unexposed sandstone remnants talline basement manifests local absence of
are more common in Finland than currently sedimentary cover and conditions of long-last-
indicated in geological maps. ing continental weathering in central Finland.
Nevertheless, our model implies that, at the end
7.3. Crustal extension episodes and the of the Mesoproterozoic, large parts of Finland
Sveconorwegian orogeny were covered by sedimentary rocks of intra-
(~1300900 Ma) continental depositional origin (Figure 13.15).
The influence of the Sveconorwegian orogeny
The younger Mesoproterozoic magmatic event on the foreland in the northeast is speculative,
at ~1265 Ma and the mafic dike swarms of but it has been suggested that a km-scale pile
Salla (~1125 Ma) and Laanila (~1040 Ma) of foreland sediments had been deposited in
presumably reflect short-lived extensional the vicinity of the Sveconorwegian front in
episodes in northern Finland. Their time span southwestern Sweden at ~950 Ma (Tullborg
approximately corresponds to that of the Sveco- et al., 1996; Larson et al., 1999).
norwegian orogeny (~1.20.9 Ga; Johansson In Finland, the Iso-Naakkima sedimentary
et al., 1991). The ~1265 Ma dikes could record sequence overlies a saprolite resembling that
the onset of the SveconorwegianGrenvillian in Virtasalmi. Its depositional age is very
orogeny (e.g., Gorbatschev et al., 1987; Rm, poorly constrained (~1000 to 650 Ma) and it
1990) or, from a supercontinental point of is thus difficult to speculate in regard to con-
view, the breakup of an earlier Proterozoic nections with the sedimentation in the Sveco-
supercontinent, which created the separate norwegian foreland.
cratons of Baltica and Laurentia (e.g., Elm-
ing and Mattson, 2001; Pesonen et al., 2003). 7.4. The Neoproterozoic exhumation
Major intracratonic tectonic movements and stage (~900600 Ma)
extensive rift systems have also been indicated
for the period between ~1400 and 1100 Ma Except for the case of Iso-Naakkima (see
in the interior of the East European craton above), evidence for Neoproterozoic (NP1 and
(e.g., Nikishin et al., 1996; Bogdanova et al., NP2) geological evolution are virtually absent
1996). in Finland. Also, the overall early Neoprot-
Both in Finland and in Sweden, the erozoic (NP1/NP2) geological history of the
~1265 Ma dikes are spatially connected with surrounding areas is insufficiently known (cf.
older Mesoproterozoic (MP1 or Subjotnian) Vidal and Moczydlowska, 1995).
intrusions and sedimentary deposits (MP1/ After that time, the development of an

Sveco-
norwegian
orogenic
front
~1300 Ma ~900 Ma
Iapetus
Ocean
~700 Ma Tornquist ~450 Ma

Sea
Caledonian
orogenic
front
Estimated
margin
of major litho-
spheric
flexure
~360 Ma ~30 Ma
ancient North European shield area with little In summary, although Finnish data are
or no sedimentary cover is evident during scarce, it is suggested that gradual uplift and
the Neoproterozoic (NP2/NP3 or pre-Ven- erosion characterized most of the Neopro-
dian). This is manifested by erosion of the terozoic Era in Finland. As a prologue to the
pre-existing cover, continental conditions, platformal stage, some local subsidence and
and subaerial weathering profiles in many deposition may have occurred at the end of
parts of the present East European craton this stage after a prolonged period of erosion
(e.g., Korkutis, 1981; Puura et al., 1996). For and subaereal weathering.
example, to the south and southeast of Finland,
in Estonia and Russia, late Neoprotezoic (NP3 7.5. The stage of platform sedimentation
or Vendian) deposition occurred directly (~600420 Ma)
atop of the metamorphic crystalline basement
(e.g., Winterhalter et al., 1981; Amantov et al., Observations from southern Finland, such
1988). These sediments are typically underlain as clastic dikes of Cambrian sandstone and
by a kaolinitic paleosol. In places, especially the ~560 Ma (Muller et al., 1990) impact
in the west, the weathering crust is directly structure of Sksjrvi, indicate that the
covered by Cambrian deposits (Puura et al., present erosional level is very close to the
1996). This indicates that the deposition of the major unconformity between the crystalline
latest Neoproterozoic (Vendian) sediments basement and the NP3/Cambrian strata. This
and subaereal weathering took place virtually is also supported by isotope studies. The Pha-
simultaneously. The preserved Vendian suc- nerozoic crystallization of galena (Vaasjoki,
cessions in Estonia and Lake LadogaSt. Pe- 1977; Bergman and Lindberg, 1979; Sund-
tersburg area show no decreasing thicknesses blad et al., 2002) and uraninite (Vaasjoki et
towards the north. This suggests that these al., 2002) in fractures within the crystalline
deposits were once present also in southern basement in southern Finland may reflect the
Finland (Puura et al., 1996, 1999). In Finland, proximity of the ancient unconformity. These
the deposits referred to as late Neoproterozoic mineralizations were potentially related to
(NP3 or Vendian) are poorly dated. These increased permeability and hydrothermal ac-
include the Hailuoto and Lauhanvuori Forma- tivity along the unconformity just above the
tions, and possibly also the lowermost part of present erosional level during this particular
the Dividal Group, but their relationship to stage of evolution.
the overall basin configuration remains to be In the latest Precambrian and during the
resolved. Cambrian, fluvial and shallow marine de-
Fig. 13.15. (facing page) Model illustrating schematic paleogeographic snapshots of Fennoscandia; the
blue areas indicate the present distribution of Mesoproterozoic cover, the horizontally ruled areas
represent active depositories, the dotted areas show the sedimentary cover. (A) Alluvialfluvialeolian
deposition in intracratonic rift basins; the red arrow indicates the main direction of sediment trans-
port (see Figure 13.4); (B) Sveconorwegian foreland basin; examples of assumed ~1270 Ma normal
faults (jagged lines) controlling the preservation of earlier (MP1 to MP2) cover are also indicated; (C)
Remnants of sedimentary cover ~700 Ma ago; (D) The Ordovician carbonate platform; the assumed
continental margin normal fault system (jagged lines) is also outlined; (E) The Caledonian foreland
basin; the estimate of major lithospheric flexure (the deepest part of the basin) according to Samuels-
son and Middleton (1998); (F) Assumed main sediment transport system (red arrows) and reactiva-
tion of earlier faults (jagged lines) ~30 Ma ago; schematic contours of late Mesozoic and Paleogene
uplift are also indicated (after Riis, 1996).

position prevailed in the slowly submerging onset of the Caledonian collisional tectonism,
northwestern part of the East European craton. the axis of maximum thickness of sediments
Tectonically, basin formation at that time was appears to have extended along a line con-
contemporaneous with the breakup of the necting the western coast of Estonia with the
Meso- to Neoproterozoic Rodinia supercon- coast of Poland. That basin was probably open
tinent and the opening of the Iapetus Ocean at towards the Tornquist Ocean in the south and
~600 Ma. Extension along the Tornquist line the Iapetus Ocean in west (Torsvik, 1998;
in the southwest occurred approximately at the Puura et al., 2000).
same time. In Finland, the age of kimberlites Puura et al. (1996, 2000) suggested that
approximately corresponds the time of that these sediments covered large parts of the
supercontinent breakup, but possible causal present Fennoscandian Shield. In Finland,
connections have not yet been worked out. this view is supported by recent observations
The Cambrian basins to the south and of Ordovician rocks in the Karikkoselk im-
southeast of Finland, in Estonia, and the St. pact structure (see Figure 13.2). In addition,
Petersburg area have been studied and mod- the Ordovician in Estonia shows neither a
eled in detail (e.g., Puura et al., 1996; Mens systematic decrease of bed thickness nor a
and Pirrus, 1997; Artyushkov et al., 2000). change of sedimentary facies towards the
Detailed description of the stratigraphy and north. The thickness estimates for the Cam-
inferred trangression and regression phases brian and Ordovician strata in the Bothnian
are beoynd the scope of this chapter, but a Sea roughly correspond to those in the Baltic
short summary of basinal stages is given. countries and there is no systematic decrease
In Estonia, the lowermost Cambrian mud- in sedimentary unit thickness towards the
stone and siltstone formations show increasing margins of the present cover rock area in
thicknesses first towards the northeast and the Bothnian Sea (cf. Axberg, 1980). This,
east and later, variably, towards the west and together with the current bowl-shaped nature
southwest. Towards the end of the Cambrian, of the structure, indicates that the Bothnian
sandstones and siltstones representing shallow Sea is a tectonically preserved remnant of an
marine depositional conditions become domi- originally extensive cover sequence rather than
nant throughout the area. The basin was ap- a primary Paleozoic basin (cf. van Balen and
parently deepening towards the newly formed Heeremans, 1998).
continental margin in the west. The original In summary, the present occurrences of
extents and geometries of the Cambrian basins Paleozoic cover in Finland represent sporadic
in Finland are difficult to reconstruct in detail. erosional remnants of an extensive platform
Nevertheless, it has been suggested (cf. Puura cover. The development of early Paleozoic
et al., 1996) that, at the end of the Cambrian, marine basins may tentatively be connected
southern Finland had been covered by a pile of with the development of passive-margin-type
fine clastic sediments with a thickness varying conditions, followed by initial foreland subsid-
between 100 and 350 m. ence and formation of an early foredeep-type
During the Ordovician and Silurian, an basin in response to continent collision in the
extensive carbonate platform existed at the west. However, it appears that the development
western margin of the ancient continent (e.g., of the Silurian Baltic basin was tectonically
Bruton et al., 1985; Basset, 1985; Nestor and controlled not only by the formation of the
Einasto, 1997). Carbonate rocks and marly Scandinavian Caledonides but also by the
clastic sediments, 200 to 400 m in thickness, development of the North GermanPolish
represent this stage in the Baltic countries Caledonides in the southwest (e.g., Poprawa
(e.g., Puura and Vaher, 1997) and, before the et al., 1999).
7.6. The Caledonian foreland stage that the detritus derived from the Scandinavian
(~420350 Ma) and the final Caledonides had buried most of Finland, and
exhumation of the shield that practically all of Finland was covered
by 0.5- to 1.5-km-thick sedimentary strata
Sedimentary rocks younger than Ordovician (Figure 13.15).
are not known in Finland, but the influence of The final exhumation of the Finnish part
the Caledonian orogeny can hardly be ignored. of the Fennoscandian Shield occurred prob-
Models presented for the Silurian and Devo- ably in late Mesozoic and the early Cenozoic.
nian evolution in Finland can only be based This estimate is supported by the fact that, at
on isotope methods, geological modeling, and ~75 Ma, the Lappajrvi meteorite impact site
comparisons with adjacent areas, especially in was still buried beneath a sedimentary cover.
Sweden, Norway, and Estonia. A high amount of post-Devonian erosion in
The formation of a thrust and fold belt in northern Finland is undisputably manifested
Scandinavia at ~400 Ma and related crustal by the exposed ~365 Ma alkaline intrusions
thickening formed a foreland basin on the (Iivaara, Sokli).
eastern side of the Caledonian orogen. As the The denudation of the Caledonide moun-
present crustal level in Scandinavia represents tain range had reached a stage of a hilly land-
a deep section through the Scandinavian Cale- scape during the late Mesozoic (Riis, 1996).
donides, vast amounts of sediments must As a response to the opening of the North
have been deposited during the Devonian. A Atlantic, substantial tectonic uplift (12 km)
corresponding heating of the basement due took place during the Cenozoic in northwest-
to burial has been recorded and modeled by, ern Scandinavia. According to the estimates
e.g., Zeck et al. (1988), Tullborg et al. (1996), given (e.g., Riis, 1996; Stuevold and Eldholm,
Samuelsson and Middleton (1998), and Lar- 1996), uplift in northern Finland was ~500
son et al. (1999a). m during the late Cretaceous and Paleogene,
The width of the foreland basin and the continuing into the Neogene. The present mor-
original thickness of the sedimentary piles in phology of the eastern and western coasts of
different parts of the basin are subject to spec- the Bothnian Sea the level Finnish coast and
ulation (e.g., Larson et al., 1999b; Samuelsson the faulted uneven Swedish coast has been
and Middleton, 1999). The thick Devonian interpreted by different amounts of Cenozoic
Old Red sandstones in the Baltic countries uplift (van Balen and Heeremans, 1998). Pa-
have been interpreted as part of the foreland leogene to Neogene evolution has probably
basin (e.g., Plink-Bjrklund and Bjrklund, had a significant impact on the exhumation
1999). The SilurianDevonian depositional history and current topography of Finland,
hiatus plausibly records a rapidly changing especially in its northern part.
base level configuration and a basin setup
related to foreland basin initiation. The role 7.7. Concluding remarks
of the Caledonides in the Paleozoic evolution
of the Baltic region is reflected in the shape All the discussed magmatic events, the mafic
of that basin. dikes at ~1265 Ma, ~1100 Ma, and 1000
The axis of the basin, as deduced from Ma, the kimberlites at ~600 Ma, and the
both the early Paleozoic carbonate deposi- alkaline intrusions at ~360 Ma, have at least
tion and the Devonian sandstone formations, a temporal relationship with the well-known
apparently followed the overall northeastern major tectonic events on the Fennoscandian
trend of the Scandinavian Caledonides (Puura Shield. It also appears that the particulars
et al., 2000). Larson et al. (1999a) estimated of the admittedly scarce sedimentary record

can be interpreted rather soundly by applying References
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Chapter 14
KIMBERLITES,
CARBONATITES, AND
ALKALINE ROCKS
H.E. OBrien, P. Peltonen, H. Vartiainen

Cover page: An example of hypabyssal kimberlite from KaaviKuopio (Pipe 10, Ryn) dis-
playing the classic suite of lithospheric mantle-derived xenocrysts: olivine (two generations,
now pseudomorphed by serpentine), red pyrope, gray Mg-ilmenite, and bright green
chromian diopside.
Photo: Helena Saarinen.
OBrien, H.E., Peltonen, P., Vartiainen, H., 2005. Kimberlites,
carbonatites, and alkaline rocks. In: Lehtinen, M., Nurmi, P.A.,
Finland contains some of the classic examples of carbonatites and alkaline rocks
in the world, and more recently kimberlites have also been found. The carbon-
atites span the age range from Archean, the Siilinjrvi carbonatite complex, to
Proterozoic, the Laivajoki and Kortejrvi occurrences, to the Devonian Sokli
complex, one of the largest in the world at just over 20 km2 in size. Study of
carbonatites with such a range in ages gives a unique temporal perspective of
the development of this type of carbonated mantle source and although there is
a considerable range in levels of REE enrichment in these carbonatites, radio-
genic and stable isotope compositions are little changed from the Archean to
Devonian examples. This implies derivation from a well-mixed portion of the
Earths upper mantle. Surprisingly, isotope data from the Iivaara ijolite complex,
the southernmost expression of the huge Devonian Kola alkaline province, show
highly enriched isotope signatures. This is believed to be the result of extreme
crustal contamination of magmas originally with isotope compositions similar
to the carbonatites.
The 600 Ma Group I kimberlites in the KaaviKuopio region are typical
of those found elsewhere in the world, including large quantity of entrained
lithospheric mantle material that allows deciphering of the stratigraphy of the
underlying mantle. Xenolith and xenocryst studies show that this mantle has
at least three distinct layers, an upper, extremely depleted layer composed
mostly of harzburgites down to ~110 km, a middle layer composed of dominant
lherzolite with subordinate harzburgite and wehrlite down to ~180 km, and a
lower more fertile layer down to at least 240 km. The latter represents either
refertilized Archean mantle or a recent Proterozoic underplate during continent
collision at ~1.88 Ga. Despite this large entrained load of lithospheric mantle,
these kimberlites are isotopically unaffected by this process and show deriva-
tion from a sublithospheric well-mixed mantle source. In contrast, the Group
II kimberlite-lamproite hybrids of the Kuhmo region contain considerably
more aged lithospheric component that is apparent in their extreme isotope
compositions. These phlogopite-rich rocks in places also contain significant
lithospheric mantle material. Preliminary data from mantle xenocrysts sug-
gest that the lithospheric mantle stratigraphy here is less heterogeneous, with a
depleted, high-Mg lherzolite- and harzburgite-bearing horizon extending from
the very top of the garnet-bearing mantle at about 80 km depth, to a depth of
250 km or more. An areally diverse group of Proterozoic primitive mica-rich
lamprophyres in eastern Finland probably imply a similar significant aged
lithospheric component.
C H A P T E R 1 4 K I M B E R L I T E S , C A R B O NAT I T E S , A N D A L K A L I N E RO C K S 607
1. Introduction the bedrock of Finland since at least the Late
Archean, and this chapter will describe the
Even though alkaline rocks represent a small occurrences from the oldest to the youngest,
fraction of all igneous rocks, in fact less than starting with one of the oldest carbonatites in
1%, they cover such a wide range of chemical the world.
and mineralogical diversity that they account
for nearly half of all igneous rock names. The
petrogenesis of these rocks is particularly in- 2. Description of alkaline rock
teresting, in part due to their great variability complexes of Finland
and in part because they are economically im-
portant, containing most of the global reserves 2.1. The Archean Siilinjrvi carbonatite
of, for example, the rare earth elements (REE),
Nb, and Ta and such minerals as apatite and The Siilinjrvi carbonatite complex is located
diamond. Finland contains classic examples of in eastern Finland close to the city of Kuopio
many of these rock types, including one of the (Figure 14.1). It consists of a steeply dipping
oldest carbonatites in the world at Siilinjrvi lenticular body roughly 16 km long with a
and the type locality for the nepheline-bearing maximum width of 1.5 km and a surface
rock ijolite at Iivaara. Recently, diamondifer- area of 14.7 km2 (Figure 14.2) intruded into
ous kimberlites similar to those from southern granite gneiss. It was discovered in 1950 after
African and Siberia have been discovered and samples of carbonatite were found by local
have proven to be extremely valuable in a sci- mineral collectors; studies of these samples
entific sense because of the unique samples of at the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK)
lithospheric mantle underlying eastern Finland ultimately led to the body. Exploration drill-
that they have transported to the surface. ing began in 1958 and continued along with
Alkaline rock research by Finnish geolo- laboratory and pilot plant work until 1979
gists (Figure 14.1) has a long tradition, and when an open pit mine for phosphorus ore was
dates back to 1857, when H.J. Holmberg col- commissioned (Figure 14.3). Present produc-
lected the first samples from the ijolite intru- tion at the Siilinjrvi mine is about 9.2 Mt of
sion at Iivaara in Kuusamo (Holmberg, 1857; ore per annum.
Ramsay and Berghell, 1891). Other important The carbonatite within the Siilinjrvi
targets for research have been the Lovozero complex occurs as a central tabular 600700-
(Lujaur Urt) and Khibina (Umptek) nepheline m-wide body of calcite- and dolomite-bear-
syenite/carbonatite intrusions discovered ing phlogopite rocks running the length of
on the Kola Peninsula, Russia, by Wilhelm the complex surrounded by a fenite margin.
Ramsay in 1887 (Ramsay, 1889; Ramsay and Although not strictly zoned, cross-cutting re-
Hackman, 1894), the Kola Peninsula Turjan- lationships and xenoliths suggest that, at least
niemi alkaline rock district investigated by at the present level of exposure, some of the
Hkan Kranck (Kranck, 1928) and the Iivaara syenites formed early, followed by a relatively
area in Kuusamo studied by Mauno Lehijrvi carbonate-poor ultramafic magmatic pulse that
(Lehijrvi, 1960). Research on alkaline rocks created the majority of the phlogopite rocks,
in Finland underwent resurgence in the latter finally culminating in a carbonate-dominated
half of the 1960s with the discovery of the pulse. Crosscutting the surrounding bedrock,
Sokli carbonatite intrusion at Savukoski (Paar- the fenite halo, and the central intrusive body
ma, 1970) and the carbonate-phosphorus ore is a 4-km-long, 2030-m-wide, N-trending
at Siilinjrvi (Puustinen, 1970, 1971). melasyenite dike (or series of dikes, Heikki
Alkaline rocks have been intruded into Lukkarinen, pers. comm., 2003) within the
608 K I M B E R L I T E S , C A R B O NAT I T E S , A N D A L K A L I N E RO C K S C H A P T E R 1 4
-
Barents Sea
Kola alkaline province
Lovozero
Kovdor
Sokli Khibina
NORWAY
Terskii Verkhotina
Laivajoki Zolotitsa
Iivaara
Kortejrvi
SWEDEN Kostamuksha
Lentiira
RUSSIA
Siilinjrvi
Kuopio Kemozero
FINLAND Kaavi
Halpanen
Svecofennian mobile belt
Baltic Sea
0 250 km
Archean orthogneiss, migmatite Hardrock kimberlite occurrences

Archean greenstones, supracrustal rocks Carbonatites and related rocks
Post-Archean, mainly Svecofennian rocks

Caledonian orogenic belt Southwest margin of the Archean craton
Phanerozoic sedimentary cover
Fig. 14.1. Location map of kimberlites, carbonatites, and undersaturated alkaline rocks in Finland with
the general geology and the Devonian Kola alkaline province outlined.
2744 complex area (Figure 14.2) that appears to
have a lamprophyric character and may be
related to the same intrusive event as the car-
Pien-Varpanen bonatite (Puustinen, 1971).
White-green medium-grained pure carbo-
Suur-Varpanen natite formed during the carbonate-dominated
pulse is relatively rare and in general true
carbonatite (>50 modal % carbonates) is a
relatively minor rock type at Siilinjrvi. The
vast majority of the central body is formed
7010 of phlogopite-rich rocks ranging from almost
pure glimmerite (biotitite) via carbonate
glimmerite to silicocarbonatites and finally
Pahkalampi
to carbonatites. Blue-green richterite forms
Mustinjrvi
up to 30% of the rock in places. Figure 14.4
shows the distribution of these rocks types, as
6310 mapped in 1979, in the area of the present-day
Diabase
Metasyenite dike
Saarinen open pit mine (Mikkonen et al., 1980; Hrml
Fenite and Liferovich, 2001). The phlogopite-rich
Carbonatite nature of the Siilinjrvi intrusion is apparent
Pitklampi
Quartz diorite from this diagram. Figure 14.5 shows some
Mine examples of the variety of rock types from the
7005
carbonate-rich pulse, and also displays some
of the less common minerals, including zircon
(14.5). Even though all varieties of this mag-
Jaakonlampi matic pulse contain apatite, apatite is nonethe-
Kortteinen
less concentrated in the carbonate-rich rocks.
The overall mode of the carbonatiteglim-
merite portion of the complex, as indicated by
the average composition of the Siilinjrvi ore
Sulkavanjrvi
(Hrml, 2001), is 65% phlogopite (including
Srkilampi tetraferriphlogopite), 20% carbonates (with a
4:1 calcite:dolomite ratio), 5% richterite and
Kuusilampi 10% apatite (equivalent to 4% P2O5 in the
7000
whole rock). Other, relatively rare accessory
minerals at Siilinjrvi include barite, stron-
tianite, monazite, pyrochlore, baddeleyite,
Sulkavanjrvi ilmenite, magnetite, pyrite, pyrrhotite, and
chalcopyrite.
Juuruvesi
Fenites surrounding the carbonatitebio-
titite central core developed as a result of Na
metasomatism of the surrounding granite
536
539
2744
Fig. 14.2. Geological map of the Siilinjrvi gneiss country rocks. The main minerals in the
carbonatite complex, eastern Finland. After fenites are microcline, amphibole and pyroxene
Puustinen (1971) with slight modification from but there exists a wide variety of syenite types
recent mapping compiled by Lukkarinen (2000). including: pyroxene, amphibole, carbonate,
Fig. 14.3. Aerial photograph of the Siilinjrvi mine in 1997. The present mine is similar in shape, but
somewhat deeper. Present production is 11.1 Mt of which 9.2 Mt is ore grading 4.2 wt.% P2O5 with
170 Mt of reserves and 380 Mt of probable reserves.
quartz, aplitic, and quartz-aegirine syenites. carbonate + apatite (Poutiainen, 1995). Ascent
Compositions of the fluids that are likely to and hydrofracturing by the evolving H2O-rich
have produced these fenites have been deter- fluid may have facilitated the ascent of these
mined from fluid inclusions within magmatic ultramafic and carbonatite magmas along
zircon and apatite (Poutiainen, 1995). Zircon deep crustal shears, with attendant fenitization
crystals, which are found predominately in the along the path.
amphibole-rich parts of the intrusion, contain A concordant zircon U-Pb age of 2609
two types of fluid inclusions trapped prior to 6 Ma (Olavi Kouvo, pers. comm.) shows that
emplacement of the carbonatites. Type 1 fluid Siilinjrvi is one of the oldest carbonatites
is a H2O-CO2 mixture with low salinity (14 in the world. Ion microprobe analysis of the
wt.% NaCl equivalent), whereas type 2 is of older rounded zircon cores (described above)
moderate salinity (718 wt.% NaCl equiva- remains to be done in order to determine their
lent), alkali- and H2O-rich. Type 1 inclusions ultimate origin, i.e., crustal or mantle.
surround rounded, presumably older zircon
cores while type 2 inclusions surround type 2.2. Proterozoic Kortejrvi and Laivajoki
1. Apatite crystals contain only type 2 inclu- intrusions
sions and this is consistent with the fact that
apatite crystallized predominately after zircon, The Kortejrvi and Laivajoki carbonatites in
although rare minute apatite daughter crystals the Koillismaa area of northeastern Finland
in some of the type 1 inclusions in zircon (Figure 14.1) were discovered in 1961 as a
indicate initiation of apatite saturation at this result of mineral exploration by Rautaruukki
stage. Consequently, the development of H2O- Oy. The carbonatite bodies are located within
and alkali-rich late-stage fluids that formed the Hirvaskoski shear zone between the Kuh-
the fenite halo was a direct consequence of mo and the Pudasjrvi Archean blocks with
the early crystallization of predominantly amphibolites as the main country rocks and
Glimmerite
Carbonate &
apatite glimmerite 2000
Silicocarbonatite
Diorite porphyry
Apatite rock
Fenite
Carbonatite
Diabase
Aplite
1900
7400
7200
7300
50 m
7100
7000
1800
50 m
50 m
Apatite Carbonate
6950
6950
1800 1800
<10% 1015% >15% 010% 1020% 2030%
3040% >40%
50 m Waste rock 50 m
Phlogopite Richterite
6950
6950
1800 1800
Black mica Reddish brown mica <5% 510% >10%
Dark brown mica
Fig. 14.4. Top: Geological map of an exposed portion of the Siilinjrvi complex at an early stage of
mine development. Below: Modal distribution maps for apatite, carbonate, and richterite and an ap-
proximate phlogopite color distribution map for the same exposure. According to grade estimates,
the only waste rock areas in this exposure (shown in gray in the mineral distribution maps) were
the dikes, the larger blocks of syenite and a few parts of the apatite-poor glimmerite. Note that the
apatite-rich portions of the exposure match relatively well with those areas rich in carbonate and
where reddish brown mica is dominant. The latter is, at least in part, tetraferriphlogopite (Puustinen,
1973). The richterite-rich zones appear to cut the main mineralogical trends, and may have resulted as
reaction by late-stage fluids. It is also notable that at Siilinjrvi, the overall amount of carbonatite, i.e.,
rocks with >50 modal % carbonate (in yellow, top map), is relatively limited; the bulk of the intrusion
is formed by glimmerite. Modified after Hrml (1981) and Mikkonen et al. (1980).
A B
E
Fig. 14.5. Examples of some of the Siilinjrvi complex rock types. (A) Medium-grained calcite carbon-
atite with apatite (greenish) and one 3-cm-wide phlogopite book; (B) Zircon crystals in silicocarbon-
atite; exposed portion of larger crystal is 0.8 cm; (C) Calcite (pink) carbonatite with large (5 cm)
books of phlogopite; (D) Abundant, several cm long crystals of richterite in calcite and dolomite
carbonatite; (E) Typical example of mixing between carbonatite and glimmerite with large fractured
crystals of apatite. Photos by the first author for this figure and all succeeding photographs unless
stated otherwise.
dolomite-calcite carbonatite also occur, the
former containing the most apatite-rich layers
at Kortejrvi. Silicate dominated rock types at
Kortejrvi include: (1) dark green to brownish
green glimmerite, in layers up to 4 m thick,
Laivajoki composed of phlogopite grains 0.4 mm to 1.8
mm in diameter with minor actinolite, edenite
and accessory calcite, dolomite, apatite, and
rare diopside, zircon, allanite, sulfide, and
magnetite; (2) olivine-magnetite rock layers
Kortejrvi
less than 1 m thick, in which olivine varies
from fresh to completely altered to serpentine,
iddingsite and bowlingite, magnetite invari-
ably contains ilmenite exsolution lamellae
and accessory minerals include dolomite, tetra-
ferriphlogopite, richterite, and zircon. These
Fig. 14.6. Aeromagnetic map of the zone be- rocks differ from typical foskerites from, for
tween the Kuhmo and Pudasjrvi blocks. The example Phalaborwa in South Africa, in that
Kortejrvi and Laivajoki carbonatites are easily there is no apatite.
distinguished because of their strong magnetic
Laivajoki is dominated by rocks called
signatures (dark areas), due to the magnetite
they contain. The bright spots in the carbonatite
tremolite-rich carbonatite by Nyknen et al.
anomalies result from remanent magnetization of (1997) that show large modal variations in
magnetite. Background image by Meri-Liisa Airo carbonate and tremolite contents but never-
using Geological Survey of Finland databases. theless average greater than 50% carbonates.
Other minerals include magnetite (ranging
from accessory to a main mineral), ilmenite,
lesser mica and quartz-feldspar gneisses. On phlogopite, relatively abundant zircon, allan-
aeromagnetic maps the carbonatite intrusions ite, and a few sulfides. Apatite is rare, as in the
exhibit highly elongate shapes (Figure 14.6) Kortejrvi magnetite-rich rocks. Rarely pyrox-
concordant to the nearly vertical lithological ene remnants can be seen within the tremolite
layering of the country rocks, indicative of grains, perhaps suggesting this variety of
strong stretching during Proterozoic activation carbonatite was originally pyroxene-rich.
of the Hirvaskoski zone. Based on aeromag- The main true carbonatite rock at Laivajoki
netic data and limited drill results, Nyknen et is calcite carbonatite, but here the carbonatite
al. (1997) estimated that the Kortejrvi deposit is almost pure calcite with only occasional
is about 60 m thick and 2 km long while Laiva- grains of dolomite, no olivine or serpentine,
joki is about 20 m thick and 4 km long. and the phlogopite does not show the reverse
At Kortejrvi the main rock type is bluish pleochroism indicative of tetraferriphlogopite.
to white calcite carbonatite with calcite grains Accessory minerals include apatite, actinolite,
averaging 1.4 mm but ranging up to 7.5 mm, magnetite, ilmenite, tremolite, zircon, allanite,
and accessory minerals including dolomite (up and a few sulfides. The other major rock type
to 10%), magnetite with ilmenite exsolution at Laivajoki is serpentine-talc-dolomite rock
lamellae, tetraferriphlogopite, olivine, ser- with the first two minerals as alteration prod-
pentine, tremolite, actinolite, apatite, allanite, ucts of olivine and, in addition to dolomite, it
and monazite. Significant amounts of slightly contains small amounts of phlogopite, mag-
coarser yellowish dolomite carbonatite and netite, ilmenite, sparse sulfide grains, and rare
apatite. Thin layers of glimmerite similar to Further discussion of the ultramafic lampro-
that at Kortejrvi also occur at this locality. phyres is left for the section on the Sokli dikes
A single U-Pb zircon age of 2020 Ma is (see below).
thought to represent the primary age of these Lamprophyres are most often found as
carbonatites (personal communication by dikes, sills and plugs, but may also form brec-
Olavi Kouvo in Vartiainen and Woolley, 1974), cia pipes and lava flows. Examples of breccia
but the zircon population is heterogeneous structures, some with classic pipe form, in-
and several younger zircon generations exist clude the alnite diatremes north of the Aln
(Karhu et al., 2001). An earlier K-Ar age of complex in Sweden (von Eckermann,1948;
1875 Ma reported by Kresten et al. (1977) Kresten, 1990), the Bulljah lamprophyre pipe
from Kortejrvi is probably a metamorphic in Western Australia (Hamilton and Rock,
age that represents the last major event along 1990) and the Buell Park diatreme in the Four
the Hirvaskoski shear zone. Corners area of Arizona, United States (Roden
and Smith, 1979). Lamprophyres also form
2.3. Proterozoic lamprophyre dikes lavas, as attested to by the remnant volcanic
necks in the Navajo area of the southwestern
A relatively unusual group of mafic to ul- United States and more recent volcanism in the
tramafic alkali-rich rocks, which typically Colima graben of northwestern Mexico (Luhr
form dikes and commonly carry diopside, and Carmichael, 1981; Allan and Carmichael,
phlogopite, and/or amphibole phenocrysts, 1984) where volcanoes are built from lampro-
are lamprophyres, a term based on the Greek phyre lava flows.
for glistening porphyry coined by C.W. von Most relevant to this section on Finnish
Gmbel in 1874. The predominance of es- Proterozoic lamprophyres are the calc-alkaline
sential phlogopite or amphibole phenocrysts varieties, which include minette (essential
and the lack of early feldspar indicate that phlogopite phenocrysts and alkali feldspar >
the magmas that formed these dikes were plagioclase in matrix), vogesite (calcic horn-
particularly fluid-rich. Lamprophyres can blende, alkali feldspar > plagioclase), kersan-
be divided into three main groups based on tite (phlogopite, plagioclase > alkali feldspar)
overall mineralogy: calc-alkaline, alkaline, and spessartite (calcic amphibole, plagioclase
and ultramafic and each of these groups can > alkali feldspar). The term calc-alkaline stems
be further subdivided based on mineral modes from their affinities to arc-related magmas in
and mineral chemistry. Table 14.1 compares that they have very similar trace-element
the mineralogical characteristics of calc-alka- signatures albeit at higher overall enrichment
line (exemplified by minette) and ultramafic levels than typical primitive arc rocks (Rock
lamprophyres with those of kimberlites and et al., 1991).
lamproites, which are discussed in a later First described by Hackman (1914, 1933),
section. For the lamprophyres, the increase and later by Huhma (1981) and Laukkanen
in alkaline and ultramafic character shown (1983), the lamprophyres from the lakes
by the range from calc-alkaline to alkaline to district (Figure 14.1) are represented almost
ultramafic varieties corresponds to a decrease exclusively by minette and kersantite. Accord-
in SiO2 content and accompanying changes ing to Laukkanen (1983) the dikes are found in
in mineralogy from phlogopite and amphibole four different areas. The largest swarm of 25
with some feldspar, to more SiO2-poor miner- dikes occurs at Haukivesi, where they are 10
als such as perovskite, and finally to melilite- 100 cm wide. Their age is ~1840 Ma (Neuvo-
rich and/or monticellite-bearing varieties with nen et al., 1981). Although several of the dikes
or without significant carbonate (Table 14.1). plot into the camptonite chemical field, all of
Table 14.1.
Mineralogical characteristics of kimberlites, lamproites, and lamprophyres.
Kimberlites Orangeites Lamproite Minettes UML
Mantle Xenoliths C C rare --- rare
Xenocrysts C C rare rare rare
Olivine Macrocrysts C C rare --- rare
Phenocrysts C C C rare C
Mica Macrocrysts C, phlogopite C, phlogopite C, phlogopite to C, phlogopite C, phlogopite
Phenocrysts Ti-phlogopite
Groundmass C, phlogopite C, tetraferri- C, Ti-tetraferri- C, Al-biotite C, Al-biotite
kinoshitalite phlogopite phlogopite
Spinels Groundmass abundant, Rare, Mg-chromite Rare, Mg-chromite C, Mg-chromite C, Mg-chromite
Mg-chromite to to Ti-magnetite to Ti-magnetite to Ti-magnetite to Ti-magnetite
Mg-ulvspinel
Monticellite Groundmass C --- --- --- C
Diopside Groundmass --- C, Al- & Ti-poor C, Al- & Ti-poor C, Al- & Ti-rich C, Al- & Ti-rich
Perovskite Groundmass C, Sr- & REE-poor rare, Sr- & REE-rich rare, Sr- & REE-rich --- C, Sr- & REE-
poor
Apatite Groundmass C, Sr- & REE-poor abundant, Sr- & C, Sr- & REE-rich C, Sr- & C, Sr- & REE-
REE-rich REE-poor poor
Primary Groundmass abundant C --- --- ---
Serpentine
Calcite Groundmass abundant C --- rare C to abundant
Sanidine Phenocrysts --- --- C rare ---
Groundmass --- rare C abundant ---
K-richterite Phenocrysts --- --- C --- ---
Groundmass --- rare C --- ---
K-Ba-titanite Groundmass very rare C C --- ---
Zr-silicates Groundmass very rare C C very rare ---
Mn-ilmenite Groundmass rare C very rare C rare
Leucite Phenocrysts --- rare pseudomorphs C --- ---
C = common, --- = absent, = critical K2L matching characteristic, = important K2L matching characteristic,
= matching characteristic with evolved K2L endmember. UML = ultramafic lamprophyres. Table is modified after Mitchell (1995b).
them have very similar mineral compositions, In addition, one minette dike over 40 cm wide
and it is likely that crystal accumulation has is known from the Pielavesi area.
had sufficient effect to displace some of the Undoubtedly greater numbers of lampro-
minettes into the camptonite compositional phyres occur in the Finnish basement than
field. Figure 14.7 shows photomicrographs have been reported, but they are not easily
of representative samples from this locality. recognized because of their dark, fine-grained
Note the predominance of phlogopite in the nature and the fact that their mica-rich char-
samples, indicative of minette. At Nilsi nine acter renders them substantially less robust to
minette dikes with widths of 440 cm are weathering than their typical host rocks.
found. From Kaavi seven dikes are known, one
giving a U-Pb zircon + titanite age of ~1830
Ma (Huhma, 1981). These dikes are 1070 cm
wide and comprise camptonite and kersantite.
A B
Fig. 14.7. Photomicrographs of minette samples from the Lakes District of eastern Finland. Phlogopite
occurs as phenocrysts and is the major mafic component of the groundmass. Diopside grains with
reaction rims and one rounded resorbed quartz xenocryst (gray) are visible. Other samples contain
greater amounts of magmatic hornblende. (A) Plane polarized light, (B) Crossed polars; width of field
is 6.5 mm.
2.4. Proterozoic Halpanen carbonatite 2.5. Proterozoic Group II kimberlites

olivine lamproites (K2L)
The small Halpanen occurrence was recog-
nized as a carbonatite by the exploration staff Kimberlite pipes are formed from ultramafic,
of Rautaruukki Oy and was first described by volatile-charged, incompatible element-rich
Puustinen (1986). It is located 12 km northeast magmas that represent a mixture of liquid,
of the city of Mikkeli in southeastern Finland, mantle peridotite, and eclogite detritus car-
along a major, deep northsouth fracture that ried from depth, and typically megacryst suite
also includes the Siilinjrvi carbonatite com- minerals such as titanian pyrope, magnesian
plex (Figure 14.1). According to geophysical ilmenite, and subcalcic clinopyroxene. There
data the approximately 8-m-wide, shallowly are two end-member kimberlite types, based
dipping (3035) dike-like body is about 1.5 on examples from South Africa: Group I with
km long. It consists of fine-grained, massive or abundant large, rounded grains (macrocrysts)
weakly banded calcite carbonatite and has ac- of olivine, in a matrix of subhedral to euhderal
cessory minerals of apatite, magnetite, pyrite, olivine, monticellite, perovskite, spinel, mica,
barite, monazite, and fluorite with the first two calcite, and serpentine, and Group II typi-
in places as phenocrysts >1 cm in diameter. cally with abundant phlogopite olivine in
At the eastern contact of the dike within the a matrix of phlogopite, potassium richterite,
main quarry there is a roughly 10-cm-wide and other diagnostic minerals (Table 14.1).
apatite-rich zone that varies from 2080% Olivine lamproites show some similarities to
calcite and 2080% apatite. Fenite alteration Group II kimberlites but exist, for example,
around the intrusion is limited to about 1 m, in Western Australia (Argyle diamond mine),
and is shown mostly by elevated SrO and Montana and Wyoming (U.S.A.), and southern
BaO in the surrounding quartz-feldspar rocks. Spain, whereas no rocks absolutely identical to
Preliminary age data from monazite give a Group II kimberlites have been found outside
Paleoproterozoic age of 18001700 Ma (Puus- of southern Africa.
tinen and Karhu, 1999). In the area of Kuhmo, in eastern Finland
tPh
KR D
A B
Fig. 14.8. Photomicrographs of Kuhmo K2L dikes. (A) Primitive olivine macrocryst-rich phlogopite
K2L dike rock that also contains abundant euhedral olivine phenocrysts (serpentinized) in a matrix of
Ti-rich phlogopite, potassium richterite, Mn-rich ilmenite, Cr-rich spinel zoned to titanian magnetite,
apatite, perovskite, calcite, and serpentine (European Diamonds PLC, Lentiira Prospect). (B) Slightly
more evolved K2L rock from Kuhmo (Malmikaivos Oy, Prospect no. 16; Seitaper). Grains surrounding
former pool of late stage liquid include tetraferriphlogopite (tPh), diopside (D), and potassium richter-
ite (KR). Olivine pseudomorphs rimmed by perovskite in a matrix of phlogopite, apatite, and calcite
are also apparent. Both images in plane polarized light; width of field is 2.3 cm (A) and 2.55 mm (B).
(Figure 14.1), there is a series of dike rocks phlogopite, similar to mica zoning trends in
that show mineralogical similarities to both ol- Group II kimberlites (Mitchell, 1995a).
ivine lamproite and Group II kimberlite (Table A suite of dikes and small breccia pipes
14.1). In hand specimen, the most distinctive ranging from leucite lamproite to olivine
feature of the Kuhmo potassic, ultramafic lamproite to Group II kimberlite has been
rocks is their phlogopite-rich nature. Phlogo- identified and studied in the Kostamuksha
pite occurs rarely as macrocrysts, but is abun- region of Russian Karelia (Proskuryakov et
dant as phenocrysts and microphenocrysts al., 1990; Zhuravlev et al., 1995), about 40 km
with relatively Ti-rich compositions similar northeast of the Kuhmo occurrences. These
to those of lamproite microphenocrysts. The rocks have been termed K2L by Mahotkin et
more primitive Kuhmo potassic rocks may al. (1998), in reference to their intermediate
also contain large amounts of olivine macro- mineralogies between Group II kimberlite and
crysts (Figure 14.8A) and in some cases olivine lamproite and it would appear that such
abundant xenocrysts and xenoliths of mantle a terminology would also be appropriate for
peridotite. Additional groundmass minerals the Kuhmo rocks. Use of the K2L terminology
include potassium richterite, Mn-rich ilmenite, is, however, only a convenience to keep more
Cr-rich spinel zoned to titanian magnetite, rock names from entering the already crowded
apatite and perovskite in a calcite + serpentine field of potassic ultramafic rocks. Another
matrix. More evolved versions of this rock viewpoint is that the rock types at Kuhmo are
type contain abundant olivine phenocrysts sufficiently different as to warrant a new name,
(rimmed by perovskite; Figure 14.8B) rather given that each craton appears to contain a
than macrocrysts, low-Al clinopyroxene, and characteristic potassic ultramafic magma type
phlogopite that is zoned to low-Ti tetraferri- derived predominantly from metasomatized
zones within the subcontinental lithospheric
mantle. The source mineralogy of these mag-
mas is governed by the particular metasomatic
A history of the mantle source and melts derived
from these domains will have characteristics
unique to that mantle (the so-called metaso-
matized mantle melts of Mitchell, 1995a). In
this regard, it is interesting to note the general
similarity of the K2L magmas of Kuhmo and
Kostamuksha to the diamondiferous mica-
ceous kimberlites of the Arkhangelsk area of
Russia and the fact that they occur within the
same KareliaKolaKuloi cratonic block.
B
Limited age-dating on perovskite from the
Kuhmo dikes give ages of around 1230 Ma
(Figure 14.9A). This age is consistent with a
Rb-Sr mineral isochron age of 1231 8.9 Ma
for the K2L rocks of Kostamuksha (Belyatsky
et al., 1995), and is clearly distinct from the
much younger Devonian (~360 Ma; Sablukov,
1984) Arkhangelsk kimberlites.
2.6. Neoproterozoic Group I kimberlites

C
Twenty kimberlite occurrences have been
discovered so far in the combined Kaavi and
Kuopio clusters in eastern Finland (Fig 14.10).
All have typical Group I mineralogies, major
and trace element compositions and intrusion
morphologies (OBrien and Tyni, 1999). They
range from hypabyssal kimberlites, to tuffisitic
kimberlite breccias (TKB) formed in steep-
sided funnel- or carrot-shaped pipes. Their
Fig. 14.9. (A) U-Pb age data measured by ion morphology ranges from dikes 500 m by 30 m
microprobe on perovskite from the Kuhmo K2L in size (Fig 14.11) to nearly circular diatremes
Seitaper locality. The spectrum of apparent ages up to 4 ha in size. None of the KaaviKuopio
is large, with the oldest intercept of 1230 Ma pipes appear to have crater-facies materials
being close to age determinations for K2L rocks extant, due to erosion of the upper portions
at Kostamuksha, Russian Karelia (Belyatsky et al.,
of the pipes.
1995). (B) and (C) U-Pb age data measured by
The hypabyssal facies rocks are hard and
ion probe on perovskite from two KaaviKuo-
pio Group I kimberlites. Although the age data compact, with dark gray to black matrices en-
do not overlap within error, an average of ~600 closing coarser minerals, particularly olivine,
Ma is taken as the time of intrusion for the and crustal and mantle xenoliths (see Section
KaaviKuopio kimberlites because of the strong 5.1). Pipe 1 (Figure 14.12A) may represent
geochemical coherency of the entire group. the deepest exposure of root zone material
because of its well-developed segregationary
50 km
Fig. 14.10. Location map of the kimberlites discovered in the Kaavi (eastern) and Kuopio (western)
clusters on an aeromagnetic background by Maija Kurimo using Geological Survey of Finland (GTK)
databases.
texture, which in some samples, particularly are surrounded by serpentine- and carbonate-
near the edge of the intrusion, develops into rich matrix material. Juvenile magmaclasts
globular segregations in which late crystalliz- are also common. The content of crustal
ing serpentine and calcite form irregular pools material incorporated into the diatreme dur-
in a more uniform silicate matrix. A more typi- ing formation is large (Figure 14.12C), raising
cal hypabyssal kimberlite from KaaviKuopio silica contents from original levels of ~30
is shown in Figure 14.12B, and displays the wt.% to 44 wt.% SiO2 or more (OBrien and
classic suite of lithospheric mantle-derived Tyni, 1999).
xenocrysts: olivine (pseudomorphs), red Phenocryst and macrocryst olivine com-
pyrope, gray magnesian ilmenite, and bright positions from the KaaviKuopio kimberlites
green chromian diopside. show either a restricted compositional range,
The diatreme facies rocks are much less Fo9287, or are bimodal, with a similar Fo9389
well indurated and span the color spectrum population and an additional Fo8683 popula-
from green to gray to brown to dark red. Di- tion representing megacryst-suite olivines.
agnostic textures of the diatremes facies rock Monticellite, mostly from 10 m to 50 m
types include rounded pelletal lapilli in which in size, is common in Pipe 1, rare in Pipe 14,
kernels of small crustal xenoliths or mineral found only as inclusions in mica and titanite
grains, particulary olivine (pseudomorphs), in Pipe 10 and absent from the remaining less
1.
trend 1 zoning (Mitchell, 1986). An amor-
3. phous serpentine-like mineral that proves to
be an alteration product of titanium-bearing,
nearly chrome-free pleonaste spinel typically
4. 2. 5.
surrounds these cores; the pleonaste has only
rarely been found intact. The succeeding man-
tle of magnesian ulvspinel (MUM) is nearly
unzoned and is uniformly surrounded by a
thin outer rim of magnetite. Abundant apatite
9.
occurs as acicular grains commonly in radiat-
ing stellate clusters in the groundmass and as
10.
larger more prismatic grains grown primarily
6.
within calcite segregations. They are relatively
14. Si-rich (0.71.1 wt.% SiO2) and Sr-poor (<1
wt.% SrO), characteristic of Group I kimber-
lite apatite (Mitchell, 1995a). The majority of
23.
100 m
the perovskite occurs as euhedral to subhedral
discrete grains (rarely as aggregates) that are
0.02 mm to 0.1 mm across. Although only
Fig. 14.11. Shapes and relative sizes of Kaavi limited data exist, the perovskites appear to be
Kuopio kimberlite intrusions. Dark green rep- typical of Group I kimberlites (op. cit.) with
resents pipes that are wholly or predominantly ~1.3 wt.% FeO, 1.5 wt.% Nb2O5 and 0.10.3
hypabyssal kimberlite and light green represents wt.% SrO.
those that are predominantly tuffisitic kimberlite
Mantle xenocrysts from these kimberlites
breccia, presumably formed in a similar fashion
to the classic kimberlites from South Africa.
include: (1) Mg-ilmenite that shows complex
Updated from OBrien and Tyni (1999). zoning and resorption features suggesting ex-
tensive magma mixing (see OBrien and Tyni,
1999); (2) Pyrope garnet derived from a range
of sources including high Cr, Ca-depleted harz-
pristine pipes. Ba-rich mica (kinoshitalite) burgite to Ca-saturated lherzolite and Ca-rich
occurs in the groundmass of virtually all of wehrlite, to Ti-rich, megacryst-compositions,
the KaaviKuopio kimberlite samples. Its and at lower MgO and higher CaO contents,
abundance ranges from very sparse as in orange garnets derived from mantle eclogite
Pipe 9, to as much as 10% of the matrix, as in (see Section 5.2 and Lehtonen et al. 2004); (3)
Pipe 10. Relative to the kinoshitalite micas Clinopyroxene comprising lherzolitic, low-
reported from the Iron Mt. kimberlite (Mitch- Cr megacrystic, and eclogitic subgroups; (4)
ell, 1995), these examples range to extremely Spinels from upper mantle spinel lherzolites
Ba-rich compositions (up to 17.8 wt.% BaO), and rare chromites plotting within the diamond
especially those from Pipe 1. They also contain inclusion field.
a large amount of fluorine. Spinel is common
in all of these kimberlites, although the most 2.7. Devonian Sokli carbonatite complex
spectacular examples are the atoll structures
from Pipes 1, 2, 3, and 5 (Figure 14.12D). The Sokli carbonatite complex (Figure 14.1)
In thin section the translucent dark red cores was discovered in Finnish Lapland in 1967
of titanian aluminous magnesian chromite when Rautaruukki Oy was prospecting for
(TIMAC) show typical kimberlite magmatic iron ore in the area of Finland nearest to the
A B C
D E
Fig. 14.12. Images of representative KaaviKuopio kimberlites. (A) Sawn surface of hypabyssal kimber-
lite (Malmikaivos Oy, Prospect no. 1; Koskenniemi). Rounded olivine macrocryst have been resorbed
and abraded as peridotite xenoliths were disaggregated during rapid kimberlite magma ascent from
mantle depths. Width of picture corresponds to 3 cm. (B) Hypabyssal kimberlite containing abundant
indicator minerals (Malmikaivos Oy, Prospect no. 10; Ryn). The rounded indicator minerals are
chrome-rich red pyrope, green diopside, and steel-gray magnesian ilmenite. In addition, the sample
contains two generations of altered olivine grains. Mantle xenocryst compositions demonstrate that
some sampling occurred at depths greater than 150 km, where diamond is a stable form of carbon,
Table 14.2.
Petrographic features of the magmatic carbonates at Sokli.
Magmatic Rock type Typical minerals Texture

phase
I Phoscorite Olivine, phlogopite, Massive, coarse-

magnetite, calcite, grained
apatite, U-Ta-pyro-
chlore, baddeleyite
II Calcitic Calcite, phlogopite, Massive, medium-

carbonatite olivine, magnetite, or coarse-
U-pyrochlore, badde- grained
leyite
III* Altered Tetraferriphlogopite, Massive, medium-

phoscorite clinohumite, richterite, or coarse-
iddingsite, olivine, grained
magnetite, apatite,
sulfides, Th-pyro-
chlore, zircon
IV Calcitic and Dolomite, calcite, Orientated,

dolomitic tetraferriphlogopite, banded, fine-
carbonatite richterite, apatite, or medium-
pyrrhotite, Th-pyro- grained
chlore, zircon
V Dolomitic Dolomite, barytocal- Massive, partly

late dikes cite, sulfides, hema- amygdaloidal,
tite, ancylite medium- or
coarse-grained
* = pneumatolytic-hydrothermal phase
and the sample is diamond-bearing. Width of image corresponds to 3 cm. (C) Sawn slab of tuffisitic
kimberlite (Malmikaivos Oy, Prospect no. 14; Kaatronlampi). The pale and green xenoliths derive
from the crust and consist principally of quartz and feldspar. The angularity of the crustal xenoliths
is a function of relatively short transport distances within the kimberlite compared to the peridotite
detritus in (A) and (B) above. The prospect contains microdiamonds. Width of image corresponds
to 3 cm. Photos (A) through (C) by Helena Saarinen. (D) Backscattered electron image (BEI) from
sample in (a) showing atoll spinels. In these examples, as in virtually all such grains, the middle zone
of pleonaste spinel between the chromite core (only visible in one grain) and the MUM mantle, has
been replaced by serpentine. Width of field is 460 m. (E) Backscattered electron image (BEI) from
sample in (C) showing final stages of kimberlite crystallization. Laths of Ba-rich phlogopite (kinoshi-
talite) are growing across boundaries of final stage matrix minerals calcite (angular patches) and
serpentine (dark green). Width of field is 460 m.
U(ppm)
C D
K(%) Th(ppm)
A
F
1
U ppm
Magmatic
2
core
Weathered 3
cap
4
6
km
G
Th ppm
Metasomatic carbonatite
Metasomatites Phosphorus ore

Fenite Carbonatite core and
transgressive dikes
Russian Kovdor alkaline complex. When the fourth carbonatite phases are dominant. The
dimensions of Sokli became apparent (total most curious group of rocks is formed by the
area ~20 km2), and its ore potential was ap- late stage 5 carbonatite dikes (Vartiainen and
preciated, a comprehensive study of the com- Vitikka, 1993), which with further mineralogi-
plex was undertaken (Vartiainen and Paarma, cal study will undoubtedly add to the list of
1979). After over 20 years of investigation, minerals recognized from the complex.
the Sokli complex is one of the better-known Metasomatic carbonatites formed as a
carbonatite complexes of the world. result of carbonitization of pyroxenites and
The Sokli complex consists of a concen- coarse-grained magnetite olivinites, the old-
trically zoned, funnel-shaped plutonic body est rocks of the complex. The slightly carbo-
(Figure 14.13) as indicated by deep seismic nitized variants are massive, the more strongly
soundings (Paarma et al., 1981). The young- replaced ones generally banded. Metasomatic
est part of the intrusion, the plug-like central silicate rocks formed from the ultramafic rocks
magmatic core, is 2.5 km wide at the surface of the original intrusion through complex
and 1 km wide at 5 km depth. This core is sur- replacement and substitution processes in a
rounded by a nearly continuous ring of slightly manner that at its extreme resulted in almost
older, metasomatically affected carbonatites, pure phlogopite rock. As intermediate prod-
followed outwards by a zone of metasomatized ucts, there are host rock types containing
ultramafic silicate rocks and an unusually wide variable amounts of amphibole, aegirine and
fenite halo (up to 1 km wide). phlogopite as major minerals.
Petrographic features of the central mag- Fenites surrounding the carbonatitebio-
matic core carbonatites at Sokli are summa- titite central core developed by Na metaso-
rized in Table 14.2 and examples are shown in matism of the surrounding granite gneiss,
Figure 14.14. Gradational contacts have been amphibolite, and hornblende schist. The Sokli
documented from both drill core and exposed fenite halo is developed up to 3 km from the
rock outcrops. The magmatic carbonatites carbonatite core, and is manifested by the
were intruded in five major phases (Table development of alkali feldspar, pyroxene (aegi-
14.2). The rocks of each phase can be differ- rine and aegirine-augite), alkali amphibole
entiated using petrographic, mineralogical, (arfvedsonite and eckermannite) and phlogo-
and compositional criteria. The second and pite giving the rock a greenish cast (Vartiainen
Fig. 14.13. (facing page) (A) Schematic cross-section through the Sokli carbonatite complex show-
ing the fenite zone (salmon), the metasomatic silicate rocks (green), the metasomatic carbonatites
(peach), and the youngest magmatic carbonatite pulse (orange) with associated transgressive dikes.
Phosphorus ore is shown in yellow. (B) Bouguer gravity anomaly map of the Sokli carbonatite and
nearby Tulppio olivinite ultramafic body to the southwest (Vartiainen, 1980). Data from 118 grav-
ity stations were used by Seppo Elo of GTK to produce this image. (C) Aeromagnetic map of Sokli
showing the obvious ring structure. (D) through (G) Ternary color image, K, equivalent U and equiva-
lent Th radiometric maps of the Sokli complex area. The ternary image and the Th anomaly outline
the area of the complex extremely well while K (intense phlogopite metasomatism) is concentrated
in the NE sector of the intrusion. The U anomaly covers the area of the latest magmatic pulse, and
along with Th, shows a plume in the down-ice direction (SE) probably representing carbonatite mate-
rial transported by the last glaciation. Images (C) through (G) by Meri-Liisa Airo. All geophysical data
are from GTK databases except gravity, which was supplied by the Finnish Geodetic Institute.
A B
C D
Fig. 14.14. Photomicrographs of Sokli carbonatites. (A) Calcite-tetraferriphlogopite-apatite rock from
magmatic pulse, plane-polarized light; (B) Same as (A), polars crossed; (C) Calcite-apatite-olivine-mag-
netite-pyrochlore rock from magmatic pulse. Plane-polarized light; (D) Same as (C), polars crossed.
Width of field in all four images is 6.85 mm.
and Woolley, 1976). Levels of fenitization the associated regolithic phosphorus ore have
increase towards the carbonatite intrusion survived the erosional action of the continental
and in the zone of most intense fenitization ice sheet rather well.
proximal to the intrusion, K metasomatism The phosphorus ore developed from the
is dominant, forming extensive phlogopitite carbonatite and underwent complex weather-
and phlogopite-alkali amphibole rocks (Figure ing, leaching, recrystallization, and lithifi-
14.13E). cation processes (Nuutilainen, 1973) driven
All of the Sokli area is covered by weath- by the prevailing tropical climatic conditions
ered bedrock of variable thickness. The most (Finland lay on the equator ~400 Ma ago). The
important mineralogical changes associated end product is a reddish brown layer, averag-
with weathering are the partial dissolution of ing 26 m in thickness, which varies from solid
carbonates, local replacement of phlogopite rock to a soil in which the carbonate has been
vermiculite, intense alteration of olivine, totally dissolved. Apatite, magnetite, hydrated
partial replacement of magnetite by hematite mica, and patchy pyrochlore occur as restite
(martitization), alteration of pyrochlore and minerals. Recrystallized phases include fran-
the total removal of sulfides. As Sokli lies colite (carbonate-fluorapatite), goethite, and
within the continental ice-divide and within manganese oxides (Vartiainen et al., 1990).
a topographic low, its weathered crust and Owing to this process the P2O5 values have
363 Ma, proving that it is a member of the
Devonian Kola alkaline province (Kramm et
al., 1993).
2.8. Devonian Sokli ultramafic

lamprophyre dikes
Associated with many ultramafic alkaline

complexes are ultramafic, phlogopite-rich,
A olivine- and carbonate-bearing dikes that are
termed ultramafic lamprophyre. They typically
have low silica contents and experimental evi-
dence suggests that they represent very small
partial melts of carbonated peridotite source
rocks that compositionally can be gradational
to Group I kimberlite (Dalton and Presnall,
1998). The best-known Fennoscandian ultra-
mafic lamprophyre complex is the 560 Ma
Aln intrusion and peripheral diatreme pipes
in eastern Sweden (Kresten, 1990). In some
examples, such as West Greenland (Mitchell
et al., 1999) ultramafic lamprophyres have
been derived from sufficiently deep sources
B
to carry xenocrysts of lithospheric mantle
Fig. 14.15. (A) Sawn slab of Sokli ultramafic lam- material including chromian pyrope, chromian
prophyre dike showing abundant obvious steel
diopside, and diamond.
gray magnetite, dark gray olivine, very dark gray
Everywhere within the Sokli complex,
to black phlogopite, and reddish-brown altera-
tion product of olivine. Sample height is 3 cm. (B) and also up to several km away from it, ultra-
Photomicrograph taken from the corresponding mafic lamprophyre dikes are found. They are
thin-section of the same rock. Olivine is mostly generally dark rocks varying from reddish to
fresh, but approximately 20% has been converted greenish gray, occur as swarms with different
to alteration minerals, in this case predominantly orientations and, according to drilling results,
iddingsite. The phlogopite shows systematic average about a half meter in thickness. Var-
zoning from a cloudy core, to clear subhedral tiainen et al. (1978) divided the dikes into
mantles, to very late discontinuous tetrafer- four subgroups based on texture: porphyritic,
riphlogopite rims (see large grain middle right). xenolithic (= autolithic), massive, and mica-
Calcite was late to crystallize, but abundant. The rich. The last two groups dominate, while
remaining minerals include magnetite, apatite,
the first two groups occur mainly within the
and richterite. Plane-polarized light, width of field
fenite zone and the bedrock area outside of
is 5.0 mm.
the carbonatite proper. A typical example of
a Sokli ultramafic lamprophyre is shown in
been elevated from the original 45% to up Figure 14.15.
to 30%. The mineral composition of the Sokli
Rb-Sr dating of five Sokli samples, using lamprophyres varies considerably. In the por-
biotite, carbonate, apatite, and whole rocks, phyritic group, the proportion of phenocrysts
give ages for Sokli ranging from 368 Ma to varies between 27% and 37%. Typically,
olivine is strongly altered and is absent from derived from the intrusion and from the nu-
the groundmass. The groundmass is very merous dikes injected into the country rocks.
fine-grained (~0.1 mm) and crystallized in Progressive metasomatic effects are seen as
the order opaques, phlogopite/calcite, and a change from typical granodiorite minerals
richterite. Rock fragments in the xenolithic to those having turbid feldspars and biotite
variety within the carbonatite complex are reacting to aegirine to rocks with coarser grain
autoliths, i.e., they derive from the rocks of size, nearly all biotite replaced by aegirine
the complex itself and include phoscorite, and the incipient development of albite. In
carbonatite, and fenite. the aegirine syenite stage, all quartz has been
According to their chemical compositions consumed, the feldspar is microperthitic, and
(Table 14.3), the Sokli rocks are ultramafic biotite is absent. Calcite may be abundant, and
lamprophyres in the classification of Rock et wollastonite becomes apparent. Accessory
al. (1991) and their mineralogy is consistent minerals include titanite, apatite, cancrinite,
with this categorization (Table 14.1). Minerals and fluorite. The final stages of fenitization
characteristic of kimberlite are lacking from produces a cancrinite syenite in which neph-
the lamprophyres at Sokli and additionally eline appears.
they contain richterite, which does not occur Near the summit of Iivaara, within a few
in kimberlites. Ti-rich garnet and phenocrys- dozen meters of the main intrusion, a zone
tic diopside, generally typical of ultramafic of mixed rocks occur, in which the cancrinite
lamprophyres, are apparently absent. A heavy syenitic fenite is brecciated by cancrinite-
mineral study of the esker covering the Sokli nepheline-wollastonite rocks. In other parts
complex established that this material does of the transition zone, a dark, fine-grained py-
not contain critical minerals indicative of roxene-amphibole-plagioclase rock exists, al-
diamond-bearing kimberlites (Perttunen and though the generally poor exposure makes the
Vartiainen, 1992). absolute position of this unit uncertain. Mafic
minerals comprise >70% of the rock, and show
2.9. Devonian Iivaara alkaline complex large modal variations among hornblende,
aegirine-augite, and biotite. Plagioclase is
One of the many alkaline complexes associ- approximately An45 in composition.
ated with the Devonian Kola alkaline province, The entire central area of the Iivaara
the 373363 Ma (Doig, 1970; Kramm et al., complex consists of nepheline-clinopyroxene
1993) Iivaara intrusion was one of the first rocks, urtite (nepheline > 70 modal %), ijolite
in this province to be well studied (Ramsay (nepheline 3070 modal %), and melteigite
and Berghell, 1891; Hackman, 1900) and (nepheline <30 modal %). Nowhere in the
became the type locality for the alkaline rock central mass are there exposures of just one
type ijolite (see below). Oval in shape and of these rock types. Modal variations are large
covering 8.8 km2, the intrusion is relatively on a small scale, but Lehijrvi (1960) sug-
poorly exposed, and despite the existence of gested that in general ijolite is the dominant
nine diamond drill holes the structure and rock type, while melteigite is more abundant
mutual relationships of the various rock types near the margins of the central mass on the
is inadequately known. northwestern slope of Iivaara, and urtite is
The intrusion at Iivaara can be divided concentrated near the summit. Cross-cutting
into three main zones: an outer fenite zone, dikes of modally and texturally different ijo-
transitional rocks, and the main central mass lite series rocks are ubiquitous, and it is clear
of alkali rocks (Figure 14.16). Fenite formed that many pulses of magma were injected to
as a result of the effusion of Na-rich fluids form the central alkaline mass, negating any
A B
Iivaara
Pieni-Ntlampi
Iso-Ntlampi Area enlarged

at left
Ahvenjrvi
Ahvenvaara
Penikkavaara
Ijoliteurtite 248
Melteigiteijoliteurtite 54
Microijolite and melteigite -123
1 km -358
Fenite and hybrid rock
nT
Fig. 14.16. Geological map and aeromagnetic image of the Iivaara complex. (A) The geological map of
the intrusion is very schematic as exposure is poor, and the rock types are highly mixed. (B) Aero-
magnetic map over the Iivaara complex showing the obvious nearly circular structure of the complex.
Aeromagnetic image by Meri-Liisa Airo using Geological Survey of Finland databases.
simple models of intrusion and subsequent hydroxylapatite represents about 3 modal %

differentiation. of the ijolites whereas titanite is concentrated
Mineralogically the rocks of the central in the melteigites. Other minerals that occur
mass are relatively straightforward (Figure sparsely in the central alkaline mass, and/or
14.17). All contain aegirine-augite, which is in the surrounding fenites include hornblende,
typically zoned with higher Na and Fe contents biotite, natrolite, sodalite, analcime, and
toward their rims. Although nepheline ranges pectolite.
from gray to faintly reddish, it appears to have
a very consistent composition throughout the
intrusion with ~16 wt.% Na2O and ~6 wt.% 3. Geochemistry of kimberlites,
K2O. Cancrinite is a common accessory min- carbonatites, and alkaline rocks
eral and is predominantly CO2-rich although
some sulphatic cancrinite also occurs. Schor- Although the range in composition of the
lomite (originally called iivaarite from this undersaturated alkaline rocks and carbon-
locality) commonly occurs in the ijolites and atites in Finland is large (Table 14.3), several
melteigites and crystals in late stage veins may important characteristics and inferences about
show spectacular growth zoning in thin sec- their sources tie this extremely varied group of
tion (Lehijrvi, 1960; Figure 14.17D). Fluor- rocks together: (1) They all represent low melt
A B
C D
Fig. 14.17. Photomicrographs of Iivaara rocks from drill core samples. (A) Ijolite displaying aegirine-
augite and fresh nepheline with inclusions of apatite and aegirine-augite. Plane polarized light, width
of field is 6.5 mm. (B) Well-developed sector zoning is visible in brown-gray aegirine-augite grain at
bottom right. Same view as (A), polars crossed. (C) Melteigite composed almost entirely of aegirine-
augite with magnetite and melanite garnet filling the angular spaces between aegirine-augite grains.
Well-developed sector zoning is displayed by one of the melanite grains (lower right). Plane polarized
light, width of field is 6.5 mm. (D) Same as (C), crossed polars.
fraction, small volume melts formed preferen- (e.g., ultramafic lamprophyres), but the more
tially from the melting of minor, more easily intermediate lamprophyre types, such as the
fused mantle minerals, e.g., phlogopite; (2) minettes, typically have only a small CO2
They are all formed from volatile-rich mag- component, and are instead water-dominated
mas. Carbonatites represent one end-member (Rock et al., 1991); (3) As a consequence of
of this spectrum and in their extreme comprise the high volatile content and the relatively
pure carbonate magmas. Group I kimberlites depolymerized nature of the resulting melts,
represent another end-member of extremely all of the magmas discussed here have very
volatile-rich magmas, with perhaps up to 25 low viscosities. This enables such small
wt.% volatiles of CO2 H2O mixtures (Price et volume melts to traverse thick lithosphere
al., 2000). The lamprophyres may also contain without undergoing thermal death and in
a significant C-bearing volatile component many cases their ascent to the surface may
Table 14.3.
Representative analyses of carbonatites and undersaturated alkaline rocks in Finland.
Rock Type Siilinjrvi Halpanen Sokli Iivaara Sokli Niini- Kuhmo Kaavi
lampi Group II Kuopio
Group I
Glimmerite Silicocar- Carbona- Carbona- Phosco- Ijolite UML CAL Kimber- Kimber-
bonatite tite tite rite lite lite
SiO2 40.76 14.97 1.59 0.62 16.1 46.15 27.00 43.40 42.95 32.88
TiO2 0.30 0.12 0.02 <0.01 1.3 0.38 2.30 1.98 3.24 2.33
Al2O3 10.13 1.70 0.10 0.01 2.3 15.70 2.00 12.71 4.01 5.27
Fe2O3 5.00 0.59 0.70 0.39 19.9 6.59 14.10 7.55 9.93 11.99
FeO 3.13 0.09 9.0
MnO 0.29 0.01 0.09 0.15 0.3 0.18 0.37 0.34 0.14 0.26
MgO 24.58 5.84 2.62 0.34 15.2 5.52 20.70 8.64 21.68 24.08
CaO 0.92 36.65 50.95 53.48 16.2 14.16 13.20 9.67 5.44 10.29
BaO 0.07 0.63 0.06 0.14 0.13
SrO 0.47 1.07 0.17 0.06 0.09
Na2O 0.30 0.81 1.42 <0.05 7.24 1.20 3.06 0.40 0.09
K2O 10.20 3.61 1.20 <0.01 2.9 2.61 2.20 4.66 5.73 0.75
P2O5 0.75 24.80 0.35 0.54 7.4 0.77 2.50 3.44 0.12 0.71
F 0.67 1.48 0.55
Cl 0.04 0.03
S 0.19 3.8 0.66 0.27 0.25 0.06
CO2 1.30 41.00 42.51 8.1 9.50 2.56 1.35 1.32
H2O 2.29 0.21 0.93 3.20 0.95 4.71 9.49
99.95 100.42 100.26 102.73 99.48 99.23 99.90 99.74
O=F;Cl;S 0.28 0.62 0.05 0.99 0.40 0.07 0.06 0.02
Total 99.67 99.80 100.27 100.21 101.74 100.23 99.08 99.16 99.96 99.72
Ref. Puustinen op.cit. op. cit. Puustinen Vartiainen Lehijrvi Vartiainen Hackman OBrien &
(1971) & Karhu (1980) (1960) et al. (1914) Tyni (1999) op. cit.
(1999) (1978 )
be facilitated by migration along pre-existing ern kimberlites and the Karpinskiy lamproite
veins and fractures; (4) The three proceeding (Mahotkin, 2000). At slightly lower overall
characteristics necessarily produce a fourth. enrichment levels, and with concave rather
All of these magmas inherit incompatible than sigmoidal patterns, the KaaviKuopio
element-rich compositions, in some cases kimberlites REE patterns are fairly typical
dominantly from their source regions, and in of Group I kimberlites in terms of concentra-
others dominantly by reacting with veins in tion levels, but do not have the commonly
the lithospheric mantle as they traverse ancient seen linear Group I kimberlite REE patterns
metasomatized lithospheric mantle. (Mitchell, 1986). The Finnish carbonatites
The incompatible element-rich nature of are LREE enriched, with nearly linear pat-
these magmas is clearly shown in a chondrite- terns, and have uniformly higher Yb and Lu
normalized REE plot (Figure 14.18). All of concentrations than in the silicate dominated
the magmas discussed here show moderate rocks. The latter observation is probably due to
to extreme enrichments in the light rare earth a lesser role for garnet in the carbonatite melt-
elements (LREE) relative to typical basalts. In ing reactions. The Lakes District lamprophyres
detail the Kuhmo K2L dike rock is extremely show surprisingly strong LREE enrichments
LREE enriched, displays a sigmoidal REE pat- to levels well above what is typical for calc-
tern and has relatively low Yb and Lu, which alkaline and alkaline lamprophyres (Rock et
are all characteristics of the Arkhangelsk east- al., 1991), even up to the levels of the Kuhmo
104
Sokli UML
Siilinjrvi carbonatite
Kuhmo K2L
Lakes District lamprophyre
Sokli carbonatite
103 Iivaara ijolite
LaivajokiKortejrvi carbonatites
KaaviKuopio kimberlites
Sample/Chondrite
102
101
100
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb Lu
Fig. 14.18. Chondrite-normalized REE abundances for selected kimberlites, carbonatites, and under-
saturated alkaline rocks. All of the rocks plotted show strong LREE enrichment and overall high levels
of incompatible elements except the Iivaara ijolite, which is only moderately LREE enriched. Data
sources: IivaaraLaajoki and Makkonen (1994), Laivajoki and KortejrviNyknen et al. (1997), Sokli
and Siilinjrvi carbonatitesHornig-Kjarsgaard (1998), Sokli ultramafic lamprophyresVartianen et al.
(1978), Lakes District lamprophyreLaukkanen (1983), Kuhmo and KaaviKuopio kimberlitesOBrien
and Tyni (1999). Normalization values from Boynton (1984).
K2L dike rock. Even more extreme values lamproite enrichment. As would be expected,
are registered in the more evolved minettes, the KaaviKuopio kimberlites show a Group
but as crystal fractionation has played a role I kimberlite enrichment, although more in
in this enrichment, they have not been plotted the direction of the Aries (Western Australia)
in Figure 14.18. In contrast, the Iivaara ijolite, and Koidu (western Africa) kimberlite mantle
related as it is to incompatible element-rich sources than that which characterizes South
nephelinite magmas, shows only moderate African kimberlites (Taylor et al., 1994). Also
LREE enrichment. plotted is the Zr-Nb correlation line for pris-
A Nb-Zr diagram (Figure 14.19) helps to tine hypabyssal kimberlite samples from the
distinguish two principal types of trace element Jericho kimberlite in the Northwest Territories
enrichment patterns characteristic of this suite of Canada (Price et al., 2000). Note that the
of rocks, the kimberlite trend and the lamproite KaaviKuopio kimberlite analyses plot almost
trend. Lamproites typically have Zr well in directly on this line, which is believed to repre-
excess of Nb, and interestingly, the Lakes sent dilution of the highest Nb-Zr contents by
District lamprophyre plots in the direction of the addition of mantle debris represented by an
600
500 Alkaline rocks
KaaviKuopio kimberlites
Aries Kuhmo K2L
400 Sokli UML
Koidu
KortejrviLaivajoki carbonatite
S. Africa Group I kimberlite Lakes District lamprophyre
Nb (ppm)
Jericho
200 Olivine lamproites

W. Kimberley
leucite lamproites
100
S. Africa Group II
kimberlite
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 1600 1800
Zr (ppm)
Fig. 14.19. Zr vs. Nb covariation plot for selected samples. Note that most of the rocks plot in the
kimberlitic enrichment trend, with only the lamprophyres from the Lakes District showing substan-
tially higher Zr/Nb ratios. The KaaviKuopio kimberlites plot almost exactly along the line of pristine
kimberlite melts from Jericho (Price et al., 2000). Data sources as in Figure 14.18.
increase in the content of olivine macrocrysts. subcontinental lithospheric mantle, which in

A similar interpretation can be made for the Finland is represented by the Archean Karelian
KaaviKuopio kimberlites with the highest Nb craton, to those derived from the underlying
and Zr contents occurring in Pipe 1, the most asthenosphere. After much debate and the
massive hypabyssal kimberlite example from accumulation of a large body of data, it is
Finland (Figure 14.19). A similar kimberlitic still unclear what is the main mantle source
enrichment trend, although at slightly higher for many of these magmas. However, radio-
Zr values, is displayed by the K2L rocks from genic and stable isotopes provide a means
Kuhmo (Figure 14.19). to determine whether a particular magma is
mostly derived from asthenospheric sources or
contains a major contribution from old, aged,
4. Isotope composition of kim- veined lithospheric mantle.
berlites, carbonatites, and alkaline Plotted in Figure 14.20 are the Sr and Nd
rocks isotope compositions of the rocks discussed
here from Finland for which there are data,
Mantle sources for kimberlites, carbonatites, along with selected reference groups. The data
and alkaline rocks can vary from dominantly for the Group I kimberlites from KaaviKuo-
Sokli
Other KAP carbonatites
+5 Yo S. African
Ca ung Group I Kimberlite
rbo
nat
ites Arkhangelsk
0
Kaavi
S. African
Kuopio
transitional
Group I
-5 Arkhangelsk
Nd
Tres
Rancho
Kostamuksha
(Brazil)
-10 Kuhmo
K2L S. African
Group II (Kimberlite)
-15 Iivaara
-20
0.702 0.704 0.706 0.708 0.710

87
Sr/86Sr
Fig. 14.20. Plot of initial 87Sr/86Sr vs. Nd for selected kimberlites, carbonatites, and undersaturated
alkaline rocks.Young carbonatite box includes data from all carbonatites <200 Ma. Data from Sokli
and other Kola alkaline province (KAP) carbonatites plot within or very near this box. Preliminary
Nd isotope data from Siilinjrvi and LaivajokiKortejrvi also plot within the same range (Karhu et al.,
2001) but Sr isotope data are still lacking. Data sources include Smith (1983), Harmer (1999), Mahot-
kin et al. (2000), Kramm (1993, 1994), and Belyatsky et al. (1995).
pio have been recalculated from OBrien and asthenosphere-like mantle. Either way, Group
Tyni (1999) to the correct age of 600 Ma. I kimberlites do not directly provide informa-
Recalculating using these older ages has tion on the isolated aged roots of cratons they
significantly reduced the spread in the Sr-Nd transect except through the xenoliths and
isotope field for the kimberlites. In terms of xenocrysts they contain (see below).
Nd and Sr isotopes, the Finnish kimberlites Group II kimberlites and related olivine
are typical of Group I kimberlite composi- lamproites, however, have Sr-Nd isotopic
tions worldwide. This worldwide uniformity compositions that reflect long-term storage of
(Smith, 1983) strongly suggests that the source Rb- and LREE-enriched mantle rocks separate
of Group I kimberlite is either well-mixed from the asthenosphere (Figure 10.20). In ad-
mantle, i.e., asthenosphere, or lithospheric dition to the compositional and mineralogical
mantle that has been converted physically by similarities of the K2L rocks from Kuhmo and
heating and chemically by melt infiltration into Kostamuksha, and some of the diamondifer-
ous rocks from Arkhangelsk, there is also a present day carbonatites (Figure 14.20). Sr and
similarity in terms of isotope composition Nd isotope compositions of the Siilinjrvi car-
(Figure 14.20). However, as mentioned above, bonatite are near bulk earth both for Nd (Karhu
the Kuhmo and Kostamuksha dikes and pipes et al., 2001) and Sr (Sr ~0 based on 87Sr/86Srmeas.
are considerably older, ~1230 Ma (Figure = 0.701423 7 for a calcite separate with very
14.9) vs. 365 Ma (Sablukov, 1984). The en- low Rb and a 2.6 Ga age; Hugh E. OBrien,
riched isotope signatures of the Kuhmo and unpublished data). Laivajoki and Kortejrvi
Arkhangelsk rocks indicate that the Karelian have a more depleted Nd isotope composition
subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) with initial Nd values of +1 to +3 (Sr data are
contains veins of mica and amphibole, along lacking). Finally, Sokli has Sr and Nd isotope
with trace minerals that over time have devel- compositions suggesting a source with the
oped extreme isotope compositions. In fact it lowest Rb/Sr and most LREE-depleted of the
is apparent that a strongly enriched Karelian three carbonatites with initial Sr of 15 and
craton SCLM already existed by 3.1 Ga (Pel- Nd of +6 to +7 (Kramm, 1993). These values
tonen et al., 2003). Sublithospheric magmas are very close to those of other carbonatites
were either contaminated by material from from the Kola alkaline province (Kramm,
these veins to produce the isotope signatures 1993) and the KaaviKuopio Group I kimber-
by mixing (e.g., OBrien et al., 1995) or these lites described earlier (Figure 14.20).
magmas represent direct melts from metaso- Because of the low abundance of C in the
matized Karelian craton SCLM (e.g., Foley mantle, the volume of the source rock/melt
et al., 1999). required to generate carbonatite melt may be
Most carbonatites have similar, although 100010,000 times higher than the volume of
not exactly the same, Sr-Nd isotope composi- the carbonatite itself. Therefore, carbonatites
tions as Group I kimberlites (Figure 14.20), (and carbonate-bearing kimberlites) can be
and the straightforward interpretation is that expected to give a good estimate of the average
they both originate in the well-mixed astheno- C isotope composition of their ultimate mantle
spheric mantle. However, experiments on source. The KaaviKuopio kimberlites contain
melting of carbonated peridotite indicate that 1015% calcite, generally present as fine-
most carbonatites should be produced at the grained disseminations in the groundmass.
solidus inflection at a depth of around 100 km, Isotope compositions of C from four separate
well within the lithospheric mantle (Wyllie pipes give 13C values ranging from 2.2 to
and Lee, 1999). To resolve this dilemma it has 4.6 (PDB), with an average value of 3.5
been proposed that the asthenospheric isotope (Peltonen et al., 2000). Surprisingly, carbon-
signatures result from multiple episodes of atite intrusions from the Karelian domain have
invasion and freezing of carbonatite melts 13C values in the same range, irrespective
in the lithospheric mantle, rapidly building of the age of the intrusion. Carbonates from
zones of carbonated wehrlite. Melting of these the Archean Siilinjrvi carbonatite complex
modified zones can then produce carbonatites range from 3.1 to 4.5 (n = 8; Karhu
at 100 km depth with asthenospheric isotope et al., 2001), the Proterozoic Laivajoki and
compositions (Harmer, 1999). However, this Kortejrvi carbonatites from 3.6 to 4.9
process cannot take 100s of million of years (n = 8; Nyknen et al., 1997) and the Devonian
otherwise the isotope signatures would indi- Sokli carbonatite from 2.7 to 4.1 (n =
cate an aged enrichment. 10; op. cit.). Accordingly, no significant differ-
The three Finnish carbonatites for which ences in 13C signature can be shown to exist
there are isotope data, despite their wide range among the various carbonatite intrusions nor
in ages, all plot within the isotope space of between carbonatites and the kimberlite pipes.
Worldwide carbonatite complexes show only isotope dating has documented the close cor-
slightly more variation in their 13C values relation between the ages of the stabilization
with 91% of all carbonatites having 13C val- of SCLM and formation of the overlying
ues between 8 and 2 (Deines, 1989). crust. In many shield areas (Kaapvaal, Sibe-
The most likely explanation for this uniformity ria, Wyoming, Tanzania) the crust and mantle
over several billions of years of kimberlite and have remained coupled for billions of years
carbonatite formation is that they are derived (Pearson, 1999).
from a uniform asthenospheric C reservoir. Detailed study of the SCLM is also crucial
This explanation is bolstered by the similarity for our understanding of crustal processes.
in Nd and Sr isotopes described above between This is because major modifications in the
Group I kimberlites and the carbonatites. SCLM, e.g., by thermal erosion of the base
The isotope composition of the Iivaara of the SCLM by plume activity, or tectonic
rocks (Figure 14.20) is very different from the processes, e.g., rifting may cause uplifting,
rest of the rocks in the Kola alkaline province magmatic activity or formation of world-class
showing strongly negative Nd from 9 to 19 mineral deposits in the crustal part of the litho-
and elevated initial Sr from 87Sr/86Sr = 0.70427 sphere. Until recently, lack of mantle samples
to 0.705752 (Figure 14.20). Kramm (1994) from the Fennoscandian lithospheric mantle
believed this is a result of extreme reaction has prevented the study of many fundamental
of the ijolite magmas with country rocks aspects of this section of the lithosphere. Dis-
and provides good evidence that the data lie covery of diamondiferous kimberlite pipes in
on a mixing curve between Kola carbonatite eastern Finland has substantially improved the
compositions and fenites that formed from the situation by providing us with mantle samples
surrounding Archean basement. (xenoliths) from depths between 100230 km
(Kukkonen and Peltonen, 1999).
5. The kimberlite mantle samples 5.1. Mantle xenoliths
Most Archean cratons are underlain by Three types of mantle xenoliths have been
anomalously thick (typically ~200 km), cold recovered from the KaaviKuopio kimberlites:
mantle keels generally distinguished by fast garnet-spinel peridotite, garnet peridotite,
and anisotropic seismic velocities, relative to and bimineralic eclogite, some of which are
the underlying asthenospheric mantle (e.g., highly diamondiferous. Garnet-spinel peri-
Polet and Anderson, 1995). Petrological stud- dotites, most of which originate from depths
ies of orogenic lherzolite massifs (exposed of ~100130 km, are all highly depleted,
lithospheric mantle sections within continen- fine-grained granuloblastic and equigranular
tal shear zones) and mantle xenolith suites harzburgites. They have a cryptic and modal
recovered from kimberlites and lamproites metasomatic overprint with the development
have implied that these keels consist of mantle of minor hydrous phases. The garnet perido-
peridotite depleted in basaltic constituents tites are compositionally and texturally distinct
such as Ca, Al, and Fe (Boyd and Mertzman, from the garnet-spinel peridotites: They are
1987). Recent studies have also demonstrated of deeper origin (170230 km) consisting
a secular evolution in the composition of the of coarse-grained harzburgites, lherzolites
subcontinental lithospheric mantle (SCLM) and wehrlites, all being texturally similar to
peridotites, which become less depleted from lithospheric mantle peridotites of other cratons
Archaean through Proterozoic to Phanerozoic such as Kaapvaal and Siberia. However, their
time (Griffin et al., 1999). Progress in Re-Os Nd and Sr isotope composition is not typical
Fig. 14.21. Diagram illustrating the possible configuration of the major lithospheric domains within
the central Fennoscandian Shield. The stabilization age of the upper SCLM is believed to broadly
coincide with the formation ages of the overlying crustal parts of the lithosphere. The middle part of
the SCLM has a distinct composition relative to the upper SCLM. Xenolith and xenocryst data show
that it is relatively coarse-grained and is composed of lherzolite, harzburgite, and minor wehrlite. The
lowermost lherzolite layer may represent asthenospheric melt-infiltrated Archean peridotite, but
even younger additions, related, for example, to the 1.88 Ga Svecofennian accretion event, the 1.6 Ga
rapakivi granite event, and even the 0.6 Ga kimberlite magmatism, remain a possibility. Location of the
KaaviKuopio kimberlites and the approximate locus of origin of the studied mantle xenoliths (white
stars) are indicated.
for Archean continental mantle, being more This is also clearly apparent in the composi-
akin to off-craton lithospheric peridotites (Pel- tions of xenocrystic garnet (see next section).
tonen et al., 1999). The eclogite xenoliths are The sketch illustrated in Figure 14.21 attempts
bimineralic Group I eclogites whose chemical to combine the xenolith data with what is cur-
and isotope compositions suggest that they rently known about the geodynamic evolution
represent mafic mantle cumulates rather than of the craton margin. The uppermost harzbur-
recycled ancient oceanic crust. Thermobaro- gitic part of the SCLM probably represents
metry indicates that they have been derived lithospheric mantle that was isolated from the
from depths comparable to the deepest garnet convecting mantle at the time of the formation
peridotites, and they are inferred to occur as of the overlying crust. The present geometry
highly diamondiferous thin layers or pods of the boundary between the Karelian and
within coarse-grained garnet peridotites (Pel- Svecofennian upper SCLM was determined
tonen et al., 2002). by the initial rifting of the craton ~2.0 Ga and
Probably the most important contribution by subsequent accretion of the Svecofennian
of the mantle xenolith study is that SCLM lithosphere onto the craton margin. This litho-
within the central Fennoscandian Shield is spheric boundary is likely to be almost verti-
compositionally and texturally heterogeneous. cal, because the deepest Archean peridotite
al., 2000; Peltonen and Mnttri, 2001). This
can be explained by a model in which a plume
impinged on the base of the 3.51.9 Ga old
lithosphere during the postorogenic stage re-
sulting in thermal erosion of the deepest part
of the pre-existing lithospheric mantle and its
replacement or strong refertilization by
asthenospheric melts originating from the 1.8
Ga plume head.
The xenolith data thus imply that the
SCLM beneath the Karelian craton margin
is at least 230 km thick (Kukkonen and Pel-
Fig. 14.22. Gem-quality xenocrysts from the tonen, 1999; Kukkonen et al., 2003). This is,
Lahtojoki kimberlite in Kaavi pipe cluster, however, a minimum estimate as the deepest
eastern Finland. The diamond octahedron is xenoliths originating from this level are still
unresorbed, plane-faced and 1.2 mm in diameter
typical coarse-grained lithospheric peridotites
(classified commercially as D-F,VS). Unresorbed
with no evidence for being in the vicinity
diamond crystals are rare (about 10% of the
diamonds) in the matrix material of the Kaavi of the lithosphereasthenosphere boundary.
kimberlites but common where still retained Although no sheared xenoliths are present
within xenoliths. The color of the garnets is in our sample suite, it is reasonable to assume
indicative of their chemical composition: tita- by inference with xenolith studies from other
nian pyrope (red), chromian pyrope (violet) and cratons that the coarse garnet peridotites are
eclogitic garnet (brown). The dissolution of gar- underlain by a layer of sheared peridotites
net and chromian diopside (green) to smooth with mylonitic textures. Traditionally, such
grains is the result of boiling in caustic solution sheared lithospheric peridotites have been
at the VTT mineral processing plant. The miner- considered to be of asthenospheric origin
als were hand-picked under a stereomicroscope (Nixon and Boyd 1973), but recent Re-Os
by Kari A. Kinnunen of GTK from the final heavy
isotope results have indicated that in most
mineral concentrate of crushed kimberlite ore.
cases they give ancient formation ages, and
Photo: Kari A. Kinnunen.
thus actually represent the lowermost parts
of the ancient cratonic roots which have been
xenoliths originate from depths of ~180 km infiltrated by asthenospheric melts (Pearson,
(Figure 14.21). 1999). Therefore, we can infer that the true
The lower lithospheric mantle is distinct in lithosphereasthenosphere boundary within
texture and composition from that of the up- the Karelian craton margin lies some tens of
per SCLM (Figure 14.21). As implied by the km beneath the maximum depth of 230 km
xenolith petrography and thermobarometry, indicated by xenolith thermobarometry.
the lower SCLM is composed of relatively
fertile, coarse-grained garnet peridotite with 5.2. Mantle xenocrysts
some diamondiferous eclogite layers. No
direct age determinations are available, but Mantle-derived xenocrysts (Figure 14.22)
U-Pb dating of kimberlitic and lower crustal represent a more complete sampling of the
zircons indicate that the formation of the mantle components entrained by kimberlite
lower lithospheric mantle and mafic lower by virtue of the very large number of single
crust and the emplacement of postorogenic grains relative to xenoliths found in kimberlite.
1.8 Ga granites can all be related (Hltt et Consequently xenocrysts data should provide
a more complete mantle section. The main 2003). Present data appear to show a thin
difficulty with using xenocrysts has been the melt-metasomatized layer at least a few tens
inability to assess pressures and temperatures of km thick at the very base of the Kuhmo area
of single grains and consequently they could mantle lithosphere, possibly corresponding
not be correctly placed within the mantle to the deep layer at KaaviKuopio. Given the
stratigraphy. New methods, including single- location of the KaaviKuopio kimberlites at
crystal chromian diopside pressure-tempera- the edge of the craton the more complicated
ture calculations (Nimis and Taylor, 2000) and mantle stratigraphy at this location is quite
temperature determinations from chromian reasonable. The mantle underlying the Kuhmo
pyropes using Ni contents (Ryan et al., 1996) area apparently suffered less reactivation dur-
projected to the relevant geotherm, allow the ing this major collision event and post-colli-
mantle stratigraphy to be compiled. sion processes and thus may represent a more
Combined major and trace element com- pristine nucleus of the Karelian craton.
positions of kimberlite pyrope xenocrysts
reveal that there are three distinct layers in 5.3. Diamonds
the lithospheric mantle at the KaaviKuopio
kimberlite localities (Lehtonen et al., 2004; Diamonds represent mantle samples from
Figure 14.21): (1) A low temperature, 700850 depths exceeding ~150 km and as such
C, or 70110 km (using the geotherm of provide information on the physical and
Kukkonen and Peltonen, 1999) mantle layer chemical properties of the deepest parts of
containing Ca-rich but Ti, Y and Zr depleted the lithospheric mantle, and in the case of
wehrlite-composition pyropes. Garnets of this super deep diamonds also of the convective
composition are in equilibrium with chromite mantle. In the KaaviKuopio kimberlites,
and clinopyroxene and have been described in diamonds occur mainly as xenocrysts in the
the same shallow mantle stratigraphic position kimberlite matrix but also as a rock-forming
from the Slave Province, northwestern Canada mineral in mantle eclogite xenoliths. Several
(Kopylova et al., 2000; Carbno and Canil, of the KaaviKuopio kimberlite pipes have
2002). The low-temperature fine-grain ed yielded reasonable diamond grades (1441
harzburgites described above contain similar ct /100 t; Tyni, 1997). However, most of the
pyropes and are almost certainly the source crystals separated from the kimberlite matrix
of these xenocrysts; (2) A variably depleted are resorbed. A photographic interpretation
lherzolite- and harzburgite-bearing horizon by Kinnunen (2001) indicated the proportion
from 9001200 C, or 130 km to 180 km; of resorbed to unresorbed crystals is about
(3) A fertile lherzolitic deeper layer (no harz- 9:1 in the small sample that was available.
burgitic pyropes known so far) from 180 km The primary crystal morphologies exhibited
to 240 km, possibly representing Proterozoic by these stones include octahedrons (Figure
underplating or a melt-enriched version of 14.22), twinned crystals, and aggregates of
layer 2. The majority of the xenoliths come coalesced single stones (Kinnunen, 2001).
from this horizon. Diamond crystals found within eclogite
Xenocrystic pyrope data from the Kuhmo xenoliths have been studied in detail. One
area show that the lithospheric mantle stra- of the diamonds protruding from the outer
tigraphy here is less heterogeneous, with a surface of one xenolith is pseudohemimor-
variably depleted lherzolite- and harzburgite- phic. Its unresorbed part resided inside the
bearing horizon extending from the very top xenolith while the exposed crystal faces have
of the garnet-bearing mantle at about 80 km been resorbed. This implies that resorption
depth, to 250 km or more (OBrien et al., took place by reaction between diamond and
kimberlite melt. These eclogite xenoliths can References
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Chapter 15
DRIFT HISTORY OF
THE SHIELD
S. Mertanen, L. J. Pesonen
Cover page: Russian Resurs 03 satellite photo mosaic including the Fennoscandian Shield. The mosaic
was generated from a series of images taken over a period of three years (1996 to 1998). Source
data were geometrically corrected and provided by Metria Satellus Kiruna. The mosaic, color balance,
and final image composite was generated by WorldSat International Inc. Published with arrangements
with Metria Kiruna, Sweden. WorldSat International and Metria Satellus.
Mertanen, S., Pesonen, L.J., 2005. Drift History of the Shield.
Paleomagnetic data and isotope ages from the Fennoscandian Shield provide
direct evidence of the drift history of the shield and its relative position with
respect to other cratons. During most of its geological history, the Fennoscandian
Shield was located at low to moderate paleolatitudes, except during the Neoar-
chean. At 2.45 Ga, the shield formed a unity with Laurentia; this is indicated by
the 2.45 Ga mafic dike swarms, which are parallel when placed according to the
continental reconstruction presented here. The two continents were separated
after 2.45 Ga probably in a breakup of a larger Archean landmass or a super-
continent. They collided again at ~1.91.8 Ga, during the Svecofennian orogeny
in the Fennoscandian Shield and the Hudsonian orogeny in Laurentia. At that
time, the Fennoscandian Shield was located at intermediate to low latitudes
and probably formed part of the supercontinent Hudsonland. At ~1.25 Ga, both
the Fennoscandian Shield and Laurentia experienced dike and sill magmatism
and were joined in a rather similar configuration as at 1.83 Ga. This suggests
that the North European and North American cratons may have formed a unity
during the entire time period from 1.83 Ga to 1.25 Ga. At the same time, also
the Amazonian craton had a close connection with the Fennoscandian Shield.
Although geological evidence points to the existence of a laterally contiguous
LaurentiaFennoscandiaAmazonia landmass at ~1.831.50 Ga, the present
paleomagnetic data cannot verify this. After ~1.2 Ga, the Fennoscandian Shield
and Laurentia rifted apart and collided again at ~1.05 Ga to form the supercon-
tinent Rodinia together with other Precambrian cratons.
CHAPTER 15 DRIFT H I S T O RY OF THE SHIELD 647

1. Introduction different Nordic countries (Pesonen, 1987,
1999; Abrahamsen et al., 2001). One of the
The geological evolution of the Fennoscan- main aims of these workshops has been to
dian Shield reflects an important part of the compile and qualitatively classify all the pa-
overall global history of the Earths lithospere leomagnetic data published in Fennoscandia.
and has a vital role in studying the evolution This has resulted in the Fennoscandian Pa-
of supercontinents during the Precambrian. leomagnetic Database (Pesonen and Torsvik,
The importance of supercontinents for the 1990; Pesonen et al., 1991; Torsvik, 1998)
Earths geological evolution has led to stud- that is continuously updated and forms part
ies of global continental assemblies and of the global paleomagnetic database (GPDB;
their existence beyond the ~1050780 Ma http//www.dragon.ngu). So far there are ~800
Rodinia assembly (e.g., McMenamin and data entries from the Scandinavian countries
McMenamin, 1990; Dalziel, 1991), i.e., in the and western Russia. In the two latest paleo-
ArcheanMesoproterozoic times (e.g., Piper, magnetic workshops the main aim has been
1976; Rogers, 1996; Pesonen et al., 2003). the comparison of paleomagnetic data of the
Paleomagnetism combined with high resolu- Fennoscandian Shield with data from other
tion age data is the only method that provides continents for making continental reconstruc-
direct knowledge on ancient latitudes and tions (Buchan et al., 2000, 2001; Pesonen et
orientations of continents. It can therefore be al., 2003). In this chapter we review the main
used for testing geologically inferred super- results of these studies.
continent assemblies and also for proposing
new continental assemblies to be verified by
geological data. 2. Remanent magnetization in the
The Fennoscandian Shield includes well- Fennoscandian Shield
exposed rock formations ranging in age from
Archean to Paleozoic and a considerable The bedrock of Finland has experienced sev-
amount of paleomagnetic data have been eral geological events during the Precambrian.
obtained from formations dated with U-Pb or These events are reflected in the record of the
40
Ar- 39Ar methods. In Finland, paleomagnetic Earths magnetic field, which is preserved as
studies have been carried out to study the remanent magnetization in the rocks. In addi-
dispersal and aggregation of different blocks tion to primary remanence acquired during the
of the shield to constrain the drift movement cooling of a rock unit, the same rock may carry
of the craton, and to study the existence of secondary remanence components formed in
supercontinents by defining the position of the later geological processes. These remanent
shield in paleocontinental reconstructions in acquisition processes may relate to various
relation to other continents. In the following, mechanisms. If the rock is subjected to heating
updated paleomagnetic data are shown for due to tectonic events, burial metamorphism
the period from the Neoarchean to the early or by contact metamorphism, it may lead to
Neoproterozoic, covering the major geological the acquisition of partial thermoremanent
events in Finland. magnetization, which may be later obscured
Paleomagnetic studies in Finland have together with a pre-existing primary rema-
been carried out in keen cooperation with nent magnetization (Figure 15.1A). Another
Scandinavian and Russian paleomagnetists. important modifier of remanent magnetiza-
One expression of such cooperation are the tion are hydrothermal fluids that can either
Nordic Paleomagnetic Workshops that have destroy pre-existing remanent magnetizations
been held every fourth year since 1986 in or form new magnetic minerals carrying stable
648 CHAPTER 15 DRIFT H I S T O RY OF THE SHIELD

A
B A+B A
B 0 C
W, Up
S N
B A
NRM
NRM B
270 90
573 C
A
B
A
180 NRM
Fig. 15.1. (A) Schematic illustration of the acquisition of two remanence components. Component A
represents primary remanent magnetization acquired during the original cooling of a rock unit. The
secondary component B is formed during a later event. In the Fennoscandian Shield, the latter could
be, e.g., the Svecofennian orogeny that has an effect on the pre-existing Archean crust. Both compo-
nents may be found within the same rock specimen. (B) The occurrence of components A and B is
seen in the stereoplot as a slight movement of the direction of the natural remanent magnetization
(NRM) during the course of demagnetization. Owing to their deviating unblocking temperatures, the
components can be separated by multicomponent analysis. (C) Calculated paleopoles from com-
ponents A and B. Only primary poles (such as A) are used in calculating the position of the Fenno-
scandian Shield at various times.
chemical or thermo-chemical magnetizations. and linked to known geological events.

If the temperature during metamorphism does One of the most conspicuous events in the
not rise above the Curie point of the minerals Fennoscandian Shield was the Svecofennian
carrying the primary remanence, it is possible orogeny at ~1.91.8 Ga that typically modified
to separate both the primary and secondary the remanent magnetization of older rocks.
remanences by multicomponent analyzing This is seen in many paleomagnetic studies of
methods (Figure 15.1B). Paleomagnetic poles Finland and also in studies carried out in north-
are calculated from these remanence direc- ern Sweden and western Russia (see Mertanen,
tions (Figure 15.1C) and, in ideal cases, they 1995). In some situations, the rocks have been
can be isotopically or paleomagnetically dated totally overprinted by this orogenic event so

that no primary remanences remain. In many 3. Fennoscandian drift history in
cases, however, the Svecofennian orogeny has the Precambrian
only partially overprinted the rocks so that both
the primary and secondary magnetization com- In previous compilations of paleomagnetic
ponents may be successfully separated. Good data and drift history calculations (Pesonen
examples from rocks in Finland are the 2.45 et al., 1989; Elming et al., 1993), the Appar-
Ga layered mafic intrusions and associated ent Polar Wander Path (APWP) method was
mafic dikes that carry a primary remanence used. The difficulty with the APWP approach
and also a well defined Svecofennian second- is that there often exist large age gaps between
ary remanence formed at ~1.88 Ga (Mertanen successive individual or Grand Mean poles
et al., 1999). In the Varpaisjrvi area, central along the APWP.
Finland, 2.1 Ga mafic dikes and the Archean In recent studies, a new method using
granulite facies basement also show multicom- key paleomagnetic poles has been adopted
ponent remanent magnetizations (Neuvonen (Buchan and Halls, 1990; Buchan et al., 2000,
et al., 1997; Mertanen et al., 2004a). Most of 2001). The main paleomagnetic criteria for
the dikes are totally overprinted by a second- a pole to be a key pole is that it represents a
ary remanence, while the Archean basement statistically well-defined primary magnetiza-
still carries the primary remanence in addition tion as verified by positive field test(s) and that
to the secondary one. In both rock types the it is obtained from an accurately dated rock
secondary remanence was formed during the unit (see Buchan et al., 2000, 2001). Key poles
Svecofennian orogeny. are used for establishing craton drift histories
Also younger rock formations yield sec- and, in order to create continental reconstruc-
ondary magnetizations. For example, the 1.63 tions, they are directly compared with poles of
Ga Sipoo quartz porphyry and diabase dikes in similar age from different cratons. There are a
southern Finland carry a secondary remanence few important restrictions and ambiguities in
that may be connected to global scale tectonic paleomagnetic techniques used for producing
events (Mertanen and Pesonen, 1995). In these such reconstructions. Only paleolatitude and
dikes a secondary remanence, considered ~1.3 orientation of a craton (with respect to its pres-
Ga old, was isolated in addition to the primary ent geographic orientation) can be determined.
remanence, and may reflect crustal extension The paleolongitude is not determinable due to
during the Postjotnian time or at the onset of the axial symmetry of the geocentric dipole
the Sveconorwegian orogeny slightly later. field hypothesis (AGDF). The polarity of the
In summary, the Fennoscandian Shield of- AGDF forms another ambiguity. This becomes
fers good prospects for isolation of remanent a problem if there are large age gaps between
magnetizations of different ages and therefore successive poles, in which case either normal
provides good opportunities for making conti- or reversed poles can be accepted. Due to this
nental reconstructions. Although the difficulty polarity ambiguity, a continent can be plotted
in paleomagnetic studies has been the multi- in correct latitudes in either hemisphere and
component nature of the remanence that may in antipodal orientations (Buchan et al., 2000;
hinder the isolation of primary remanences, Pesonen et al., 2003).
in many cases these primary remanences have Paleomagnetic data from the Fennoscan-
been obtained. Primary remanences are the dian Shield covers the time span from the
only type of remanence that are used in drift Neoarchean to the Late Paleozoic. Figure 15.2
calculations and continental reconstructions, shows the latitudinal drift of the Fennoscan-
because they can be accurately dated with U- dian Shield from ~2.55 Ga to 1.05 Ga. The
Pb or 40Ar- 39Ar methods. model has been made by using the best defined

60
30
Equator
-30
-60
2.6 2.5 2.4 2.3 2.2 2.1 2.0 1.9 1.8 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.4 1.3 1.2 1.1 1.0
Time (Ga)
Fig. 15.2. The drift history of the Fennoscandian Shield from ~2.55 Ga to 1.05 Ga. The shield area is
shown in yellow and the approximate growth of the shield in red. From 1.7 Ga onward, the shield is
shown larger owing to the amalgamation of the Ukrainian Shield to the southern part of the Fenno-
scandian Shield. Only the paleolatitude and the orientation of the shield (with respect to its present
orientation) can be defined paleomagnetically. The paleolongitude is not determinable. The horizontal
axis denotes time.
paleomagnetic poles from isotopically dated Ga (Mertanen et al., 1989, 1999; Halls and
rock units. However, most of the paleopoles Vuollo, 1999), thus emphasizing the penetra-
used here are not considered key paleomag- tive effect of the Svecofennian orogeny deep
netic poles with reference to the stringent into the Archean terranes.
criteria by Buchan et al. (2000, 2001). This is However, in areas of Archean granulite-
mainly due to lack of conclusive field tests that facies metamorphism, high remanence inten-
would show the primary nature of remanence sities with stable directions occur. The calcu-
and occasional large errors in the paleopoles or lated position of the Fennoscandian Shield at
in the datings. Therefore, part of the paleoposi- ~2.62.5 Ga (Figure 15.2) is based on studies
tions of the shield are less reliable and must on igneous enderbites and mafic granulites in
be verified with further studies. the Varpaisjrvi area of the Iisalmi complex of
the Karelian province (Neuvonen et al., 1981,
3.1. Neoarchean 1997; Mertanen et al., 2004a) where, accod-
ingly to U-Pb datings on monazite and zircon,
Paleomagnetic studies on Archean basement the granulite facies metamorphism took place
rocks have been carried out in several loca- at 2.63 Ga (Hltt et al., 2000). Sm-Nd gar-
tions in Finland. In the case of the basement netwhole-rock ages that record the cooling
gneisses, the remanence intensities are gener- of the granulites at ~2.62.5 Ga (Hltt et al.,
ally too weak or the remanence directions too 2000) are considered to be in accord with the
unstable to yield meaningful results. Further- magnetization ages of the rocks. Due to their
more, in many cases the remanence directions dry nature, these rocks have been less vulner-
in the basement rocks show widespread Sve- able to remagnetization than the lower grade
cofennian overprinting acquired at ~1.91.8 metamorphic rocks. Similar paleomagnetic

directions (Mertanen, 2000) have been ob- 2.40 Ga) based on studies on dike rocks at the
tained also from igneous charnockites from Lake Pjrvi area in the Karelian province in
the Lieksa area in eastern Finland where the Russia (Mertanen et al., 1999). The ages of the
granulite-facies metamorphism is assumed to Lake Pjrvi dikes range between 24702350
have taken place contemporaneously with the Ma (Sm-Nd or U-Pb on zircon or baddeleyite;
metamorphism in the Varpaisjrvi area (Halla, Vuollo et al., 1996; Mertanen et al., 1999) and
2002). In both areas, the Archean remanence they are genetically related to the coeval Olan-
has high coercivity and high unblocking tem- ga layered mafic intrusions. The position of
peratures supporting a primary origin of the the Fennoscandian Shield at 2.45 Ga is based
remanence. Moreover, in the Varpaisjrvi and on the D pole that was isolated in a well pre-
Lieksa areas the remanence directions are an- served dike and contact host rock at the Lake
tipodal implying a geomagnetic field reversal Pjrvi area (Mertanen et al., 1999) and is
during the cooling of these rocks. Naturally, considered to be the primary remanence with
when dealing with Archean rocks involved in a magnetization age of 2.45 Ga. The position
later tectonomagmatic events, one has to take of the Fennoscandian Shield at 2.40 Ga is also
into account the tectonic movements after the based on studies from the Lake Pjrvi area
acquisition of the primary Archaean rema- and is calculated from the paleopole D, which
nences. The similarity of remanence directions is very often seen in the 2.4 Ga rocks of the
both in the Varpaisjrvi and Lieksa regions Fennoscandian Shield. This D pole has been
support the interpretation that no large scale obtained from the Koillismaa layered mafic
movements have taken place between these intrusions in Finland (Mertanen et al., 1989),
areas, although the steep inclinations in both from the Burakovka intrusion and associated
formations allow minor rotations and displace- dikes in southwestern Russia (Krasnova and
ments within error limits. Other studies on Gooskova, 1990; Khramov et al., 1997; Fedo-
Archean rocks in the Karelian province have tova et al., 1999; Mertanen et al., 2004b), and
been carried out in the Vodlozero block (Kras- from the gabbronorites and tholeiitic dikes
nova and Gooskova, 1990) and in the Shilos (Krasnova and Gooskova, 1995) east of Lake
greenstone structures (Arestova and Gooskova, Pjrvi in Russia.
1998; Arestova et al., 2000a) in western Russia. Pole D is regarded as an original, primary
However, because of the difficulty in obtain- remanent magnetization acquired during the
ing the magnetization ages for the rocks, these early stages of rifting of the Archean crust
results must be confirmed with further studies and subsequent emplacement of the dikes
involving isotope datings and paleomagnetic and layered mafic intrusions at ~2.45 Ga.
field tests (Mertanen et al., 2004b). Pole D represents a slightly later magnetiza-
tion, acquired at ~2.40 Ga during prolonged
3.2. Continental rifting at 2.4 Ga cooling of the layered mafic intrusions. It is
also likely that the thermal effect of the volu-
Continental rifting of the stabilized Archean minous plume-related (Hanski et al., 2001b)
craton was initiated at ~2.52.4 Ga. The rift- magmatic activity heated the Archean crust
ing produced several layered mafic intrusions close to the layered mafic intrusions, thus
and associated mafic dike swarms both in the creating the 2.4 Ga magnetization seen in
Karelian and Kola provinces (cf. Chapter 3 many nearby Archean rocks (Mertanen et al.,
and 5). Numerous paleomagnetic studies have 1999, 2004b). If the assigned magnetization
been carried out on these formations in both ages are correct, the Karelian province drifted
terranes. Figure 15.2 shows two positions of 20 towards higher paleolatitudes and rotated
the Fennoscandian Shield (at 2.45 Ga and some 45 clockwise during the time interval

of 2.452.40 Ga. of both remanent magnetizations are correct, it
One of the targets of paleomagnetic inves- implies that during 2.42.3 Ga, the Fennoscan-
tigations on early Paleoproterozoic formations dian Shield remained at a low paleolatitude
has been to study the suggested dispersion (~30) and without significant rotations. The
and amalgamation of the Kola and Karelian result has important implications for the paleo-
provinces. Balagansky et al. (2001), Daly et al. climate studies of the early Paleoproterozoic
(2001), and Glebovitsky et al. (2001) have sug- (Section 4.1).
gested that the 2.52.4 Ga rifting developed
to an ocean opening in the Kola Peninsula. 3.3. Jatulian rifting and magmatism at
On the other hand, it has also been suggested 2.22.0 Ga
that the rifting probably did not lead to the
formations of an ocean, but rather to an in- Rifting of the Archean craton continued during
tracontinental rift basin (e.g., Melezhik et al., the Jatulian time at ~2.22.0 Ga leading to the
1997). In recent years several paleomagnetic emplacement of extensive mafic dike swarms
studies on the ~2.45 Ga layered mafic intru- accompanied by mafic volcanic rocks and
sions and related dikes have been carried out sills. However, despite several paleomagnetic
in the Kola Peninsula in Russia. Studies on studies on the Jatulian formations in Finland,
the 2.502.45 Ga Mt. Generalskaya intrusion northern Sweden, and Russia, the data are
(Arestova et al., 1999, 2002), the 2.502.47 controversial. Most studies show either un-
Ga Fedorova Tundra intrusion (Arestova et stable remanences or strong Svecofennian
al., 1997), the 2.452.40 Ga Imandra intrusion overprinting. At present there are two differ-
(Arestova et al., 2000b), and the Main Range ent groups of directions that are suggested
and VocheLambina intrusions forming parts to represent the primary Jatulian remanence.
of the 2.502.48 Ga Monchegorsk intrusion One of these was obtained from diabase dikes
(Khramov et al., 1997; Fedotova et al., 1999) and sedimentary rocks in Russia and is close
have revealed a primary ~2.45 Ga remanence to the 2.4 Ga direction (Damm et al., 1997;
(for isotope ages of the intrusions, see Hanski Khramov et al., 1997; Fedotova et al., 1999).
et al., 2001a, and references therein). However, The other one was obtained from 2.1 Ga dol-
the data from different intrusions are still con- erite dikes in the Varpaisjrvi area in central
troversial mainly because of probable errors Finland (e.g., Neuvonen et al., 1981, 1997).
in the remanence directions, owing to several However, as the latter remanence direction
superimposed magnetizations and possible has also been obtained for younger formations
uncorrected movements of the intrusions. in the Fennoscandian Shield, the age of this
In general, the suggested primary poles are remanence is still questionable (Mertanen et
in close agreement with the poles from the al., 2004a). Hence, the position of the Fenno-
Karelian province. The results still have to be scandian Shield during Jatulian times is still
verified by further studies from well-preserved unknown and further paleomagnetic studies
formations especially on the Kola Peninsula. are needed.
In a recent paleomagnetic study on the
2.30 Ga (Hltt et al., 2000) Tulisaari dolerite 3.4. Onset of the Svecofennian orogeny
dike and some other dikes of the Varpaisjrvi at 2.01.9 Ga
area in the Iisalmi complex in central Finland,
a presumably primary ~2.3 Ga remanent A geologically significant event in Finland
magnetization was obtained (Mertanen et al., was the Svecofennian orogeny, the first stages
2003a). The direction of this remanence is of which were probably initiated already at
similar to the 2.4 Ga D direction. If the ages ~1.95 Ga (e.g., Nironen, 1997). However, from

Finland there are no paleomagnetic data of 3.5. Svecofennian orogeny
that age. In southwestern Russia, Pisarevsky at 1.91.8 Ga
and Sokolov (1999) studied the 1974 27 Ma
(Sm-Nd age; Puchtel et al., 1995) Konchozero There are several studies on isotopically
sill located west of Lake Onega and obtained dated 1.88 Ga synorogenic gabbroic intru-
a paleomagnetic direction that they regarded sions in which a stable single component,
as a primary 1.97 Ga remanence. This rema- primary thermoremanent magnetization, has
nence has about the same direction as the 2.4 been obtained (Pesonen and Stigzelius, 1972;
Ga D remanence which raises further doubt Neuvonen et al., 1981; Elming, 1985, 1994;
about the age of the D magnetization. If the Mertanen and Pesonen, 1992). Some of the
D component is not a secondary magnetiza- studied intrusions (e.g., the Kiuruvesi and
tion, another explanation for the similarity of Pohjanmaa gabbros) are located close to the
the two directions is that the Fennoscandian RaaheLadoga belt, part of them further north
Shield roughly occupied the same paleolati- (e.g., Vittangi gabbro in northern Sweden,
tude and orientation at 2.4 Ga and 1.97 Ga, Jalokoski gabbro in northern Finland). Due
although having apparently drifted between to prolonged cooling of these batholithic
those times. intrusions within the thermally elevated crust
The oldest paleomagnetic data related it is possible that the magnetization ages of
to the Svecofennian orogeny in Finland and the gabbros are younger (by some 1020
from the 1.93 Ga Tsuomasvarri gabbrodiorite Ma) than the isotope ages of ~1.88 Ga (see
intrusion in the hanging wall of the Lapland also Buchan et al., 2000). A younger rema-
Kola orogen (Mertanen and Pesonen, 1994). nence direction related to the late stages of
The Tsuomasvarri formation is related to the the Svecofennian orogeny has been obtained
calc-alkaline magmatism in the Inari terrane from the 1837 Ma Haukivesi lamprophyric
dated 1.941.91 Ga (Kesola, 1991; Tuisku dikes (Huhma, 1981; Neuvonen et al., 1981)
and Huhma, 1998; Daly et al., 2001). In the in central Finland. Recently, Pisarevsky and
Tsuomasvarri intrusion, the characteristic Sokolov (2001) obtained a stable remanence
paleomagnetic direction regarded as primary direction in the 17901770 Ma old Vazhinka
differs from the 2.42.3 Ga directions and River sedimentary rocks in northwestern Rus-
places the Fennoscandian Shield near the sia. Based both on polarities of remanence
equator, at ~20 paleolatitude. The collision that define a magnetostratigraphic pattern and
of the Kola and Karelia provinces within the mineralogical evidence, they suggested that
LaplandKola orogen took place probably the remanence is primary and could be used
slightly later, at ~1.9 Ga (Tuisku and Huhma, as one of the key poles for the Fennoscandian
1998). As it is likely that in the western Lap- Shield. In the 1770 Ma Rybreka sill that in-
landKola orogen the LaplandKola ocean trudes the Vazhinka sedimentary layers (A.
was closed at ~1.91 Ga (Balagansky et al., Khramov, pers. comm., 2001), the remanence
2001; Daly et al., 2001); the nearly equato- is close to the remanence direction of the Va-
rial position of the LaplandKola orogen at zhinka formation and thus supports the poles
1.931.91 Ga (shown in Figure 15.2) may be ~17701780 Ma age.
applied to the Karelian province as well within Figure 15.2 shows the positions of the
paleomagnetic error limits. Fennoscandian Shield calculated from the
Svecofennian formations in the Karelian
province during 1.881.77 Ga. The three poles
(1.88 Ga, 1.84 Ga, and 1.77 Ga) indicate a
slight paleolatitudinal movement of the Fenno-

scandian Shield from the lower paleolatitude relatively rapid paleolatitudinal movement.
of ~15 at the early stages of the orogeny at
1.88 Ga to a higher paleolatitude of ~25 at 3.7. Postjotnian time at ~1.26 Ga
1.84 Ga, and again to a lower paleolatitude at
~1.77 Ga. Paleomagnetic data thus show that The Subjotnian time was followed by a pau-
during the Svecofennian island arc accretion city of magmatic activity until the Postjotnian
there was some latitudinal movement of the when the Jotnian sedimentary units aged
Shield but no significant rotation. Furthermore ~15001370 Ma were intruded by Postjotnian
compared to the 2.452.40 Ga rifting episode, dolerite sills and dikes, collectively called the
which was a period of high drift and rotation, Central Scandinavian dolerite group (CSDG),
the drift of the Fennoscandian Shield during at ~12701250 Ma (Suominen, 1991). One of
the Svecofennian orogenic events was fairly the best defined paleomagnetic poles of Fin-
slow. land have been obtained from the Postjotnian
Vaasa, Satakunta, and Mrket dolerites in
3.6. Subjotnian magmatic interval at southwestern Finland (Neuvonen, 1965, 1966,
1.651.5 Ga 1973; Neuvonen and Grundstrm, 1969).
The mean paleopole from these formations
During the Subjotnian time at ~1.651.50 Ga, has been defined as a key pole for the Fenno-
the rapakivi granites and associated anortho- scandian Shield (Buchan et al., 2000, 2001).
sites and dike swarms were emplaced in Fin- Recent studies by Elming and Mattson (2001)
land and several paleomagnetic studies have from dolerite dikes in Sweden and in Finland
been carried out on the rapakivi granites and confirm the similarity of paleomagnetic direc-
quartz porphyry and diabase dikes. Paleopoles tions of the different dike groups (e.g., Bylund
from the Subjotnian formations have been and Pesonen, 1987). Figure 15.2 shows the
grouped according to their age into three paleoposition of the Fennoscandian Shield
different groups that all represent key paleo- at ~1.25 Ga when the shield had drifted from
poles of the shield (Buchan et al., 2000). The low northern latitudes to a paleolatitude of
oldest Subjotnian paleopole is obtained from ~-15.
the ~1630 Ma quartz porphyry dikes related
to the Wiborg (Neuvonen, 1986) and Onas 3.8. Dike magmatism at 1.11.0 Ga
(Mertanen and Pesonen, 1995) rapakivi gran-
ites in southern Finland. A mean paleopole The 1120 Ma Salla and 10421013 Ma (Sm-
with an assigned age of 1570 Ma is obtained Nd) LaanilaRistijrvi diabase dikes (Merta-
from the diabase and quartz porphyry dikes nen et al., 1996) intruded the shield in northern
related to the land rapakivi granite (Pesonen Finland 100200 Ma after the Postjotnian
and Neuvonen, 1981) and a slightly younger magmatism (see also Figure 13.2). A lot of
pole (1540 Ma; Pesonen and Neuvonen, 1981) paleomagnetic sampling has been done from
characterizes dikes also associated with the the NW-trending Salla dikes (Mertanen et al.,
land rapakivi batholith. Recent studies on 1992), but owing to a strong Present Earths
~1.5 Ga dike and intrusive rocks in central field component, no reliable results have been
Sweden (Moakhar and Elming, 2000) support obtained so far. The Salla dikes trend almost
the earlier results on rocks of similar age in perpendicular to the LaanilaRistijrvi diabase
southern Sweden (Piper, 1979, 1980). Figure dike swarm (Pesonen et al., 1986; Mertanen et
15.2 shows that during the Subjotnian time, al., 1996) that has the same general NE-trend
although characterized by anorogenic magma- as that of the Kautokeino and Karasjok dia-
tism, the Fennoscandian Shield experienced base dikes in Finnmark, Norway. The dikes in

Kautokeino have a Sm-Nd age of 1066 34 data do exist from Africa (Congo and Kalahari
Ma (Mertanen et al., 1996). The remanences cratons), Australia (Pilbara), Laurentia (Supe-
in the LaanilaRistijrvi and Finnmark dikes rior), and the Fennoscandian Shield (Karelia),
are hard and stable and, according to baked but owing to unmatching ages of the studied
contact tests, the remanences are primary. formations, no global-scale reconstruction is
The ages of the LaanilaKautokeino and so far available.
Finnmark dikes correspond to the age of Sveco- In the Nordic Paleomagnetic Workshop in
norwegian magmatism and emplacement of 1999, continental reconstructions were made
extensive dolerite dike swarms at ~1200900 for the Proterozoic time (Mertanen and Peso-
Ma in the Southwest Scandinavian domain in nen, 2000; Pesonen et al., 2000, 2001, 2003;
the southwestern part of the shield. Recent Elming et al., 2001; Pesonen and Mertanen,
paleomagnetic studies on the 1041980 Ma 2002). The data were compiled from all exist-
dolerite dikes of the Protogine zone in south- ing paleomagnetic resources involving most
ern Sweden (Pisarevsky and Bylund, 1998) are of the worlds cratons. The reconstructions are
in close agreement with the results from the based on the most reliable paleomagnetic data
1200975 Ma Bamble intrusions in southern that were first classified and filtered by using
Norway (Stearn, 1979; Stearn and Piper, 1984) the Briden-Duff grading scheme (see Pesonen
and with the poles from the LaanilaRisti- et al., 1989). Continental reconstructions were
jrvi dikes. Correspondence of the poles from established for twelve time slots covering the
northern and southern parts of the shield im- time from 2.45 Ga to 1.00 Ga. The results were
plies that at that time the shield formed a unity presented by Pesonen et al. (2003). In Figure
with no significant block movements. 15.3, four of the reconstructions, 2.45 Ga, 1.83
Figure 15.2 shows the paleoposition of the Ga, 1.65 Ga, and 1.25 Ga, are shown.
Fennoscandian Shield at ~1.1 Ga based on data
from the Bamble intrusions in southern Nor- 4.1. Early Paleoproterozoic
way and at ~1.05 Ga based on the data from
the LaanilaRistijrvi dikes. At that time the Figure 15.3A shows the 2.45 Ga reconstruc-
Fennoscandian Shield was located at the pa- tion based on paleopoles from the Pjrvi
leolatitude of ~-30. Compared to the position dikes of the Karelian craton of the Fenno-
and orientation of the Fennoscandian Shield scandian Shield (Mertanen et al., 1999), the
at 1.25 Ga, it had drifted southwards ~15 and Matachewan dikes of the Superior craton of
rotated almost 90 clockwise. This rotation, Laurentia (Bates and Halls, 1990), the Onge-
suggested by Patchett and Bylund (1977), luk andesites (between 2489 33 Ma and 2394
Poorter (1975), and Pesonen and Neuvonen 26 Ma; Bekker et al., 2001) of the Kaapvaal
(1981) is hence confirmed by the new data. craton of Africa (Evans et al., 1997), and the
Widgiemooltha dikes of the Yilgarn craton of
Australia (Evans, 1968). In this reconstruction,
4. Position of the Fennoscandian the Karelian and Matachewan dikes become
Shield in the continental parallel, suggesting that at ~2.45 Ga they
assemblies of the Precambrian formed a single dike swarm following the
coeval mantle plume activity and rifting of the
Based on geological evidence, it has been sug- united LaurentiaFennoscandia landmass that
gested that supercontinents such as Ur, Arctica may have been part of the possible Neoarchean
(Rogers, 1996) or Kenorland (Williams et al., supercontinent Kenorland (see Pesonen et al.,
1991), and Vaalbara (Cheney, 1996) existed in 2003). At about the same time with the rifting
the Archean. Reliable Archean paleomagnetic episode, during ~2.452.3 Ga, the Karelian,

A 2.45 Ga B 1.83 Ga
Am
L L
r
Eq uato
1
K B
B
Equator
Am
Au
Au
C 1.65 Ga D 1.25 Ga
L
Au
Au
L
Am Equator
1
C-Sf
Am
B B
Am
Fig. 15.3. Continental reconstructions at (A) 2.45 Ga, (B) 1.83 Ga, (C) 1.65 Ga, and (D) 1.25 Ga. B
stands for Baltica (the Fennoscandian Shield), L for Laurentia, K for Kalahari, Au for Australia, Am for
the Amazonian craton (the present South American continent is outlined with a dashed line), and
C-Sf for Congo/SoFrancisco craton. In (A) the Karelian (in B), Superior (in L), and Yilgarn (in Au)
cratons are shown in green and the 2.45 Ga dike swarms in red. In (B) the 1.9-1.8 Ga Svecofennian
(in B), Hudsonian (in L), and VentuariTapajos (in Am) orogenic belts are shown in red. In (C) the
~1.71.5 Ga Gothian (in B), Labradorian (in L), and Rio NegroJuruena belts (in Am) are shown in
orange. In (D) the ~1.25 Ga Postjotnian (in B) and Mackenzie and Sudbury dike swarms (in L) are
shown in red. The arrows indicate subsequent movement of the continents. In (B) and (C) the two
possible positions of the Amazonian craton are shown as models (1) and (2). See text.

Superior, and Kaapvaal cratons experienced and Hudsonian orogenies. The reconstruction
glaciations (Mar mo and Ojakangas, 1984; at 1.83 Ga places the Kola Peninsula adjacent
Marmo, 1993; Evans et al., 1997; Williams to the present day East Greenland. The recon-
and Schmidt, 1997; Schmidt and Williams, structions of the Fennoscandia and Laurentia
1999; Ojakangas et al., 2001). The present differ slightly at 1.88 and 1.83 Ga when using
paleomagnetic data from the Fennoscandian the mean 1.88 Ga pole from the Svecofennian
Shield thus support the growing evidence of intrusions (Jalokoski, Kiuruvesi, Pohjanmaa,
early Paleoproterozoic glaciations at nearly and Vittangi) for Fennoscandia and the pole
equatorial latitudes. Different models have from 1877 7 Ma Molson dikes for Lauren-
been presented to explain the enigma of low tia (Halls and Heaman, 2000). According to
latitude glaciations during the Proterozoic, that reconstruction, the Kola Peninsula was
ranging from the Snowball Earth hypothesis adjacent to the present southeast Greenland.
(Kirschvink, 1992; Hoffman et al., 1998) to Therefore, paleomagnetic data imply that
the hypothesis of large Earths obliquity (Wil- the final amalgamation of the Fennoscandian
liams, 1993). The paleomagnetic data from Shield and Laurentia took place no earlier than
the Yilgarn craton still need further studies, ~1.83 Ga (see Pesonen et al., 2003).
but according to the present data, at ~2.4 Reliable 1.83 Ga paleomagnetic data also
Ga the Yilgarn craton was located at a high exist from the Amazonian craton (Onstott et
paleolatitude and was thus not joined to other al., 1984), where the successive subparallel
cratons. 1.91.8 Ga VentuariTapajos and 1.81.55
Ga Rio NegroJuruena provinces represent
4.2. Middle Paleoproterozoic belts of orogenic activity along the present
westernsouthwestern margin of the craton
Figure 15.3B shows the reconstruction at 1.83 (Tassinari et al., 2000). The tectonic setting
Ga where data from the 1830 Ma Haukivesi of the Amazonian craton resembles that of the
lamprophyric dikes were used for the Fenno- Fennoscandian Shield where the Svecofennian
scandian Shield and data from the 1827 Ma 1.91.8 Ga orogenic belt is succeeded by the
Sparrow dikes for Laurentia (McGlynn et 1.81.7 TIB and ~1.71.5 Gothian belts in
al., 1974). The relative position of the Fenno- the present southwest. Figure 15.3B shows
scandian Shield and Laurentia differs from two possible positions for the Amazonian
that at 2.45 Ga (Figure 15.3A), implying that craton depending on the choice of polarity.
between 2.45 Ga and 1.83 Ga, the two conti- According to the first alternative (model 1 in
nents were separated and eventually collided Figure 15.3B), the Amazonian craton and the
sometime before 1.83 Ga. Separation probably Fennoscandian Shield are both located at the
took place at ~2.22.0 Ga when both conti- latitude of about 20, but so that the 1.91.8
nents experienced extensive rifting and dike Ga orogenic belts are oriented in antipodal
activity. Although contemporaneous paleo- directions towards the Archean inlands. The
magnetic data from the Fennoscandian Shield use of this polarity option implies that the
still remains to be studied, the well-defined Fennoscandian Shield and the Amazonian
paleomagnetic data from Laurentia (Buchan craton were departing from each other. In the
et al., 2000) indicate considerable drift and second alternative (model 2 in Figure 15.3B)
rotation of Laurentia, which may have been where the Amazonian craton is rotated 180
due to a breakup of a supercontinent. and shifted to the opposite latitude, the1.91.8
The collision between the Fennoscandian Ga orogenic belts continue almost linearly.
Shield and Laurentia is manifested by the oc- According to geological indications (e.g.,
currence of the coeval 1.91.8 Ga Svecofennian Geraldes et al., 2001), this model could be

the more probable one, suggesting that the 4.3. Late Paleoproterozoic
Fennoscandian Shield, Laurentia, and the
Amazonian craton formed an amalgamated Paleomagnetic data from the ~1.63 Ga dia-
continent, possibly part of a large continent, base and quartz porphyry dikes of the Fenno-
Hudsonland (see Pesonen et al., 2003). How- scandian Shield (see section 3.6), from the
ever, based on present paleomagnetic data, 1.64 Ga mafic dikes of the Amazonian craton
the Fennoscandian Shield and the Amazonian (Hargraves, 1968; Onstott et al., 1984), and
craton are separated by a latitude of about 20 from the ~1.64 Ma sedimentary rocks from
which cannot be explained purely by error lim- the McArthur Basin of Australia (Idnurm
its of the poles (3 for Fennoscandia and 6 for et al., 1995) allow a reconstruction of these
Amazonia). Therefore, in spite of similarities cratons. Tentatively, the less well-defined data
in geological evolution, more paleomagnetic from the 1.701.65 Ga quartzites in Laurentia
data are still needed to verify the relative posi- (Chandler and Morey, 1992) have also been
tion of the Amazonian craton with respect to studied in order to see its relative position
the Fennoscandian Shield and Laurentia. with respect to these continents (Pesonen et
After the Svecofennian orogeny the Uk- al., 2003). Compared to the paleoposition
rainian Shield was probably amalgamated to at 1.83 Ga, both the Fennoscandian Shield
the Fennoscandian Shield in the southeast. and the Amazonian craton had drifted to
Recent paleomagnetic data from the 1.77 Ga the equator, while Australia was located at
anorthosites and older rock formations from a paleolatitude of ~30. Laurentia and the
the Ukrainian Shield (Elming et al., 1999, Fennoscandian Shield were latitudinally ~15
2000) suggest that the amalgamation of the apart, but considering the large errors in the
Fennoscandian Shield and the Ukrainian cra- data from Laurentia (concerning both the age
ton took place sometime after ~1.77 Ga. and paleomagnetic pole) the two continents
When using the 1770 Ma remanence of may have been joined as well.
the Fennoscandian Shield (Pisarevsky and If the first polarity option of Figure 15.3B
Sokolov, 2001) and the 1750 Ma remanence is applied to the reconstruction at 1.63 Ga
(B component) from the Molson dikes of Lau- (Figure 15.3C, model 1), the Fennoscandian
rentia (Halls and Heaman, 2000), a different Shield had rotated counterclockwise by ~40
reconstruction is produced as compared to and the Amazonian craton by ~10, but
that of 1.83 Ga. The difference is mainly due both had preserved approximately the same
to the varying orientation and paleolatitude relative orientation as at 1.83 Ga. Based on
of Laurentia, as the Fennoscandian Shield the similarities in paleolatitude and relative
maintained roughly the same orientation and orientation, it was previously suggested that
latitude during 1.881.77 Ga. The 1.77 Ga data before ~1.65 Ga the Fennoscandian Shield
thus imply that the two cratons were separated collided with the Amazonian craton resulting
after the Svecofennian orogenic events. On the in the formation of the Gothian orogenic belt
other hand, as will be shown later, the Fen- in the southwestern Fennoscandian Shield and
noscandian Shield and Laurentia had a very the Rio NegroJuruena belt in the western
similar relative position at 1.25 Ga and 1.83 Ga Amazonian craton (Mertanen and Pesonen,
(see also Buchan et al., 2000). Consequently, 2000; Pesonen et al., 2000, 2001; Elming et
either the two cratons were separated between al., 2001; Pesonen and Mertanen, 2002).
1.831.75 Ga and then collided again at 1.25 However, according to the present inter-
Ga in a fairly similar configuration, or the pretation (Pesonen et al., 2003), this model is
~1.75 Ga paleomagnetic data, especially those not favored any more. According to Geraldes
from Laurentia, are suspect. et al. (2001), the Rio NegroJuruena province

was formed in two different events at 1.81.7 latitudes later on. Data for the Amazonian cra-
Ga and 1.561.4 Ga with a paucity in tectonic ton come from the Nova Floresta gabbros and
and magmatic activity between the periods basalts in western Brazil (Tohver et al., 2002).
that each involved accretion and formation For Laurentia, paleomagnetic data have been
of juvenile magmas. Because the Amazonian obtained from the 1267 Ma Mackenzie dikes
craton and the Fennoscandian Shield show (Buchan and Halls, 1990) and from the 1235
similar long-lasting destruction of oceanic 7 Ma Sudbury dikes (Palmer et al., 1977).
crust at the craton margins, Geraldes et al. For the Fennoscandian Shield, the data come
(2001) suggested that the two cratons formed from the 1.26 Ga Postjotnian dikes (Section
a laterally contiguous continental margin at 3.7). Based on these data, the Fennoscandian
1.61.5 Ga. The joint assembly of the cratons Shield and Laurentia formed a unity at 1.25
is also supported by the occurrence of roughly Ga when a global scale tensional regime was
coeval rapakivi granites on both continents manifested by the emplacement of coeval
(Rm and Haapala, 1995; Bettencourt et al., mafic dike swarms in both continents. This
1999; Tassinari et al., 2000). However, the reconstruction is supported by studies on
paleomagnetic reconstruction places both anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility (AMS)
the Amazonian craton and the Fennoscandian (Elming and Mattson, 2001) that show a
Shield at the same equatorial paleolatitude, similar magma flow direction for coeval
thus making it impossible that the cratons mafic sills and basalts of Greenland and the
were linearly contiguous. The disagreement Central Scandinavian dolerite group, when
of paleomagnetic data with geological obser- the Fennoscandian Shield and Laurentia are
vations is not solved by polarity ambiguity put in this relative orientation (see Pesonen
(option 2 Figure 15.3C) or by error limits of et al., 2003).
the poles, as both cratons are at the same paleo- As discussed before, at 1.83 Ga the
latitude. Therefore, the present paleomagnetic Fennoscandian Shield and Laurentia had ap-
data imply that the cratons were not joined at proximately the same relative orientation as at
1.65 Ga, although both cratons experienced 1.25 Ga and both continents had drifted ~30
almost coeval juvenation at craton margins. towards the equator and rotated counterclock-
An alternative is that the pole ages from wise by ~90. Despite some differences, the
the Amazonian craton are erratic. The data close resemblance of the 1.83 Ga and 1.25 Ga
come from dikes dated by the Rb-Sr or K-Ar reconstructions may indicate that during this
methods and, consequently, the pole ages may time interval the two cratons drifted together
represent magnetizations that postdate the (see Buchan et al., 2000). The differences may
primary ages of the dikes. be explained by errors of pole positions in both
reconstructions as they allow for variations of
4.4. Middle Mesoproterozoic 10 in both latitudes and rotations. Evidence
supporting their having drifted together comes
Figure 15.3D shows the reconstruction at 1.25 from the coeval ~1.6 Ga Gothian and Labra-
Ga. Data are available from the Fennoscandian dorian belts in Fennoscandia and Laurentia,
Shield, Laurentia, Amazonia, and Congo/So respectively, that become continuous in this
Francisco cratons. Paleomagnetic studies from reconstruction (see Figure 15.3C).
the 1236 24 Ma late Kibaran formations in
the Congo craton (Meert et al., 1994) indicate 4.5. Late Mesoproterozoic
that the united Congo/So Francisco craton
was at equatorial latitudes at ~1.25 Ga, but, Continental reconstructions during the Late
as will be shown below, drifted towards higher MesoproterozoicNeoproterozoic were dis-

cussed in Pesonen et al. (2003). Here, a short experienced similar orogenies, extensional re-
summary of the present knowledge of the gimes, and magmatism, is the continent that has
paleomagnetic evolution of the Fennoscandian most often been joined with the Fennoscandian
Shield during ~1.11.05 Ga is given. At ~1.2 Shield during the Precambrian. Paleomagnetic
Ga, Fennoscandia and Laurentia started to drift data imply that Laurentia collided with the pres-
apart, towards opposite paleolatitudes. The ent northern part of the Fennoscandian Shield,
Fennoscandian Shield drifted towards south- thus giving rise to parts of the Svecofennian
ern paleolatitudes which led to the collision and Hudsonian orogenies at ~1.91.8 Ga. In
of the southwestern part of the Fennoscandian addition to similar orogenic belts, the shared
Shield with the Congo/So Francisco craton geological history of the Fennoscandian Shield
(see Figure 14.3D) at ~1.1 Ga. The collision and Laurentia is also seen in the cratons si-
resulted in the Sveconorwegian orogeny in multaneous riftings. At ~2.45 Ga and 1.25 Ga,
the Fennoscandian Shield. Although reliable extensional tectonism in both cratons caused
paleomagnetic data from that time from the the emplacement of major mafic dike swarms.
Amazonian craton is missing, geological data At both times, the dike swarms become aligned
imply that the Amazonian craton collided with (2.45 Ga) or continuous (1.25 Ga) if the cratons
Laurentia, resulting in the Grenvillian orog- are placed relative to each other as suggested
eny. A hypothetical Congo Sea was opened by the reconstructions presented here. In many
between the Congo/ So FranciscoFenno- cases, the 1.81.25 Ga paleomagnetic data from
scandia and AmazoniaLaurentia landmasses. the Amazonian craton also match those from
At 1.1 Ga, eastern Gondwanaland, predomi- the Fennoscandian Shield. However, the present
nantly comprising Australia, East Antarctica, paleomagnetic data cannot reliably demonstrate
and India was located north of Laurentia. that the Amazonian craton was attached to the
Later on, at ~1.05 Ga, Laurentia drifted to Fennoscandian Shield, although it has been
lower paleolatitudes, while the Fennoscandian close to the joined FennoscandiaLaurentia
Shield maintained roughly the same position during most of the Precambrian.
as at 1.1 Ga. The drift of Laurentia led to a
collision between southeastern Greenland
and northern Fennoscandian Shield producing Acknowledgments
late Grenvillian type events (see Pesonen et
al., 2003). Finally, the Fennoscandian Shield We wish to thank all those people Niels
and Laurentia amalgamated with the Congo/ Abrahamsen, Gran Bylund, Sten-ke El-
So Francisco, Amazonia, Gondwanaland, ming, Manoel DAgrella-Filho, Hkan Matt-
Siberia, South China, and Kalahari to form the son, Joe Meert, Sergey Pisarevsky, and Philip
supercontinent Rodinia at ~1.05 Ga. Schmidt who participated in the Precambrian
subgroup of the Fourth Nordic Paleomagnetic
Workshop in Aarhus, Denmark in 1999, for
5. Conclusions their invaluable contribution to the preparation
of the continental reconstructions. The paper
Paleomagnetic evidence for the evolution of the was improved by the kind comments on the
Fennoscandian Shield shows that during several manuscript of Pesonen at al. (2003) by K.-I.
time periods, the Fennoscandian Shield has hll and C. Klootwijk.
formed a part of a larger continental assembly
or a supercontinent that has had significant ef-
fects on its geological evolution. According to
the present knowledge, Laurentia, which has

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Software for Windows 98 [CD-ROM]

Chapter 16
PALEOPROTEROZOIC
CARBON ISOTOPE
EXCURSION
J.A. Karhu
Cover page: Paleoproterozoic dolomite with columnar stromatolite structure Columnacollenia rauta-
maa, Perpohja belt, Peuranpalo, Tervola.
Photo: Jukka Lehtinen.
C H A P T E R 1 6 PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C C A R B O N I S O T O P E E X C U R S I O N
Karhu, J.A., 2005. Paleoproterozoic carbon isotope excursion.
The isotope composition of carbon in Paleoproterozoic carbonate sediments

indicates that the isotope composition of marine dissolved carbon underwent a
large positive excursion between ~2.2 Ga and 2.1 Ga. First indications for the
excursion were obtained from Fennoscandian supracrustal successions, but,
subsequently, the existence of a global event that affected the Paleoproterozoic
carbon cycle has been confirmed by numerous studies from different continents.
Isotope ages from the Fennoscandian sedimentary sequences indicate that the
minimum duration of the excursion was 100 Ma, from 2.21 Ga to 2.11 Ga. The
start of the excursion is relatively poorly constrained between 2.32 Ga and 2.21
Ga, based on Fennoscandian and South African data, but the end of the event
is well-defined between 2.11 Ga and 2.06 Ga. New data from the Vystj
Formation, northern Finland, confirm the end of the excursion at >2.05 Ga.
The Paleoproterozoic carbon isotope excursion indicates a major perturbation
in the carbon cycle, and it has been related to the increase of the atmospheric
O2 content. Recently published carbon isotope records from the Duitschland
Formation, South Africa, give indications of a separate positive carbon isotope
shift of undetermined duration and of unknown global extent, at ~2.32 Ga. In
contrast to the lithologic record of the major excursion, the Duitschland car-
bonate sediments are closely associated with glacial sediments, analogously
with the relationship observed between Neoproterozoic 13C-enriched carbonate
sediments and glaciations.
C H A P T E R 1 6 PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C C A R B O N I S O T O P E E X C U R S I O N 671
1. Introduction terval ~2.31.9 Ga. This multimodal pattern
resembles the secular carbon isotope curve for
The Paleoproterozoic oceans were affected by the Neoproterozoic seawater, characterized by
a dramatic carbon isotope excursion between several long-lasting maxima punctuated by
2.2 Ga and 2.1 Ga (Karhu and Holland, 1996). sharp minima during global glacial periods
Evidence for the excursion is recorded in car- (Jacobsen and Kaufman, 1999).
bonate sediments deposited during that time. Most of the critical data points defining
The observed 13C values are systematically the beginning and end of the carbon isotope
higher than 4, and values exceeding 10 excursion represent sedimentary carbonate
are not uncommon [13C gives the 13C/12C units of the Fennoscandian Shield. These units
ratio R of the sample as a per mil difference were deposited in basins associated with the
relative to the V-PDB standard: 13C = (Rsample/ rifting of the Archean craton and the formation
Rstandard 1) x 103]. This is in strong contrast of passive margins at ~2.22.1 Ga. In recent
to the record from preceding or following years, new isotope and age data have been
time periods, where the 13C values remained published in Finland and elsewhere, offering a
close to a value of 0 (Strauss et al., 1992). way to test and refine the details of the Paleo-
Because the oceans are a major reservoir of proterozoic secular carbon isotope curve.
carbon on the surface of the Earth, the excur-
sion implies a significant perturbation in the
global carbon cycle. 2. Early records
In addition to the positive excursion in
marine carbon isotope ratios, the Paleopro- First indications of a major shift in the marine
terozoic Earth was affected by other major carbon isotope ratios during the Paleopro-
environmental changes. These include a major terozoic Era were obtained by Galimov et
magmatic event at 2.45 Ga, associated with a al. (1968) from Fennoscandian supracrustal
peak in the deposition of banded iron-forma- successions. They reported two carbon isotope
tions (Heaman, 1997; Barley et al., 1997) and analyses of dolomite from the Keivy belt of the
possibly three separate glacial intervals be- Kola Peninsula yielding 13C values of 8.0
tween 2.45 Ga and 2.22 Ga (Eyles and Young, and 8.1 and two analyses from the Karelian
1994). The most important environmental sedimentary units of the Raiguba locality with
change, however, was the rise of atmospheric 13C of 6.3 and 9.1. Galimov et al. (1975)
oxygen at 2.32.0 Ga (Holland, 1994). For complemented these data by publishing a
understanding the relationships between the mean of 7.4 for five sedimentary carbonate
carbon isotope excursion and the environmen- samples from the Keivy belt in the Kola Penin-
tal changes, it is of great importance to know sula and a mean of 7.5 for 20 samples from
the form and the timing of shifts of the secular the Central Karelian region. A comprehensive
carbon isotope curve. study of Precambrian sedimentary carbon-
The compilation of carbon isotope analy- ates by Schidlowski et al. (1975) included
ses from Paleoproterozoic sedimentary car- eight sedimentary dolomite samples from the
bonate rocks by Karhu and Holland (1996) Perpohja belt in northern Finland, which is
showed a single positive excursion in 13C geographically distinct from the sedimentary
at ~2.22.1 Ga, but recently more complex units sampled by Galimov et al. (1968, 1975).
secular patterns have also been suggested. The dolomite samples yielded 13C values be-
Melezhik et al. (1999) presented a curve that tween 3.1 and 8.6, with a mean at 5.2.
included four separate positive excursions In the same paper, Schidlowski et al. (1975)
separated by distinctive minima in the in- also reported the first 13C data from the
672 C H A P T E R 1 6 PA L E O P R O T E R O Z O I C C A R B O N I S O T O P E E X C U R S I O N
Lomagundi Group in Zimbabwe. Excluding 3. Fennoscandian 13C data
four samples with an uncertain stratigraphic
setting, the eleven Lomagundi samples showed The 13C analyses of the Paleoproterozoic
highly positive 13C values between 7.3 and sedimentary carbonates from the Fennoscan-
13.4, with a mean at 9.7. The authors dian Shield show a bimodal distribution with
noticed the high 13C values, but contended pronounced maxima at about 1 and 10
that there is no reason to invoke special en- (Karhu, 1993). The sedimentary carbonate
vironmental conditions for the deposition of units with 13 C at about 1 are distrib-
the Lomagundi suite. uted over the whole shield area. In contrast,
The unusual isotopic characteristics of sedimentary carbonates with 13C > 4 are,
the Lomagundi carbonates led Schidlowski et without exceptions, restricted to the Paleo-
al. (1976) to resample the Lomagundi Group proterozoic successions deposited on the
for a new detailed study. They analyzed 67 Archean craton. Many of these carbonate
dolomite samples, that yielded a mean 13C of units have been associated with the informal
8.2. In addition, they demonstrated that the Jatulian Group, deposited during the Paleopro-
Lomagundi carbonates were well preserved terozoic rifting of the Archean craton. Clearly,
and had most probably retained their primary the formation of these carbonate sediments
carbon isotope compositions. Motivated by cannot be attributed to the operation of frac-
problems in applying a global carbon cycle tionating processes in an unusual sedimentary
model to explain the observed record, the au- environment, as the carbonate sediments with
thors changed their earlier view and suggested 13C > 4 were deposited regionally in an area
a local unusual sedimentary environment as of ~1200 km by 600 km (Figure 16.1).
the cause of the enrichment of heavy carbon Within individual supracrustal belts of
isotopes in the Lomagundi carbonates. the Fennoscandian Shield, the carbon isotope
The notion of local conditions as the cause values show a continuous pattern of 13C en-
of the enrichment in 13C was challenged when richment and depletion with a single positive
new Paleoproterozoic carbonate successions excursion. Examples are the Perpohja and
with 13C-enriched carbon isotope signatures Kuusamo belts in northern Finland (Karhu,
were found locally in Norway (Baker and 1993), the Pechenga and ImandraVarzuga
Fallick, 1989a), Scotland (Baker and Fallick, belts in the Kola Peninsula (Karhu and Me-
1989b), the Ukraine (Zagnitko and Lugovaya, lezhik, 1992), and the Tulomozerskaya For-
1989), and regionally over an extensive area mation of the Onega basin in the eastern part
in the Fennoscandian Shield (Karhu, 1989, of the shield (Melezhik et al., 1999). In the
1993; Yudovich et al., 1991). Since then, Tulomozerskaya Formation, the complete
the existence of a global event affecting thickness of the highly 13C-enriched dolomites
the Paleoproterozoic carbon cycle has been reaches ~800 m (Melezhik et al., 1999). Al-
confirmed by numerous studies from differ- though individual stratigraphic sequences are
ent continents and shields, including North incomplete by nature, the combined evidence
America (Melezhik et al., 1997; Bekker et al., strongly suggests the existence of a single
2003), South America (Bekker et al., 2003), long-lasting positive carbon isotope excur-
Fennoscandia (Karhu and Melezhik, 1992; sion.
Melezhik et al., 1999); Africa (Master et al., The Fennoscandian sedimentary succes-
1993; Buick et al., 1998; Bekker et al., 2001), sions provide chronostratigraphic constraints
Australia (Lindsay and Brasier, 2002), and for the excursion (Karhu, 1993). The isotope
India (Maheshwari et al., 1999; Sreenivas et data from the Kuusamo and Perpohja belts
al., 2001). suggest that the excursion started before 2.21
24 36
NORWAY
68
68
RUSSIA
SWEDEN
FINLAND
60
60
200 km
24 36
13C 4 per mil Predominantly Phanerozoic Archean
13C < 4 per mil Paleoproterozoic Margin of the

Archean craton
Fig. 16.1. Areal distribution of 13C-enriched, Paleoproterozoic sedimentary carbonates in the

Fennoscandian Shield. Circles designate analytical data from Karhu (1993), triangles refer to data of
Karhu and Melezhik (1992) from the Pechenga and ImandraVarzuga belts in Russia and of Baker and
Fallick (1989b) from the LofotenVesterlen area in Norway.
Ga. The carbonate units with highly positive cessions is given by a U-Pb zircon age of 2405
13C values overlie an unconformity and an 6 Ma from an igneous pebble in the basal
interval of intensive weathering at ~2.3 Ga, conglomerate underlying the carbonate units
but a definitive lower age limit for these suc- at Kuusamo (Silvennoinen, 1991). This date,
Table 16.1
Carbon and oxygen isotope values and major and trace element concentrations of carbonates from
the Vystj Formation, northern Finland.
Sample code 13C 18O Caa Mga Fea Mna Sra Mn/Sr Dolb Grid coordinates
, VPDB, VPDB % % % % ppm wt.% x y
67B-BES-76 1.59 16.11 23.92 11.45 1.45 0.43 125 34 98 7352.45 2496.17
11D-HAS-74 0.65 17.63 23.27 9.91 4.20 0.29 273 11 95 7355.30 2517.78
53-BES-76 0.15 11.81 23.47 11.33 1.22 0.19 69 28 98 7352.65 2492.75
77A-BES-77 0.30 -15.63 25.71 8.03 4.02 0.29 157 18 84 7353.18 2505.95
a) 0.5 M acetic acid soluble fraction measured by ICP-AES at the Geological Survey of Finland (GTK)
b) Wt.% dolomite in total carbonate fraction by XRD
however, cannot be used as a verification of Survey of Finland, using methods described

the higher age limit of the excursion, because by Karhu (1993).
even the lowermost sedimentary carbonates Isotope and chemical data for the sedi-
have elevated 13C values of > 4. mentary carbonates of the Vystj Formation
The evidence for the end of the excursion are given in Table 16.1. The carbon isotope
is based on isotopic records from two sedi- values show very little variation from 1.6
mentary successions, one at Kiihtelysvaara to +0.3, with a mean at 0.52 0.81.
and the other at Siilinjrvi. The lavas of the No correlation is evident between 13C and
Koljola Formation at Kiihtelysvaara have been 18O or 13C and the Mn/Sr ratio, suggesting
dated by U-Pb zircon to 2113 4 Ma and that the carbon isotope ratios of dolomites
they underlie a dolomite sequence showing a have largely retained their primary isotopic
decreasing trend in 13C. In contrast, the felsic signatures. The Vystj Formation overlies
lavas of the Koivusaari Formation at Siilin- the carbonate units of the Kivalo Group with
jrvi, dated by U-Pb zircon to 2062 2 Ma, distinctly higher 13C values. Accordingly, the
overlie a sedimentary carbonate unit showing new data from the Vystj Formation provide
a drop in 13C. Combined, these results lead to critical information corroborating the earlier
a conclusion that the carbon isotope excursion conclusion about the end of the carbon isotope
ended between 2113 4 and 2062 2 Ma (see excursion. By 2050 8 Ma, the 13C value of
Karhu, 1993, for age references). marine bicarbonate had returned back to a
New evidence from northern Finland con- value of ~0.
firms the age brackets for the end of the excur-
sion. Perttunen and Vaasjoki (2001) reported
a U-Pb zircon age of 2050 8 Ma (A643, 4. Global 13C data
Keinokangas) for a felsic effusive porphyry
in the Vystj Formation of the Perpohja Karhu and Holland (1996) extended the Fen-
belt. The formation comprises black shales noscandian carbon isotope curve presented
and dolomites interlayered with mafic and by Karhu (1993) to include carbonates from
minor felsic volcanic rocks. The contact with other continents. Their secular isotope curve is
the underlying Kivalo Group is not exposed. shown in Figure 16.2, supplemented by a few
Four dolomite samples were collected from new data points from recent literature. Only
outcrops and analyzed for the isotope compo- formations with depositional ages constrained
sition of carbon and oxygen at the Geological better than 125 Ma have been included in the
compilation. Most ages are based on U-Pb Mooidraai Formation, overlying the Ongeluk
zircon dating of magmatic units, but in the andesite suggests that the depositional age of
absence of these, less reliable carbonate Pb-Pb the volcanic units may be significantly older
ages have been accepted. than 2.2 Ga (Bau et al., 1999).
Schidlowski and Todt (1998) reported a Recently Hannah et al. (2003) reported a
Pb-Pb carbonate age of 2150 50 Ma for the Re-Os age of 2322 15 Ma for the Rooihoogte
Lomagundi carbonates of the Magondi belt in Formation of the Pretoria Group. This date
Zimbabwe, which replaces the old less precise provides the definitive upper age limit for the
estimate. Melezhik et al. (1997) reported Paleoproterozoic carbon isotope excursion.
highly positive 13C values with a mean of 9.7
2.8 for the Pistolet and Seward subgroups
of the Labrador Trough, Canada. On the basis 5. Discussion
of U-Pb zircon data (Rohon et al., 1993), these
units were deposited between 2169 2 Ma Based on data from the Fennoscandian and
and 2142 4 Ma; analytical data for the latter South African sedimentary successions, the
age have not been published yet. Sedimentary Paleoproterozoic carbon isotope excursion
carbonates in the Juderina Formation of the started between 2.32 Ga and 2.21 Ga and
Yerrida Basin in Western Australia were in- ended between 2.11 Ga and 2.06 Ga. The mini-
vestigated by Lindsay and Brasier (2002), who mum duration of the excursion is 100 Ma, and
analyzed eleven carbonate samples yielding a during this time the 13C signatures in marine
mean 13C value of 7.2 0.7. Woodhead and carbonates reached values of 10 or even
Hergt (1997) reported a Pb-Pb carbonate age higher (Figure 16.2). The carbon isotope data
of 2170 60 Ma for the Juderina Formation. and isotope age constraints from other shield
Two data points from the compilation of areas are roughly compatible with these age
Karhu and Holland (1996) were excluded on limits and the general form of the secular 13C
the basis of new geological evidence (Fig- curve, determined largely by the Fennoscan-
ure 16.2). Dolomites addressed to the >2.2 dian sedimentary successions.
Ga Sompujrvi Formation of the Perpohja It is notable that no Paleoproterozoic
belt in northern Finland were removed. New sedimentary carbonate units with 13C exceed-
geological observations suggest that these ing +4 are known to have been deposited
dolomites may actually represent the overly- after 2.06 Ga. The Lucknow Formation of
ing Palokivalo Formation, with an undefined the Griqualand West Basin in South Africa is
depositional age with respect to 2.2 Ga (Vesa characterized by highly 13C-enriched carbon-
Perttu nen, pers. comm., 2002). Also the ates, and it has been suggested to represent a
data point representing the Pretoria Group separate positive excursion at 1.9 Ga (Buick
of South Africa was discarded. The Pretoria et al., 1998; Melezhik et al., 1999). New field
Group is a thick supracrustal succession observations, however, support an interpreta-
covering several 100 Ma of geologic time. tion that the Lucknow Formation is older than
The age for the Hekpoort Formation of the the 2.06 Ga Bushveld complex and correlative
Pretoria Group was derived on the basis of to the carbonate successions deposited dur-
stratigraphical correlation with the Ongeluk ing the major excursion at 2.22.1 Ga in the
andesite of the Griqualand West Basin (Karhu Transvaal basin (Bekker et al., 2001).
and Holland, 1996). The latter volcanic unit The general form of the Paleoprotero-
has been dated to 2222 13 Ma on the basis zoic secular carbon isotope curve appears to
of Pb-Pb whole-rock analyses (Cornell et al., be fundamentally different from that of the
1996). A new carbonate Pb-Pb age from the Neoproterozoic curve. The latter is character-
15
Labrador Trough
Lomagundi Group
10
13C (, PDB)
Juderina Formation
5 Vystj Formation
-5
2.6 2.4 2.0 1.8 1.6 1.4
Age (Ga)
Fig. 16.2. Variation in the isotope composition of carbon in sedimentary carbonates during the Paleo-
proterozoic time. Open circles represent data from Fennoscandian successions from Karhu (1993),
closed circles indicate carbonate units outside Fennoscandia from Karhu and Holland (1996). Stars
indicate new data from the Labrador Trough (Melezhik et al., 1997), the Juderina Formation, Australia
(Lindsay and Brasier, 2002), and the Vystj Formation in northern Finland (this study). In addition,
the old isotope age estimate for the Lomagundi Group has been replaced by the Pb-Pb carbonate
age from Schidlowski and Todt (1998). The envelope including all data points matches exactly the one
drawn by Karhu and Holland (1996).
ized by long periods of positive 13C values Africa, where carbonate units with negative
punctuated by sharp minima associated with 13C values overlie glacial diamictites and
glaciations (Jacobsen and Kaufman, 1999). In are separated by a sequence boundary from
contrast, the Paleoproterozoic carbonate units the overlying carbonates with highly positive
deposited during the ~2.22.1 Ga excursion 13C values. The 2322 15 Ma Rooihoogte
followed the three Paleoproterozoic glacial Formation of the Transvaal Basin (Re-Os;
events. In the Fennoscandian Shield, glacially- Hannah et al., 2003) is considered to be cor-
influenced sedimentary successions occur in relative with the Duitschland Formation on the
the Sariolian Group, but they are separated by basis of sequence stratigraphic arguments. The
a ~2.3 Ga unconformity (Marmo and Ojakan- meaning of these observations is open for two
gas, 1984) from the overlying dolomite units reasons. First, while the Duitschland Forma-
with high 13C values. tion clearly underlies carbonate units formed
The carbon isotope data presented by during the 2.22.1 Ga excursion, independent
Buick et al. (1998) and Bekker et al. (2001) evidence for the duration of the Duitschland
have supplied evidence for a separate positive carbon isotope excursion is lacking. Second,
13C peak that predates the major excursion at the global significance of this carbon isotope
2.22.1 Ga and is significantly younger than shift is unknown. Bekker et al. (2001) sug-
the unconformably underlying 2.48 Ga Penge gested deposition in open marine conditions,
BIF. The data come from the Duitschland but comparable carbon isotope data from
Formation of the Transvaal Basin in South other depositional basins would be needed to
confirm the existence of a global change in
between 2.32 Ga and 2.21 Ga, but the end of
13C. The marine carbon isotope record from
the event is well defined between 2.11 Ga and
the period of Paleoproterozoic glaciations is
2.06 Ga. New data from the Vystj Forma-
still poorly defined.
tion, northern Finland, confirm the end of the
The long-term record of the carbon iso-
carbon isotope excursion to >2.05 Ga. Re-
tope composition of sedimentary carbonates
cently published carbon isotope record of the
is related to the operation of the geochemical
Duitschland Formation, South Africa, gives
carbon cycle. Carbon cycle mass balance
indication of a separate positive carbon isotope
considerations indicate that the excursion was
shift of undetermined duration, preceding
associated with an increase in the fractional
the major excursion at 2.212.11 Ga, but the
burial rate of organic carbon relatively to car-
global extent of this event is not known.
bonate carbon (e.g., Karhu, 1993). This in
turn would imply a large quantity of oxygen
released as a by-product of organic carbon
burial. Many lines of geochemical and geo-
Acknowledgment
logical evidence have suggested a significant
I thank A. Bekker for his critical review of
rise in the atmospheric oxygen levels at 2.3
the manuscript.
2.0 Ga (Holland, 1994). Recently, the finding
of mass independent fractionation (MIF) of
sulfur isotopes of sulfides and sulfates from
sedimentary units older than 2.47 Ga and the
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Schidlowski, M., Eichmann, R., Junge, C.E., 1976. anomalies in carbonates of the Karelian
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Rhodesia. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 40, chemistry of carbonate and banded iron
449455. formation rocks from the Ukraine Shield,
Schidlowski, M., Todt, W., 1998. The Proterozoic Nauk. Dumka. Kiev, 1316. (In Russian)
Chapter 17
HISTORY OF FINNNISH
BEDROCK RESEARCH
I. Haapala
CHAPTER 17 H I S T O RY OF FINNISH BEDROCK RESEARCH 681

Cover page: Geologists and undergraduates on an excursion at Kaivopuisto Park, Helsinki, about in
the year 1890. Persons from left to right: Grigori Lisitzin, Benjamin Frosterus, Gustaf Komppa, K.A.
Moberg (sitting), Th. Stolpe, J.J. Sederholm, and Hugo Berghell. In the foreground: A.J.Varn and T.
Laitinen. Note the hats and hammers.
Photo: See Aarne Laitakari, 1936. Suomen geologisen seuran historiikki 18861936. Summary: The his-
tory of the Geological Society of Finland 18861936. Bull. Comm. gol. Finlande 115, 564.
CHAPTER 17 H I S T O RY OF FINNISH BEDROCK RESEARCH

Haapala, I., 2005. History of Finnish Bedrock Research. In:
Development of science in Finland, including the geosciences, reflects the his-

tory of the country. In the 18th century, during the Age of Utility, geology was
taught at the Academy of Turku, and the government initiated projects in mineral
exploration. After Finland had been separated from Sweden and attached to
Russia as a Grand Duchy in 1809, a mining office was established in 1821 and
exploration was activated. During the Russian regime, high-quality mineralogi-
cal research was conducted by Nils and A.E. Nordenskild, Axel Gadolin, and
F.J. Wiik. At the University of Helsinki, the Chair of Geology and Mineralogy
was established in 1852. The Geological Survey of Finland was founded in 1885
and the Geological Society of Finland in 1886. These arrangements and the
advent of polarizing microscopy provided a new base for geological research.
In 18801940, J.J. Sederholm, Wilhelm Ramsay, and Pentti Eskola promoted
the Finnish geological research, petrology in particular, to the forefront of the
discipline. In the 1940s and 1950s, Th.G. Sahama and Kalervo Rankama
became internationally recognized authorities in geochemistry. Sahama also
founded a renown mineralogical laboratory at the University of Helsinki. The
Geological Survey of Finland (at present, 700 employees) has borne the respon-
sibility for geological mapping of the country, and, after World War II, also for
the airborne geophysical and geochemical mapping. Exploration and study of
mineral resources have played an important and fruitful role at the Geological
Survey, and comprehensive research has also been carried out in isotope geol-
ogy, petrology, geophysics, and geochemistry. In the 20th century, geological
units were founded also in the universities of bo Akademi, Turku, and Oulu,
as well as in the technical universities of Helsinki and Tampere. During the last
two decades, research carried out by the Survey and the universities has led to
an thoroughly refined picture of the structure, composition, and evolution of
the Precambrian crust of Finland.

1. Introduction sity of Helsinki after Finland had declared its
independence in 1917.
Geology reached the status of an independent After the Great Nordic war (17001721),
science about 200 years ago, when other during the Age of Utility, both academic
natural sciences, chemistry, physics, and bi- research and teaching in geology as well as
ology had developed to such a level that they mineral exploration by the government were
could provide a methodological base for a intensified. As a province of Sweden, Finland
science studying the structure, composition, had been impoverished by lost wars, and
and evolution of the Earth. Characteristic of sought compensation from rising economic
the critical years of geology, at the turn of the and educational standards. During this time
18th and 19th century, was the competition the significant zinc-lead-copper deposit at
of different doctrines (neptunism, plutonism, Orijrvi and the iron ore at Sillble in Helsinki
catastrophism, uniformitarianism), until the were found. Under the direction of professor
comprehensive works of Charles Lyell in the of economics, Pehr Kalm, and chemistry pro-
1830s established the general principles of fessor, Pehr Adrian Gadd, the students of the
modern geology. Before these times, geologi- Turku Academy prepared in 17541795 a num-
cal and mineralogical research and teaching ber of Masters theses with geologic-mineral-
had been carried out in the framework of other ogical topics, such as occurrence of minerals
sciences. and various rock and soil types, processing of
Geological and mineralogical research metals, as well as mineral histories of different
in Finland has been governed by the interna- provinces and parishes. Chemistry professors
tional development of the science as well as Johan Gadolin, Pehr Adolf von Bonsdorff, and
the history of the country, with its economic, Adolf Edvard Arppe continued the tradition of
cultural, and political trends and opportunities. research in mineralogy, especially in mineral
Economic considerations, exploration for min- chemistry, until the Chair of Geology and
eral resources and their exploitation, were the Mineralogy was established at the University
important factors until the 19th century, and of Helsinki in 1852.
they still influence geological research.
During the Swedish rule (11501809), first
government-induced yet haphazard mineral 2. Finnish geology in
exploration was carried out in Finland in the the 19th century
16th and 17th centuries. In 1542, mining was
started at the Ojamo iron ore deposit in Lohja. After the Finnish War of 18081809, Finland
To develop mineral exploration and mining in was separated from Sweden and attached to
Finland, the office of Commissioner of Mines Russia as a Grand Duchy. The Governor Gen-
was founded in 1638 and may be regarded as eral was in 18101823 count Fabian Steinheil,
a predecessor of the present mining office at an enthusiastic amateur mineralogist, who
the Ministry of Trade and Industry. stressed the importance of the development
The possibilities for higher geological and of mineral exploration and mining industry.
mineralogical research in Finland were sig- Especially, iron ore was needed for the iron
nificantly improved when the first university, works of Finland. On Steinheils initiative,
Academia Aboensis, was founded in Turku in the Mining Office (the name was changed
1640. Partly for political reasons, the univer- in 1858 to Bureau of Mines) was founded in
sity was moved in 1828 with its teachers and 1821, and his protge, Nils Nordenskild, an
students to Helsinki and became the Imperial internationally known mineralogist, acted as
Alexander University, to be renamed Univer- its superintendent from 1823 to 1855. Active
684 CHAPTER 17 H I S T O RY OF FINNISH BEDROCK RESEARCH

mineral exploration led to the discovery of
several, unfortunately mostly uneconomic,
iron ore fields in southern Finland.
Nordenskilds conclusion from the mea-
ger successes was that, to support mineral ex-
ploration, the entire country should be mapped
geologically. On the basis of his proposals
(1856, 1860, 1864), geological mapping in
Finland was started in 1865, but this activity
was interrupted in southern Finland by the
gold discovery at Ivalojoki River in Lapland
in 1868. The first published geological map
was the 1:800,000 bedrock map of Inari and
Utsjoki in Lapland, which was attached to
A.M. Jernstrms doctoral thesis in 1874. A
geological research office with its own direc-
tive and a 10-year budgetary endowment was
established as part of the Bureau of Mines
Nils Gustaf Nordenskild (18921866) is known
in 1877, and mapping interrupted by the
as the Father of Mineralogy in Finland. He first
gold rush to Lapland was resumed. By 1885, studied law in Academy of Turku and thereafter
nine 1:200,000-scale combined bedrock and mining, mineralogy, and chemistry in Stockholm
soil maps had been published from southern and Uppsala, obtaining the degree of Mining En-
Finland, and Czar Aleksander III approved a gineer in 1817. Nordenskild made a three year
motion by the Finnish Senate to establish an research journey to Denmark, Germany, France,
independent and permanent Geological Com- England, and Scotland, and was in charge of the
mission to continue geological research under mineral exploration and geological-mineralogical
the direction of the newly founded Board of studies in Finland as the head (superintendent)
Industry. The Commission commenced its of the Bureau of Mines. He described and named
work in 1886, and, as the Geological Society more than 20 new minerals, of which a couple
(phenakite, neotocite) are still accepted mineral
of Finland was also founded in the same year,
species. On Nordenskilds initiative, systematic
1886 became a true landmark of Finnish geol-
geological mapping was started in Finland in
ogy. Mining engineer and Master of Arts, K.A. 1865. Picture from the Archives for Prints and
Moberg, was appointed as the first Director of Photographs, the National Museum of Finland.
the Geological Commission (nowadays the
Geological Survey of Finland).
In the early and middle 19th century,
several mineralogists of international stand- natural explanation. The bedrock of southern
ing were active in Finland: superintendent Finland contains a wealth of granitic pegma-
Nils Nordenskild (17921866), regarded tites and skarns with large mineral crystals,
as the Father of Mineralogy in Finland; his some of them mineralogical rarities, and their
son A.E. Nordenskild (18321901), later investigation provided a challenge to miner-
an arctic explorer of world fame in Sweden; alogists well versed in the crystallographic
artillery general Axel Gadolin (18281892); and mineral chemical research methods of
and professor F.J. Wiik (18391909). But the day. For actual geology, the situation was
there was a dearth of well-known geologists different. Finland lacks features demonstrating
until the end of the 19th century. This has a geological processes such as active volcanoes,

became rapidly popular especially in Germany
during the second half of the 19th century, and
Harry Rosenbusch of Heidelberg became the
beacon of petrology, a new branch of geology.
Microscopic petrography provided a method
for investigation of mineral composition and
texture of rock types and for their systematic
classification, essentially improving genetic
interpretations. This opened new possibilities
also for Finnish geologists. Professor F.J. Wiik
was, in the 1870s, the first one to utilize the
polarizing microscope. Self-taught, he did not
get far with his studies but anyway gave basic
petrological education to his students, who
were then able to utilize it in their publica-
tions. Several of Wiiks talented pupils (J.J.
Sederholm, Wilhelm Ramsay, Victor Hack-
man, Walter Wahl) continued their studies
Nils Adolf Erik (A.E.) Nordenskild (1832
1901), son of N.G. Nordenskild, was trained in with famous Rosenbusch in Heidelberg, and
mineralogy and chemistry at home. He com- applied the acquired knowledge to their re-
pleted his Masters studies at the University of search and teaching. J.J. Sederholm, Wilhelm
Helsinki in 1853, and defended his mineralogical Ramsay, and Ramsays student Pentti Eskola
doctoral thesis in 1855. Plans existed to recruit became, at the end of the 19th century and the
him as the first ordinary Professor of Geology beginning of the 20th century, internationally
and Mineralogy of the University of Helsinki, acclaimed geologists promoting Finland to
but for political reasons he had to go into exile the league of foremost nations in Precambrian
to Sweden in 1857. In Sweden he became a geology, petrology in particular.
professor of the Natural History Museum and
a famous polar explorer he found the North-
east Passage in 18781879. Of the new minerals
described by A.E. Nordenskild twelve are still
3. Research organizations
accepted mineral species. Photo from the Ar-
chives for Prints and Photographs, the National 3.1. From the Geological Commission to
Museum of Finland. the Geological Survey
The Geological Commission (in Finnish,

Geologinen komissioni), founded in 1885,
high mountain chains, deep canyons, and fos- has undergone several changes in name (1925
siliferous sedimentary strata, the investigation Geologinen toimikunta or Geological Com-
and interpretation of which would have been mission, 1945 Geologinen tutkimuslaitos,
realistically possible. The flat, low-lying bed- 1984 Geologian tutkimuskeskus; the last two
rock consisting mainly of granite and gneiss translated as the Geological Survey), and
was far too tough a problem for the geologists has evolved into the present geoscientific
of that time. organization with 700 employees. Geological
But a change was on the way. The use Survey plays a leading role in the geological
of the polarizing microscope in the study of research and exploration for mineral deposits
rocks, innovated by Henry Sorby in 1858, in Finland. The institution has been led by

K.A. Moberg in 18861893, J.J. Sederholm of the environment.
18931933, Aarne Laitakari 19351960, Vla- The laboratory for isotope geology has
di Mar mo 19601969, Herman Stigzelius provided a detailed geochronological frame-
19701980, Kalevi Kauranne 19801991, work for petrogenesis of the Finnish Precam-
Veikko Lappalainen 19921997, Raimo Mati- brian. Petrological studies have focused on the
kainen 19972003, and Elias Ekdahl from metamorphic and magmatic evolution of the
2004 on. Proterozoic bedrock in Finland. In economic
The permanent staff of the institution geology, emphasis has been on metallogenetic
remained for long time rather small, 46 and ore mineralogical studies and in industrial
persons, but after Finland became indepen- mineral studies.
dent, a steady, at times pulsating, growth and Mineral exploration and related research
development began. The institution was at have always formed an important part of
its largest in the 1980s, ~1000 persons, but the activities of the Geological Survey. The
has been reduced to ~700 employers in the long-term results have been excellent: the
course of the current rationalization of the Geological Survey and the mining companies
national administration. The headquarters of have during the 20th century discovered more
the Geological Survey is located in Espoo, than 30 metallic ore deposits that have been
with regional offices in Kuopio (central exploited. Also exploration for and research on
Finland) and Rovaniemi (northern Finland). industrial minerals have been successful and
Main activities of the Survey are geoscientific the significance of this branch has markedly
mapping, exploration for mineral deposits and increased in recent years.
other geological resources, as well as general Four atomic power plants have been built
research and development in geosciences. in Finland, and since the 1970s the Geologi-
The 1:200,000 geological mapping pro- cal Survey has been involved in nuclear waste
gram was abandoned already towards the end disposal studies. The research has been carried
of the 19th century and replaced by mapping at out in collaboration with several other organi-
a scale of 1:400,000 which has been completed zations, and has produced a large amount of
and published for both bedrock and soils, and versatile information on fracturing and water-
the 1:100,000 program is well advanced. In rock interaction in the subsurface bedrock.
1951, a country-wide airborne geophysical
survey from an altitude of 150 m and a 400 m 3.2. Universities
line spacing was commenced by the activities
of Aarno Kahma and Mauno Puranen; this was The Chair of Geology and Mineralogy was
completed in 1972 as the first country in the established at the University of Helsinki
world. The airborne program has been contin- notably early, in 1852, and F.J. Wiik was ap-
ued with a line spacing of 200 m from 3040 m pointed as its first holder in 1877. Wiik carried
altitude, and will be completed within the next out meritorious mineralogical research on the
few years. Systematic geochemical mapping interdependency of physical and chemical
of soils was commenced in 1973; this entailed properties of amphiboles and pyroxenes and
much development and led to a high inter- also tried to clarify the origin and stratigraphy
national level of expertise. Geophysical and of the Finnish bedrock. Wiiks successors,
geochemical studies have given information Wilhelm Ramsay (18651928) and Pentti
on the structure of bedrock, extent of various Eskola (18831964), promoted the geologi-
rock types, and indications on potential ore cal research and teaching at the university to
deposits. Geochemical mapping also provides a high international level. Eskolas students
a foundation for monitoring the chemical state Th.G. Sahama (19101983) and Kalervo

United States, Namibia, Brazil), the geology
of the Antarctica, ore geology, and bedrock
ground water.
The Institute of Seismology forms a sepa-
rate research institute at the University of Hel-
sinki and carries out high standard lithosphere
research and other seismological studies. The
main emphasis of studies at the Division of
Geophysics has been on the hydrosphere, but
with the recently established chair in Solid
Earths Physics, teaching and research within
this sector has started to develop as well.
The Swedish speaking university at Turku,
bo Akademi, was founded at the onset of
Finlands independence in 1918. Geology has
Wilhelm Ramsay (18651928) was the Profes-
been taught from the beginning, the Chair of
sor of Geology and Mineralogy at the University
Geology and Mineralogy has been held by
of Helsinki in 18991928. He was a talented
all-round geologist, who mastered mineralogy, Helge Backlund (18781958), Hans Hausen
petrology, physical geology, and Quaternary (18841979), Gunnar Pehrman, (18951980),
geology of his time. He found and described Nils Edelman (19182005), and Carl Ehlers
the alkaline rocks of the Kola Peninsula, where (1944). In 195274, the department had as
he and his students made seven research trips professor of general and applied geology Adolf
between 1887 and 1914. He formulated in 1898 Metzger (18961965) and Rudyard Frietsch
the concept of Fennoscandia, and his Swedish (1927). The research has focused especially
textbook Geologins Grunder was used for a long on the structure and genesis of bedrock in the
time in the Nordic countries. Wilhelm Ramsay land Islands and southwestern Finland, with
(standing) on his first expedition to the Kola a recent emphasis on rapakivi granites and
Peninsula in 1887. Sitting on the left Dr. A.O.
volcanogenic rocks.
Kihlman (Kairamo), on the right prof. J.A. Pal-
The Chair of Geology and Mineralogy was
mn, the director of the expedition. Photo from
prof. Franciska Sundholms private collection. founded in the Finnish speaking University
of Turku in 1958. Professor K.J. Neuvonens
(1918) research has been directed towards
paleomagnetism of the Precambrian. His
Rankama (19131995), both personal extraor- successor, professor Heikki Papunen (1936),
dinary professors of the university, became has led ore geological and ore mineralogical
internationally leading geochemists, Sahama studies, especially on mineral deposits associ-
also a superb mineralogist. During professor ated with mafic magmatism in various parts
Martti Sakselas (18981977) tenure both of Finland.
teaching and research in ore geology and ore The University of Oulu received the
mineralogy were emphasized, and professor Chair of Geology and Mineralogy in 1961.
Heikki Tuominens (19141985) time was one It has been occupied by Juhani Seitsaari
for development in structural geology. Since (19131976) and Kauko Laajoki (1940).
1982 (Ilmari Haapala, 1939) the hard rock Associate professor Tauno Piirainen and his
research projects have focused on the study of successor professor Tuomo Alapieti have led
the petrogenesis of granites, rapakivi granites work on mafic magmatism and associated ore
in particular, in Finland and elsewhere (China, deposits in northern and eastern Finland, while

Laajoki and his students have concentrated on and international research cooperation has
the sedimentological, structural, and meta- increased markedly.
morphic evolution of northern and eastern
Finland. At the Department of Geophysics of 3. 3. Mining enterprises
the University of Oulu the emphasis has been
on lithosphere geophysics, of which the stud- Mining companies have made geological
ies of deep electromagnetics deserve special and mineralogical research in connection
mention. In 1994, the Departments of Geol- with exploration and exploitation of mineral
ogy and Geophysics of the University of Oulu resources, and the results have often been
were amalgamated to form the Department of presented in the form of scientific articles and
Geosciences, and ten years later the Division academic theses.
of Geophysics was joined to the Department Outokumpu Oy was founded on a discov-
of Physical Sciences. ery of copper ore in 1910 from a hill called
The Helsinki University of Technology Outokumpu (a Finnish word meaning Odd
has had a Chair of Mineralogy and Geology Hill) in eastern Finland. Under Eero Mki-
since 1937, Economic Geology since 1969, nens (18861953) direction it developed into
and Engineering Geology since 2003. The a large mining corporation with several mines
Chair has been occupied by Heikki Vyrynen and factories. A long-time chief geologist of
(18881956), Aimo Mikkola (1917), and the company was Paavo Haapala (19062002).
Heikki Niini (1937). In addition, the uni- During the last decades the company has
versity has an (associate) professorship for evolved into an international conglomerate of
applied geophysics. The research has focused metal industry, which has since 1995 gradu-
on economic geology and lately on potential ally centered on stainless steel production and
nuclear waste disposal sites and geophysical finished ore expioration in 2003. Since 1937
modeling. At the Tampere University of Tech- the company has supported academic research
nology there has been an (associate) professor- through Outokumpu Oyj Foundation.
ship in engineering geology since 1967. Otanmki Oy (in 1968 attached to Rauta-
The associate professorships of the ruukki Oy) was founded in 1960 on the
Finnish universities were changed to full iron-titanium-vanadium deposit of Otanmki
professorships in 1998. A new generation of in north-central Finland. The company has
professors has been appointed since 2001: exploited several iron and vanadium deposits
Juha Karhu (1951) and O.Tapani Rm and focused on steel industry. Active explo-
(1959) in Helsinki, Krister Sundblad (1952) ration under Heikki Paarmas (19202001)
and Olov Eklund (1960) in Turku, Eero leadership led to the discovery of several iron
Hanski (1954) in Oulu, and Kirsti Loukola- deposits, and the large Paleozoic apatite and
Ruskeeniemi (1957) in Helsinki University pyrochlore-bearing Sokli carbonatite stock
of Technology. The geology departments in in northeastern Finland. The petrology and
the Finnish universities are relatively small, mineralogy of the carbonatite was studied in
with two or three professors in geology and detail by Heikki Vartiainen. As the iron ore
mineralogy. The geology departments of the deposits become exhausted and mining un-
Universities of Turku and Oulu have two chairs economic in the 1980s, the company ceased
of in Quaternary geology and Helsinki three active prospecting.
chairs in the field of geology and paleontol- Malmikaivos Oy, a subsidiary of the
ogy. In spite of the small size, their impact paper company Myllykoski Oyj, has carried
on Finnish geological research has been out exploration and mining mainly in eastern
significant, and in the recent times domestic Finland. In the 1990s, the company centered

on prospecting for and study of diamond-bear-
ing kimberlites a new branch of economic
geology that has also stimulated lithospheric
research in Finland.
The structure of mining industry has since
1990s changed markedly (see p. 698), and
several operating mines and smelters are now
owned by international companies.
The industrial mineral companies Partek
Oy Ab and Oy Lohja Ab exploited long calcitic
and dolomitic marbles of Finland, and their
work is now continued by Nordcalc Oyj. The
fertilizer company Kemira Oy has exploited
the large Paleoproterozoic apatite-bearing
carbonatite of Siilinjrvi. Mondo Minerals Oy
is currently exploiting talc deposits in eastern
Finland. Several active enterprises quarry
dimension stones, mainly granites, utilizing
also geological expertise in this work.
3.4. Other research organizations
Eero Mkinen (18861953) is best known as The need for geological information of bed-
the developer of the Finnish mining industry, but rock and its physical properties has increased
he also achieved significant results during his along with the growth of volume and versatil-
6-year active spell as a geologist. His doctoral ity of rock engineering during the second half
dissertation (1912) of the granitic pegmatites of the 20th century. Different state, communal,
of the Tammela area in southern Finland is a
and private organizations have been involved
classic of pegmatite research. His studies 1917
on alkali feldspars and their monoclinic-triclinic
in geological studies related to planning and
transformation was for decades a basic work in construction of railways, highways, under-
this field. Mkinen accomplished the degree of ground shelters, subways and multipurpose
Mining Engineer in Stockholm in 1918, and gave tunnels, and water-conveyance tunnels. Since
up personal scientific research thereafter. As the the 1970s, the site-selection and planning
Managing Director of Outokumpu Oy during of the disposal of nuclear waste produced
19211953 he promoted a small, barely manag- by Finlands four atomic power plants have
ing copper mine into a large mining corporation been a challenging task for the Geological
with several mines and factories. Building on the Survey, the Technical Research Centre of
foundation laid by Mkinen, the company has Finland, several consulting companies, and
evolved into the present international conglom- power plant enterprises. Results have been
erate of metal industry. The input of Outokumpu
published in numerous reports, articles, and
Oy to geological research in Finland has been
significant not only through the companys own
academic theses.
research but also through the Outokumpu Oyj
Foundation, founded in 1937. In this photo from
1912, Eero Mkinen is a young geologist. Photo
from the archives of Outokumpu Oyj.

Jakob Johannes (J.J.) Sederholm (18631934) was the Director of the Geological Survey (Geological
Commission) of Finland in 18921933. He rose to fame by applying the uniformitarian doctrine to
the Precambrian of Finland in the 1890s. He compiled the first geological map of Finland in 1897, and
published syntheses of the geology of Finland and Fennoscandia. His studies on the origin of migma-
tites and granites belong to classics of geology, and many widely used petrologic terms are coined
by him. In the 1920s his diplomatic and organizational skills were utilized by the League of Nations
in solving international problems in Europe. Sederholm was Honorary Doctor of the universities of
Oslo, Toronto, Kingston, and Uppsala. In this photograph from 1933, Sederholm (with the peace pipe
and a bow) is decorated the Honorary Chief of the Winnebago Indians of Canada. Photo from Dr.
Barbro Scheinins private collection.
4. Main fields of research southwest of the Archean terrain. Intraconti-

nental magmatic episodes are represented by
4.1. Petrology and physical geology the 2.45 Ga layered mafic intrusions of north-
ern Finland and the voluminous 1.651.54
Geologically, Finland consists of Precam- Ga rapakivi granites and associated rocks in
brian crust covered by thin Quaternary soil. southern Finland.
The Precambrian crust can be divided into The first overall account of the Precambri-
two main domains: (1) the Archean ~3.12.6 an of Finland was presented by J.J. Sederholm
Ga granite gneisses and greenstone belts in in 1897 in a 1:2,500,000-scale bedrock map.
eastern Finland, and (2) the Paleoproterozoic He later published several further overviews,
~1.931.80 Ga Svecofennian orogenic crust the last one in 1932. In the absence of suit-

able fossiliferous sedimentary sequences and Svecofennian belt in southern Finland and the
direct age determinations, Sederholm (1932) younger Karelian belt in eastern and northern
divided the Precambrian supracrustal rocks, Finland. This model prevailed until the end of
nowadays known to be Paleoproterozoic, the 1950s.
into three cycles of sedimentation delineated The U-Pb zircon age determinations of
by three epochs of diastrophism and granite Olavi Kouvo in 1958 brought about funda-
intrusion: mental changes in the concepts of the Pre-
cambrian geology in Finland. It turned out
(1) The oldest complex of Katarchean that there was no age difference between the
Svionian sedimentary and volcanic rocks plutonic rocks of Svecofennian and Karelian
of southern Finland, the upper limit given belts, they both were 1.9 to 1.8 Ga. This led
by intrusion of post-Svionian gneissose (1st to the conclusion that the plutonism of both
group) granites; belts belongs to the same orogenic cycle;
(2) The younger Archean Bothnian and this was coined Svecokarelian orogeny by
Lapponian sedimentary and volcanic rocks Simonen in 1971. Subsequent sedimentary
penetrated by post-Bothnian (2nd group) petrological studies by Gabor Gal and others
granites; and showed that the Karelian (Jatulian) quartzites
(3) The Proterozoic Karelian cycle and conglomerates in eastern Finland do not
comprising Jatulian and Kalevian sedimen- represent orogenic geotectonic environments
tary rocks that are penetrated by post-Kal- but rather had been deposited on the Archean
evian (3rd group) granites. craton. Consequently, the term Svecokarelian
orogeny was abandoned and replaced by the
These were followed by the undeformed Svecofennian orogeny.
rapakivi granites, Jotnian sandstones, and as- The study of granites and migmatites, the
sociated diabase dike swarms. most characteristics rocks of southern Finland,
Sederholm emphasized the tectonic- was one of the cornerstones in Sederholms
stratigraphic significance of conglomerates wide and versatile production. Many of his
containing granitic pebbles such conglom- studies are classics of Precambrian research.
erates indicated deep erosion and major He introduced new geological concepts and
unconformity separating different cycles of a number of widely used petrological terms
sedimentation. He also used the intensity of (e.g., migmatite, anatexis, palingenesis, syn-
metamorphism as an age criteria sometimes texis, arterite, ptygmatic folding, nebulitic,
with wrong conclusions. migmatite, myrmekite). His studies were
Since Sederholms time, more detailed based on accurate field observations and
geological mapping, application of modern microscopic studies and they were written
methods of structural geology and sedimen- logically. Sederholms selected works of the
tary petrology, and isotope age determinations years 19071934, Granites and Migmatites,
have markedly changed the picture. Sederholm were published as ~600-page new edition in
assumed that every sedimentary or orogenic the United Kingdom in 1967.
cycle was associated with the intrusion of one Since Sederholms time one of the pro-
granite group; nowadays a minimum of two found questions in the Finnish geology has
or three granite groups are distinguished in been the origin of granites and their tectonic
an orogenic cycle. The independent second classification. Regarding origin, it was argued
cycle of his schema was soon eliminated; its whether the granites are magmatic or formed
components were included into the two other from other rocks by metasomatic granitization.
cycles to form two orogenic belts, the older Sederholm himself was, as a student of Harry

Rosenbusch from Heidelberg, a magmatist,
but when studying the migmatites of southern
Finland he adopted also metasomatic views.
Several other Finnish granite petrologists,
Pentti Eskola, Maunu Hrme, and Ahti Simo-
nen accepted both magmatic and metasomatic
models, but they stressed the importance of
these concepts differently. The strongest
magmatic standpoint was taken by Martti
Saksela. Perhaps even more heated than the
disputation on the origin of granites was the
discussion of their tectonic classification and
magmatic differentiation series. Sederholm
divided granites into four groups that rep-
resented three orogenic (Svecofennian) and
one younger anorogenic (rapakivi granites)
cycles. In 1931, Eskola divided the orogenic
granites into three groups: syn-, late-, and
postkinematic. This widely used classification
was modified by Walter Wahl, Martti Saksela,
and Ahti Simonen.
Pentti Eskola (18831964) was the Professor
of Geology and Mineralogy of the University
During the last quarter of the 20th century
of Helsinki from 1924 to 1953. He gained fame the arguing on the origin of the granites, differ-
already with his doctoral thesis On the pe- entiation series, and tectonic classification has
trology of the Orijrvi region in southwestern changed its form. The origin of granites and
Finland in 1914. In the next year, he published related rocks has been linked to plate tectonic
his famous metamorphic facies doctrine, a basic models, and by utilizing geochemical and
theme of modern metamorphic petrology, and isotope studies it has been possible to make
supplemented it in later publications. Well- far-reaching conclusions about the origin and
known are also Eskolas studies on the Norwe- evolution of the Finnish granites. The origin
gian eclogites and his eclogite theory, his studies of the rapakivi granitediabase association
on the origin and tectonic classification of gran- has been explained by the mafic underplate
ites, and his many papers dealing with origin and
model: mantle-derived hot mafic magmas
evolution of the bedrock of Finland. Although
many of Eskolas papers were based on local
have caused partial melting of the lower crust
field studies, their discussions generally dis- producing the granite magmas.
played an approach of a physical chemist rising Pentti Eskolas monumental 1914 disserta-
above mere locale. For students and the public tion On the petrology of the Orijrvi region in
he wrote several popular geological textbooks. southwestern Finland led him to pioneering
Eskola received many international scientific studies in metamorphic petrology. He recog-
honors, the last of them was the Vetlesen Prize, nized regular changes in mineral assemblages
which was awarded in 1963 in New York. He of metamorphic rocks and interpreted these to
was an Honorary Doctor of Oslo, Padua, Bonn, be related to changes in temperature and pres-
and Prague universities. In this picture, Eskola sure. In 1915, he formulated the principles of
is working at the Geophysical Laboratory in the metamorphic facies doctrine, and in 1920
Washington, D.C., in 1921.
expanded it to a more general mineral facies
doctrine.

students had the courage to carry out further
studies in that field. Two of these were Maunu
Hrme, who studied cordierite-anthophyllite
gneisses, migmatites, and granitization, and
Anna Hietanen, who later emigrated to the
United States and studied the metamorphic
rocks of California and Idaho. Heikki Tuomi-
nen and Toivo Mikkola presented reinterpreta-
tions of the Orijrvi area emphasizing the role
of tectonic mobilization, but Eskolas model
has stood the criticism. Since the 1970s, Ka-
levi Korsman and his team at the Geological
Geological mapping of the wide wilds of north- Survey have carried out systematic studies on
ern and eastern Finland was hard work requir- metamorphic geology of Finland correlating
ing also skills of a woodcraftsman and ability to
tectonic evolution and metamorphism.
collaborate with the local people. In this picture,
The Alpine-style folding and overthrust
Dr. Erkki Mikkola (19041940), the famous map-
per of Lapland, is sitting with old Mr. Hirvonen tectonics was first applied to the Finnish
in front of the Rnttil farm house in Viitasaari. Precambrian by Swiss Eugne Wegmann at
The photo was taken in the summer of 1927 by the end of the 1920s, and his studies inspired
W.W. Wilkman, Mikkolas older colleague, who several Finnish geologists to undertake tec-
did a considerable job in mapping the bedrock tonic studies. After World War II, Heikki
of eastern Finland. Essentially in 193035, Mik- Tuominen and his coworkers emphasized the
kola mapped an area of ~150 km by 280 km role of faulting, especially as a control of ore
in Lapland, and his maps and their explanatory deposition. These untraditional interpretations
texts are known of their high quality. Erkki Mik- have generally been regarded as exaggerations,
kola was killed in action in the Winter War at as was clearly the case with Tuominens 1957
the age of 35. Photo from the Archives for old
map of the Orijrvi area, but so was the role
photographs, Geological Survey of Finland.
of faulting generally underestimated in earlier
studies. The principles of polyphasic defor-
The effect of metamorphic conditions mation were applied to the Precambrian of
to mineral assemblages of rocks had been Finland in the 1970s and the 1980s by Donald
discussed earlier by George Barrow in 1893, R. Bowes (the United Kingdom), Gabor Gal,
Ulrich Grubenmann in 1904, and V.M. Gold- and Tapio Koistinen. It is nowadays agreed
schmidt in 1911, but Eskolas facies doctrine that our Paleoproterozoic and Archean rocks
gave a clear rule and model, based on the were deformed and metamorphosed in several
Gibbs phase rule, for the mutual relations be- stages, and the main stages are commonly
tween the stable mineral associations, chemi- observed during the routine mapping.
cal composition of rocks, and the temperature- The first serious plate tectonic model for
pressure conditions during metamorphism. the Svecofennian domain was presented by
The metamorphic facies doctrine is one of Anna Hietanen in 1975. She compared the
the basic principles of metamorphic petrol- evolution of igneous activity of Sierra Nevada
ogy, and has soon prevailed for 90 years as a and the Svecofennian of Finland, and sug-
practical classification scheme depicting the gested that the Svecofennian belt represents
P-T conditions of metamorphic rocks. a Cordilleran-type orogeny, with subduction
Eskolas authority in metamorphic petrol- from the southwest (Sweden) to the northeast
ogy was so profound that only a few of his under the Archean continent. The model has

been developed further by Gabor Gal, Raimo in the Department of Geology, University
Lahtinen, and Mikko Nironen, who have of Helsinki, a geochemical laboratory with
assumed at least two successive Paleoprote- an X-ray spectrograph and optical emission
rozoic subductions and accretions of volcanic spectrometer as the main instruments. In the
arcs to the Archean continent. An important late 1930s and 1940s, Sahama and his col-
additional evidence for the operation of plate laborators made a great amount of top quality
tectonics during the Paleoproterozoic time analyses from rocks and minerals. Sahama
was obtained in 1979 when Asko Kontinen studied the general geochemistry and rare
described a well-preserved 1950-Ma ophiolite earth element distributions in various rocks,
association from the ArcheanProterozoic whereas Rankama focused on the geochem-
boundary zone in eastern Finland. istry of Nb and Ta.
Interesting information of the drift history In 1945, Sahama published in Finnish
and the tectonic units of the Fennoscandian a textbook Geokemia, and five years later,
Shield has been provided by the paleomagnetic together with Rankama, an updated version
studies started in the 1960s by K.J. Neuvonen Geochemistry in English. This book combined
at the University of Turku and continued by the principles of geochemistry by V.M. Gold-
Lauri J. Pesonen and his team at the Geologi- schmidt and the results of new research. The
cal Survey and the University of Helsinki. By book became a great success, it was translated
measuring the natural remanent magnetization in several languages, and new English editions
of precisely dated rocks it has been possible were taken (6th edition in 1968). It is obvious
to construct the latitudinal drift and rotation that this book contributed markedly to the
of the shield and its components from the rapidly growing international interest in geo-
Archean to the present. Recently, the method chemistry during the 1950s to 1970s.
has also been used in reconstruction of ancient The progress in geochemistry has contin-
supercontinents with Fennoscandia as a part ued, the analytical methods have improved,
of them. and new applications have been developed.
After J.J. Sederholm, syntheses of the Geochemistry and isotope geology (or isotope
Finnish Precambrian have been presented by geochemistry) are in key position in studies
Heikki Vyrynen in 1954, Ahti Simonen (e.g., related to petrological, ore geological, and en-
1960), and Pentti Eskola (1963), as well by Mart- vironmental questions. Especially useful such
ti Lehtinen, Pekka Nurmi, and Tapani Rm studies have been in deciphering the geotec-
(1998, the Finnish predecessor of this book). tonic setting, origin, and evolution of igneous
rocks. For example, the plate tectonic models
4.2. Geochemistry and isotope geology of the Svecofennian orogenic belt are largely
based on geochemical and isotope studies.
The evolution of instrumental analytical First attempts to apply geochemistry of
chemistry laid the foundation for the rise of till to prospecting in the glaciated terrain of
geochemistry as an important new branch of Finland in the 1940s were promising, and in
geological sciences in the 1930s, with V.M. 1952 a permanent geochemical prospecting
Goldschmidt as the leading figure. Young group was established in the Geological Sur-
Thure Georg (Th.G.) Sahama, who had in vey. Soon also other prospecting organizations
1936 defended his doctoral thesis on the adopted till geochemistry as a routine explora-
microtectonics of the granulites in Lapland, tion technique; this method has generally been
joined wholeheartedly this rapidly expanding used together with geophysical and geologi-
field of science, and so did soon his friend cal methods, and in several cases with good
Kalervo Rankama. In 193738 Sahama built success. In 1970 a geochemical department,

led by Kalevi Kauranne, was established at
the Geological Survey, and it has carried out
systematic regional mapping, using till, hard
rock, stream sediment, humus, and water
samples. The main results were published in
199096 in the impressive Geochemical Atlas,
parts 13.
The contribution of Finnish geologists
to isotope geological research has been sig-
nificant. Actually, the term isotope geology
was introduced by Kalervo Rankama in 1954
in his classic text book Isotope Geology. By
rapid evolution in this field of science, he
wrote in 1960 its sequel, Progress in Isotope
Geology.
Chemist and geologist Walter Wahl carried
out in the early 1940s at the Department on
Chemistry, University of Helsinki, isotopic
analyses of U, Th, and Pb of some minerals
from Finland and Sweden. In 1948, Kalervo
Thure Georg (Th.G.) Sahama (19101983)
Rankama used carbon isotopes analyses, made
was a Personal Extraordinary Professor of at the University of Minnesota, to verify the
Geochemistry at the University of Helsinki in origin of carbon in the carbon sacks (Cory-
19451977 and Academician (19721983). He cium enigmaticum; according to the current
got interested in geology and mineralogy as a view, algae-covered mud balls in turbidites)
school boy, and his first mineralogical papers described by J.J. Sederholm from the phyllites
were published one year after matriculation at of the Tampere area.
the University of Helsinki. His doctoral thesis Olavi Kouvo (1920) has made an impor-
(1936) dealt with microfabrics of the granulites tant career in dating the crustal units of the
of Lapland, but at the end of the 1930s he went Finnish Precambrian. He first determined the
on to geochemistry. Together with Kalervo isotope ages (U-Pb, Pb-Pb, Rb-Sr, K-Ar meth-
Rankama he wrote the textbook Geochemistry,
ods) in research centers of the United States,
which became a success and activated geochemi-
cal research world-wide. In the 1950s, Sahamas
and since the 1960s at the isotope laboratory
research focused first on volcanology and then of the Geological Survey. Nowadays, the labo-
on mineralogy. Together with his assistants and ratory utilizes the U-Pb, Sm-Nd, Pb-Pb, and
coworkers, he described 15 new mineral species. Rb-Sr methods for datings and petrogenetic
In this picture from 1956, Sahama is sitting on studies, and stable isotope analyses (C, O, and
an instrument box in the upper platform (3267 H) to decipher past environmental changes.
m above sea level) of Mt. Nyiragongo caldera in The work done in this laboratory has greatly
the Virunga volcanic area. Photo: M.-E. Denaeyer contributed to our understanding of the evolu-
(from the archives of Geological Museum, Uni- tion of the Earths lithospere and Precambrian
versity of Helsinki). atmosphere.
4.3. Mineralogy
During the first half of the 20th century,

the East African rift zone, in the border area
between Uganda, Congo, and Ruanda, where
the alkaline lavas of the Nyiragongo volcano
were of especial interest. Later, Sahamas
main interest was in the granitic pegmatites
of Africa.
Together with his research assistants and
collaborators, Sahama made systematic basic
studies of several minerals and mineral groups
(humite group, nepheline and kalsilite, beryl,
kornerupine, sapphirine) and found 15 new
mineral species. Sahamas closest collabora-
tors were his research assistents and Oleg von
Knorring (191594), a Finnish mineralogist
who had moved to Leeds, United Kingdom.
In the 1950s to 1970s, several young
Kalervo Rankama (19131995) was a Personal
geologists followed Sahamas example and tur-
Extraordinary Professor of Mineral Chemistry
ned to mineralogical research, and this time
at the University of Helsinki in 19501980.
Rankamas first important studies dealt with may be regarded as the golden age of Finnish
the geochemistry of Ta (Ph. D. thesis in 1944) mineralogy. During the years 195483, Finn-
and Nb. His book Isotope Geology (1954) was a ish mineralogists described 40 new mineral
pioneering work in the field, and later he edited species, which is a remarkable achievement
book series The Precambrian IIV and The Quater- for a small professional group of a small
nary III. Photo from the archives of Geological country. The first crystal structure analysis was
Museum, University of Helsinki. made by Atso Vorma in 1963; he showed that
the mineral stokesite has a new type of chain
silicate structure.
mineralogical research comprised traditional The ore microscope became an important
mineralogicalpetrographic description of mineralogical research instrument with the
rocks and mineral deposits. Well-known Finn- growing exploration and ore exploitation ac-
ish mineralogists from this period are Leon. tivities after World War II. Instructions in ore
H. Borgstrm, Walter Wahl, Pentti Eskola, mineralogy and ore microscopy became an im-
Eero Mkinen, Aarne Laitakari, and Gunnar portant subject in university training, and ore
Pehrman. microscope was adopted as a standard tool by
A new era in Finnish mineralogical re- exploration and mining geologists. It has been
search started when Th.G. Sahama switched useful especially in identification of ore miner-
from geochemistry to mineralogy. The geo- als and in mineral processing, where the mode
chemical laboratory of the University of of occurrence and intergrowths of ore minerals
Helsinki changed in 1952 to a mineralogical are of great practical importance. Later, the
laboratory where X-ray diffraction (powder ore microscope has been supplemented and
and single crystal methods) and soon also gradually partly replaced by electron micro-
infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron probe. The first electron microprobe, operated
microscopy were used to study, from the early by Jaakko Siivola, was implemented at the
morning to the night, minerals collected on Geological Survey in 1964.
the expeditions to Africa. First expeditions The 670 mineral species found in Finland
were directed to the Virunga volcanic field in so far are described with their characteristics

and properties, many also with color pictures, mining company in the 1920s into profitable
in a 400-page book Suomen Mineraalit (Min- production.
erals of Finland) compiled by Kai Hytnen On the peace of Tartu, in 1920, Finland
(1999). received Petsamo (Pechenga) region from Rus-
Several Finnish mineralogists and chem- sia, and in the 1920s1930s nickel deposits
ists have also studied mineralogical and were found in this area. The exploitation was
chemical composition of meteorites. Research conducted as Finnish-Canadian cooperation,
in this field was started in 1821 by Nils until the area was reclaimed back to Soviet
Nordenskild. During the 20th century Leon. Union in 1944.
H. Borgstrm, Walter Wahl, and Birger Wiik At the end of the 1930s, the large Fe-Ti-
continued studies on meteorites, and Wiik was V deposit of Otanmki, the Cu-W deposit of
one of the scientists invited to analyze the first Yljrvi, and the Ni deposit of Makola were
lunar samples brought by Apollo 11. In 1969, discovered. After World War II, discoveries
Martti Lehtinen showed by mineralogical continued with the important Vihanti Cu-Zn-
and petrological studies that the dacite of Pb, Pyhsalmi Cu-Zn-pyrite, and Kemi Cr
Lappajrvi is actually an impact lava rock and deposits, the Ni-Cu deposit of Kotalahti, Hi-
the circular Lake Lappajrvi is a 75 Ma-old tura and Vammala, Virtasalmi Cu, Luikonlahti
meteorite impact crater, not a volcanic crater Cu-Zn-Co-pyrite, and Hammaslahti Cu-Zn, as
or caldera as previously assumed. After that, well as a number of smaller ones. Altogether,
ten other impact craters and sites have been 33 exploitable ore deposits were found in the
identified in Finland. 20th century and a strong metal industry was
built on the discoveries. When several base
4.4. Economic geology metal mines became exhausted in the 1970s
and later, Outokumpu Oy brought raw material
At the turn of the 19th and 20th century, there also from abroad. Rautaruukki Oy finished
were three periodically operating mines in exploitation of Finnish mines in 1990, and is
Finland: the old Orijrvi Cu-Zn mine (dis- nowadays manufacturing imported iron ore.
covered in 1757) in southwestern Finland and Since Rautaruukki and Outokumpu withdrew
the Pitkranta Cu-Zn-Sn mining field and the from ore exploration, international companies
Vlimki iron deposit in Ladogan (Russian) and some Finnish junior companies have
Karelia. The gold rush to Lapland, promoted increased their exploration activities, which
by the discovery of placer gold in the gravels has led to discoveries of new precious metal,
of Ivalojoki River, had already slowed down, diamond and industrial mineral occurrences.
and the ore potential of Finland was generally Since Rautaruukki and Outokumpu with-
regarded small. drew from ore exploration, international
The discovery of the Outokumpu cop- companies and some Finnish junior companies
per deposit in 1910 by Otto Trstedt was have increased their exploration activities,
an example of the successful application of which have led to discoveries of new pre-
geological knowledge to exploration; the cious metal, diamond and industrial mineral
prospecting was started in 1908 on the basis occurrences.
of a glacial boulder and the deposit was found The production of industrial minerals
two years later about 50 km northwest of the increased strongly during the 20th century, es-
discovery site of the boulder. The exploita- pecially since 1979. The main deposits include
tion of this large high-grade Cu-Zn deposit calcitic and dolomitic marbles in southern
was for several years operating mainly with Finland (Parainen, Tytyri, Ihalainen, Mustio),
loss, until Eero Mkinen (18861953) led the the Siilinjrvi apatite-flogopite carbonatite

(since 1979), several talc (soapstone) deposits, first serious steps in Finland around the middle
and deposits containing wollastonite, quartz, of the 18th century, during the Age of Utility.
and feldspar, as well as silicate raw materials The government activated prospecting for ore
for concrete and rock wool. Since the 1980s, deposits, in part successfully, and geological
the exploration carried out by the Geological subjects were taught at the Academy of Turku.
Survey has centered on kaolin, marble, and During the 19th century, when Finland was a
ilmenite, and important new research results Grand Duchy of Russia, the country had sev-
have been published creditably. eral internationally well-known mineralogists
The discovery of diamond-bearing kimber- (Nils and A.E. Nordenskild, Axel Gadolin,
lites by Malmikaivos Oy in the 1990s in east- F.J. Wiik) who studied mineral occurrences,
ern Finland opened new views for economic mainly pegmatites and skarns containing
geology, and further exploration and research euhedral crystals, suitable for crystallographic
is continued by other organizations. measurements and chemical analyses. The
When Finland joined the European deeply eroded flat bedrock, consisting mainly
Economic Area (EEA) and European Union of gneisses and granites, did not provide realis-
(EU) in 1994-95, the mining legislation was tic possibility for ordinary geological research
formulated more open for foreign residents, at that time.
companies and foundations according to EEA During 18801940, strong progress took
laws and regulations. This has led to arrival of place in the geological research. This evolu-
many international companies in Finland and tion was in part related to development in the
they now own several mines. Increased explo- educational and scientific organization in the
ration activities of the international companies country. Teaching of geological subjects was
and some Finnish junior companies as well as established when the Chair of Geology and
the work of the Geological Survey of Finland Mineralogy (founded in 1852) was finally
has led to discoveries of new precious metal, filled in 1877 in the University of Helsinki.
industrial mineral and diamond occurrences The Geological Commission (Geological
Important geological and mineralogical Survey) was established in 1885 and the Geo-
data is commonly obtained during exploration logical Society in 1886. Another important
and exploitation of mineral deposits. For ex- prerequisite for the rise of geology in Finland
ample, five doctoral dissertations and a num- was the international methodological evolu-
ber of smaller articles have been published on tion. The new discovery, to study thin sections
the Outokumpu ore field. The ore geological of rocks by polarizing microscope, provided
research projects of the universities have also an excellent possibility to classify and infer the
produced important basic data, and one gold origin of the crystalline schists and plutonic
deposit at Orivesi was found in a university- rocks of the Finnish Precambrian.
company joint project. Combination of skilled field work and
The Geological Survey of Finland has for microscopic petrography opened new avenues
several decades systematically collected ore for geological research and created possibili-
geological data and published metallogenic ties to apply the uniformitarian doctrine to the
maps and their explanatory texts, including primitive (Precambrian) crust. Evidently
the synthesis of Kahma (1973) and the detailed also the overall atmosphere in a country that
up-to-date work of Saltikoff et al. (2005). had became conscious of its national identity
was favorable for science and arts. J.J. Seder-
5. Synopsis holm, Wilhelm Ramsay, and Pentti Eskola
raised the geological, especially petrological,
Geological research and teaching took their research and education in Finland to a high

international level. As stated by Akiho Miya- and changing environment to a new level.
shiro, Bulletin de la Commission gologique Within the universities, important research
de Finlande was in the first half of the twenti- has been made, not only in the geology de-
eth century among the most important journals partments, but also in the geophysical units:
in metamorphic geology of the world. Institute of Seismology in the University of
The decades after World War II were a Helsinki and geophysical groups of Helsinki
time of steady evolution and laying of new and Oulu Universities and in the Helsinki
foundation for both sophisticated geological University of Technology. The collaboration
research and mining industry. Geological of geologists and geophysicists has proven to
Survey of Finland made pioneering work in be very fruitful.
carrying out airborne geophysical mapping The research activity of young geolo-
and geochemical mapping over the whole gists has increased markedly, especially in
country, simultaneously with geological map- the 1990s. For example, in the 1990s, 78
ping and active exploration. This was one geologists defended their doctoral (Ph.D.)
reason for the numerous discoveries of new dissertations in Finnish universities, while the
ore deposits in the 1950s1970s. The role corresponding number in the 1960s was 29,
of Aarno Kahma, the head of the exploration in the 1970s 39, and in the 1980s 37. Many
department, must be acknowledged for plan- of the dissertations have received international
ning and leading these activities. The higher recognition.
scientific research was for a long time in the Although the crust of Finland is among the
hands of relatively few internationally well- best known Precambrian shield areas, much
known scientists. Th.G. Sahama and Kalervo is still to be done. New important findings are
Rankama rose in the 1940s and 1950s to fame made continuously. These include the discov-
in the field of geochemistry, Rankama also in eries of diamond-bearing kimberlites, gold
isotope geology. and platinum deposits, and meteoric impact
Sahama moved in the 1950s from geo- craters. Improved models have been developed
chemistry to mineralogy, becoming an inter- for crustal and environmental evolution, and
national figure also in that field. When also these may again be utilized in practical issues,
many of Sahamas students and assistants such as planning of exploration and environ-
specialized in mineralogy, was mineralogical ment protection. There is no end to the work
research in Finland on remarkably high level of geologists in Finland.
during the 1950s1970s.
Another example of the effect of one
scientist devoted to research is found in iso- Acknowledgments
tope geology. The isotope laboratory, built at
the Geological Survey under Olavi Kouvos The manuscript was revised by Professors
leadership, has grown to a top-class research Heikki Niini, Tapani Rm, Martti Lehtinen,
unit where 35 researchers study, by utilizing and Pekka Nurmi. Their valuable suggestions
a variety of isotopic methods, the origin and and fruitful discussions are highly appreci-
evolution of the Earths crust and environ- ated.
mental issues.
In recent years, the research made by
the Geological Survey, universities, mining Selected literature
companies, and other research organizations
have lifted the knowledge of the structure, This article is based mainly on the authors ear-
composition, and evolution of the lithosphere lier short histories of geological research and

sciences in Finland. For those who want to read History of bedrock engineering geology in
more about the geological sciences in Finland, Finland. Vuoriteollisuus-Bergshanteringen
a short list of references is given here. 58 (1), 3543.
Saltikoff, B., Puustinen, K., Tontti, M., 2005. Expla-
Anonym, 2005. Finland. Mining Journal special nation to the metallogenic map of Finland.
publication, London, February 2005, 24 Geological Survey of Finland, Special
p. Paper 35 (in print).
Eskola, P., 1963. The Precambrian of Finland. In: Sederholm, J.J., 1967. J.J. Sederholm, Selected
K. Rankama, (Ed.), The Geologic Systems, Works, Granites and Migmatites. Oliver
The Precambrian 1. Interscience Publishers, Boyd, Edinburgh and London. 608 p.
New York. 145263. Tanskanen, H. (Ed.), 1986. The development
Haapala, I., 1986. Geologian yliopisto-opetuksen of geological sciences in Finland. Geo-
historia Suomessa.(History of Geology logical Survey of Finland, Bulletin 336,
teaching in Finnish universities). Opus- 1344. The volume contains following
culum 6 (1), 363 articles:
Haapala, I., 2000. Geologia [Geology] In: P. Kauranne, L.K.: Foreword, 57.
Tommila, A. Tiitta, (Eds.), Suomen tieteen Stigzelius, H.: Mineral exploration and
historia 3 (The history of Science in Finland geological surveys in Finland before
3), 268305. 1886, 919.
Hanski, E., 2001. History of stratigraphical re- Simonen, A.: Stratigraphic studies on the
search in northern Finland. In: M. Vaasjoki Precambrian in Finland, 2137.
(Ed.), Radiometric age determinations from Hrme, M.: The history of the petrologic
Finnish Lapland and their bearing on the study in Finland, 4178.
timing of Precambrian volcano-sedimen- Hytnen, K.: The history of mineralogy
tary sequences. Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec. in Finland 19181984, 79100.
Pap. 33, 1543. Virkkala, K.: History of studies on
Hausen, H., 1968. The history of geology and Quaternary geology in Finland, 101
mineralogy in Finland 1828-1918. The 163.
history of Learning and Science in Finland Papunen, H.: One hundred years of ore
18281918. 7a. Helsinki 1968. exploration in Finland, 165203.
Hytnen, K., 1999. Suomen Mineraalit (Minerals Ketola, M.: The development of explo-
of Finland). Geologian tutkimuskeskus. ration geophysics in Finland, 205231.
Erillisjulkaisu (Geol. Surv. Finland, Spec. Kauranne, L.K.: Geochemical research
Publ.), 1399. in Finland, 233258.
Niini, H., 1997. Maankamaran jalostus ihmis- Lappalainen, V.: The history of engineer-
kunnan perustarve, 60 vuotta geologian ja ing geology in Finland, 259271.
geofysiikan opetusta insinreille (Refining Bostrm, R.: The history of the stone and
of the bedrock a fundamental necessity mineral industry in Finland, 273298.
to mankind). Teknillinen korkeakoulu, in- Haapala, I.: The history of geology
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Tiedonanto TKKIGE45/1997. 344.
Lehtinen, M., 1969. Meteoriitti-impaktiteoria ja Virkkala, K., 1986. Geologian tutkimuskeskuksen
Lappajrvi-muodostuma. Phil.Lic. Thesis, 100-vuotishistoriikki. Summary: History
Univ. Helsinki. 1140. (in Finnish) of the Geologiacal Survey of Finland 1886-
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geologian historiaa Suomessa. Abstract: logical Survey of Finland), Espoo, 193.

CONTRIBUTORS
Editors
Dr. Martti Lehtinen Dr. Pekka A. Nurmi
is Professor and Head of the is Professor and Research Di-
Geological Museum of the rector (Bedrock Geology and
Finnish Museum of Natural Mineral Resources) at the Geo-
History, University of Helsin- logical Survey of Finland. He
ki. He also lectures as a docent also lectures as a docent at the
at the University of Helsinki. University of Helsinki.
Email: martti.lehtinen@helsinki.fi Email: pekka.nurmi@gtk.fi

Address: Department of Geology, P.O. Box 64, Address: Geological Survey of Finland,
FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland
Dr. O. Tapani Rm Mr. Sakari Haapaniemi, MA
is Professor of Petrology and is visual planner at the the
Physical Geology at the Depart- Inclus Communications in
ment of Geology, University of Helsinki.
Helsinki.
Email: tapani.ramo@helsinki.fi Email: sakari.haapaniemi@inclusstudio.fi

Address: Department of Geology, P.O. Box 64, Address: Inclus Communications, FI-00520 Hel-
FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland sinki, Finland
Authors
Dr. Ilmari Haapala Dr. Eero Hanski
is Professor Emeritus at the is Professor of Geochemistry at
Department of Geology, Uni- the Department of Geosciences,
versity of Helsinki. University of Oulu.
Email: ilmari.haapala@helsinki.fi Email: eero.hanski@oulu.fi

Address: Huvilakuja 2, FI-02730 Espoo, Finland Address: Department of Geosciences, P.O. Box
3000, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland
CONTRIBUTORS 703
Dr. Hannu Huhma Dr. Markku Iljina
is leading the Laboratory of is Senior Geologist at the Geo-
Isotope Geology at the Geo- logical Survey of Finland. He
logical Survey of Finland. He also lectures as a docent at the
also lectures as a docent at the University of Oulu.
University of Turku.
Email: hannu.huhma@gtk.fi Email: markku.iljina@gtk.fi

Address: Geological Survey of Finland, Address: Geological Survey of Finland,
P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland P.O. Box 77, FI-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland
Dr. Yrj Khknen Dr. Juha Karhu

is University Lecturer and do- is Professor of Geochemistry
cent at the Department of Geol- and Hydrogeology at the De-
ogy, University of Helsinki. partment of Geology, Univer-
sity of Helsinki.
Email: yrjo.kahkonen@helsinki.fi Email: juha.karhu@helsinki.fi

Address: Department of Geology, P.O. Box 64, Address: Department of Geology, P.O. Box 64,
FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
Dr. Jarmo Kohonen Dr. Tapio Koistinen

is Director of Information Man- is retired State Geologist of the
agement at the Geological Sur- Geological Survey of Finland.
vey of Finland. He also lectures
as a docent at the University of
Helsinki.
Email: jarmo.kohonen@gtk.fi Email: riitta.tapio.koistinen@kolumbus.fi

Address: Geological Survey of Finland,
P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland
Dr. Annakaisa Korja Dr. Kalevi Korsman

is Seismologist at the Institute is retired Research Professor of
of Seismology, University of the Geological Survey of Fin-
Helsinki. She also lectures as land. He lectures as a docent at
a docent at the University of the University of Helsinki.
Helsinki.
Email: annakaisa.korja@seismo.helsinki.fi Email: kalevi.korsman1@luukku.com

Address: Institute of Seismology, P.O. Box 68, Address: Pietilntie 6 A, FI-03100 Nummela,
FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland Finland
704 CONTRIBUTORS
Dr. Kauko Laajoki Dr. Raimo Lahtinen
is Professor of Geology and is Manager of Bedrock and Mi-
Mineralogy at the Department neral Resources at the Southern
of Geosciences, University of Finland Unit of the Geological
Oulu. Survey of Finland. He also lec-
tures as a docent at the Univer-
sity of Helsinki.
Email: kauko.laajoki@oulu.fi Email: raimo.lahtinen@gtk.fi

Address: Department of Geosciences, P.O. Box Address: Geological Survey of Finland,
3000, FI-90014 University of Oulu, Finland P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland
Dr. Erkki J. Luukkonen Dr. Satu Mertanen

is Manager of Bedrock Geol- is Senior Geophysicist at the
ogy and Mineral Resources at Geological Survey of Finland.
the Eastern Finland Unit of the
Geological Survey of Finland.
Email: erkki.luukkonen@gtk.fi Email: satu.mertanen@gtk.fi

P.O. Box 1237, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland
Dr. Mikko Nironen Dr. Hugh E. OBrien

is Senior Research Scientist is Senior Research Scientist
at the Geological Survey of at the Geological Survey of
Finland. He also lectures as Finland.
a docent at the University of
Helsinki.
Email: mikko.nironen@gtk.fi Email: hugh.obrien@gtk.fi

P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland
Dr. Petri Peltonen Dr. Lauri Pesonen

is Senior Research Scientist is Professor of Solid Earth Geo-
at the Geological Survey of physics at the Department of
Finland. He also lectures as Physical Sciences, University
a docent at the University of of Helsinki. He also lectures
Helsinki. as a docent at the Technical
University of Helsinki.
Email: petri.peltonen@gtk.fi Email: lauri.pesonen@helsinki.fi

Address: Geological Survey of Finland, Address: Department of Geophysics, P.O. Box 64,
P.O. Box 96, FI-02151 Espoo, Finland FI-00014 University of Helsinki, Finland
CONTRIBUTORS 705
Dr. Peter Sorjonen-Ward Dr. Matti Vaasjoki
is Senior Research Scientist was Senior Research Scientist
at the Geological Survey of at the Geological Survey of
Finland. He also lectures as Finland. He also lectured as
a docent at the University of a docent at the University of
Helsinki. Helsinki. He died on November
23rd, 2004, at the age of 58.
Email: peter.sorjonen-ward@gtk.fi
Address: Geological Survey of Finland, P.O. Box
1237, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
Dr. Heikki Vartiainen Dr. Jouni Vuollo

is retired Chief Inspector of is Senior Geologist at the Geo-
Mines of the Ministry of Trade logical Survey of Finland. He
and Industry. also lectures as a docent at the
University of Oulu.
Address: Vanha Turuntie 4 F, FI-02940 Espoo, Email: jouni.vuollo@gtk.fi

Finland Address: Geological Survey of Finland,
P.O. Box 77, FI-96101 Rovaniemi, Finland
706 CONTRIBUTORS
INDEX OF PERSONS AND
INSTITUTIONS
bo Akademi University, 688 Hrme, Maunu, 692, 693
Academy Aboensis (Academy of Turku), 684, Hausen, Hans, 688
685, 698 Helsinki University of Technology, 689, 699
Alapieti, Tuomo, 688 Hietanen, Anna, 693, 694
Arppe, Adolf Edvard, 684 Hjrne, Urban, 536
Backlund, Helge, 688 Hytnen, Kai, 697
Barrow, George, 693 Imperial Alexander University, 684
Bonsdorff, Pehr Adolf von, 684 Institute of Seismology, 482, 552, 688, 699
Borgstrm, Johan Henrik Leonard (Leon. H.), Jernstrm, Anders Mauritz, 685
696, 697 Kahma, Aarno, 687, 699
Bowes, Donald R., 694 Kalm, Pehr, 684
Bureau of Mines, 684, 685 Karhu, Juha, 689
Chair in Economic Geology, 689 Kauranne, Kalevi, 687, 695
Chair of Engineering Geology, 689 Kemira Oy, 54, 689
Chair of General and Applied Geology, 689 Knorring, Oleg von, 697
Chair of Geology and Mineralogy, 684, 687, Koistinen, Tapio, 694
688, 689, 699 Kontinen, Asko, 249, 694
Chair in Quaternary Geology (Geology and Korsman, Kalevi, 694
Paleontology), 689 Kouvo, Olavi, 4, 692, 696, 699
Chair in Solid Earth Physics, 688 Laajoki, Kauko, 688, 689
Commissioner of Mines, 684 Lahtinen, Raimo, 694
Department on Chemistry, 695 Laitakari, Aarne, 687, 696
Department of Geology and Mineralogy 689 Lappalainen, Veikko, 687
Department of Geophysics, 689 Lehtinen, Martti, 695, 697
Department of Geology, 689 Loukola-Ruskeeniemi, Kirsti, 689
Department of Geosciences, 689 Lyell, Charles, 684
Edelman, Nils, 688 Mkinen, Eero, 689, 690, 696, 698
Ehlers, Carl, 688 Malmikaivos Oy, 259, 618, 622, 623, 689, 698
Ekdahl, Elias, 687 Marmo, Vladi, 687
Eklund, Olav, 689 Matikainen, Raimo, 687
Eskola, Pentti, 536, 686, 687, 692, 693696, 699 Metzger, Adolf, 688
European Diamonds PLC, 618 Miyashiro, Akiho, 699
Finnminerals Oy, 689 Mikkola, Aimo, 689
Frietsch, Rudyart, 688 Mikkola, Erkki, 694
Gal, Gabor, 692, 694 Mikkola, Toivo, 694
Gadd, Pehr Adrian, 684 Mining Office, 684
Gadolin, Axel, 685, 698 Ministry of Trade and Industry, 684
Gadolin, Johan, 684 Moberg, K.A. (Karl Adolf), 682, 685, 687
Geological Society of Finland, 682, 685, 699 Moliis, Joseph, 536
Geological Survey of Finland, 4, 6, 30, 40, 41, Myllykoski Oy,j 689
60, 104, 142, 198, 201, 413, 418, 427, 432, Natural History Museum (Stockholm), 686
448, 462, 492, 534, 577, 608, 614, 620, 629, Neuvonen, K.J. (Kaarlo Juhana), 688, 694
675, 685687, 690, 691, 694699 Niini, Heikki, 689
Geological Survey of Sweden, 492 Nironen, Mikko, 694
Goldschmidt, V.M. (Victor Moritz), 695 Nordenskild, Nils Adolf Erik (= A.E.), 685,
Grubenmann, Ulrich, 693 686, 698
Haapala, Ilmari, 688 Nordenskild, Nils Gustaf, 684686, 697, 698
Haapala, Paavo, 689 Nurmi, Pekka, 695
Hackman, Victor, 536, 686 Otanmki Oy, 689
Hanski, Eero, 689 Outokumpu Oy, 689, 690, 698
INDEX 707
Outokumpu Oyj, 104, 690 Sederholm, J.J. (Jakob Johannes), 6, 393, 446,
Outokumpu Oyj Foundation, 689, 690 536, 682, 686, 687, 690692, 695, 696, 699
Outokumpu Mining Ltd, 261 Seitsaari, Juhani, 688
Oy Lohja Ab, 689 Siivola, Jaakko, 697
Paarma, Heikki, 689 Simonen, Ahti, 692, 695
Palmn, J.A. (Johan Axel), 688 Sorby, Henry, 686
Papunen, Heikki, 688 Steinheil, Fabian, 684
Partek Oy, 689 Stigzelius, Herman, 687
Pehrman, Gunnar, 688, 696 Sundblad, Krister, 689
Pesonen, Lauri J., 694 Tampere University of Technology, 689
Piirainen, Tauno, 688 Technical Research Centre (Finland), 690
Posiva Co., 200, 223 Tuominen, Heikki, 688, 694
Puranen, Mauno, 687 University of Helsinki, 684, 686688, 694697,
Rm, Tapani, 695 699
Ramsay, Wilhelm, 686688, 699 University of Oulu, 104, 198, 688, 689, 699
Rankama, Kalervo, 688, 695697, 699 University of Toronto, 198
Rautaruukki Oy, 611, 617, 621, 689 University of Turku, 688, 694
Ridley, John, 67 Vaasjoki, Matti, 27, 536
Rosenbusch, Harry, 686, 692 Vartiainen, Heikki, 689
Royal Ontario Museum (Canada), 198 Vyrynen, Heikki, 689, 695
Russian Academy of Sciences, 198 Vorma, Atso, 536, 697
Sahama, Th.G. (Thure Georg), 536, 687, 688, Wahl, Walter, 536, 686, 692, 695697
695-697, 699 Wegmann, Eugne, 694
Saksela, Martti, 688, 692 Wiik, Birger (H.B.), 697
Savolahti, Antti, 536 Wiik, F.J. (Fredrik Johan), 685687, 699
708 INDEX
INDEX OF LOCALITIES
Aakenustunturi, 147, 165167 Ecker, 577 Hrn, 514
Ahmatunturi, 65, 67, 68 Edefors, 514 Hassela, 487, 498
Ahmavaara, 107, 112, 114, 126, Ekojoki, 436 Hattu, 24, 28, 29, 3133, 35
127, 129131 Enonteki, 7 38, 48, 52, 82
Ahola, 285, 289, 295, 300, 303, Erjrvi, 450, 460 Haukilampi, 305, 310
326 Erivaaransuo, 305, 306, 330 Haukivesi, 615, 654, 658
Aholanvaara, 64 Eskosenvaara, 311 Haukivuori, 346, 354, 355, 359,
Ahvenisto, 537, 539, 542, 544 Eurajoki, 537, 539, 540, 543, 361, 378, 379
546, 548 545, 549 Hautavaara, 306
Ahvenlammi, 354, 355, 367 Evijrvi, 346, 350352, 357, Haveri, 352, 365368, 370
370 361364, 389, 394, 395 373, 394
Akanvaara, 116, 118, 120, 122, Fedorova Tundra, 653 Heinvesi, 309
146, 150, 153, 154, 167171, Finnmark, 656 Heinola, 377, 539
215, 226, 285, 291, 298, 302, Fjlskr, 537, 539 Helsinki, 2, 539, 548, 552, 682,
303, 305, 306, 323, 329, 330, Fgl, 548 684, 686689, 693,695697,
587 Forssa, 375378, 426 699, 700
Akkanasvarri, 69 Gardsj, 73 Hepokngs, 292, 293
Alajrvi, 354 Gvle, 567, 573 Hetehongikko, 291, 292, 307
Alakyl, 312 Gulf of Bothnia, 15, 330, 362, Hetta, 69, 449, 470, 472
land, 15, 460, 537, 539, 541, 482, 488, 494, 499, 507, 567, Hietaharju, 44
545, 546, 548, 549, 556, 567, 579, 586 Himanka, 353, 354
573, 574, 575, 577, 581, 582, Haajainen, 317, 318 Himmerkinlahti, 289, 310, 311,
584, 655, 688 Haapajrvi, 355 323, 324
Ala-Penikka, 107109, 122, Haapala, 305, 307 Hirsil, 374, 375
123, 127, 128, 130, 131, 294 Haapalanmki, 320, 321, 323 Hirsimaa, 290
Alasenlahti, 368 Haapamki, 374 Hirvaskoski, 59, 62, 282, 283,
Ala-Siikajrvi, 313 Haaparanta, 143, 165, 167, 181, 285, 287, 326, 611, 614, 615
Alavieska, 363 183, 290, 455 Hitura, 413, 419, 698
Almeskra, 567 Haasianvaara, 51 Hogland, 546
Aln, 615, 627 Haaskalehto, 153, 171, 172 Hoivasvuori, 368, 373
Antinneva, 363 Hailuoto, 573, 580, 591 Hokkalampi, 36, 291, 295, 301,
Arkhangelsk, 619, 631, 634, Haisuvuoma, 152 302, 305, 329
635 Hakasuo, 297 Honkajrvi, 297, 299
va, 450, 459462, 470 Hallakulma, 302, 312 Honkala, 297
Arvidsjaur, 182, 388 Hallavaara, 302 Honkavaara, 63
Aulanko, 348 Halmejrvi, 51 Horsmanaho, 243
Bamble, 656 Halpanen, 617, 631 Hosko, 33
Belomorian, 2224, 26, 28, 64 Halti, 585, 586 Hytiinen, 12, 282, 291, 307,
66, 74, 77, 78, 82, 175, 487, Hme, 12, 346, 348, 350, 313, 315, 319
489, 494, 496, 500, 501, 503, 351, 354, 375378, 391, Humaljrvi, 321
507 392, 395, 396, 411, 417, Huosiuslampi, 305
Bergslagen, 5, 346, 351, 382, 426, 437, 487, 490, 499, 507, Huuskonvaara, 51
388, 390392, 396, 487,489, 509511, 539, 548 Hyrynsalmi, 297, 311, 314, 315
491, 494, 499, 500, 503, Hmeenkyr, 453 Hyvink, 348, 353, 354, 375,
507509, 511, 512, 519 Hmeenlinna, 346, 375, 377 376, 380, 391, 413, 421, 426,
Biennaroavvi, 69 Hamina, 539, 546 428, 429, 434, 435
Bjrnevatn, 71, 73 Hammaslahti, 313, 698 Hyypinmki, 383
Bodom, 537, 539, 548 Hangasoja, 147, 152, 153, 167 Iilijrvi, 348
Burakovka, 201, 226, 652 Hanko, 470 Iisalmi, 11, 30, 51, 53, 54, 56
aravarri, 182 Haparanda, 143, 455 58, 61, 65, 7478, 81, 82,
Dala, 567, 572, 588 Harhala, 370 201, 240, 273, 282, 285, 291,
Dividal, 582585, 591 Harjavalta, 572 301303, 317, 325327,
INDEX 709
329, 330, 455, 487, 489, 651, Kajaani, 50, 54, 238, 320, 325, Kettupe,, 348
653 326 Khibina, 608
Iitti, 542, 545, 548, 552 Kalak, 585 Kiannanniemi, 40
Iivaara, 16, 42, 593, 608, 628 Kalanti, 468 Kianta, 29, 30, 36, 3845,
632, 634, 636 Kalkku, 348 48, 5153, 56, 5860, 62,
Ikaalinen, 346, 371 Kalkunmki, 310 75, 7982, 282
Ilkonahonkallio, 318 Kallinkangas, 306 Kiekki, 284, 285, 291, 299, 329
Ilomantsi, 11, 13, 20, 2832, Kalliomaa, 318 Kieksi, 573
35, 36, 38, 40, 45, 5254, Kalliovaara, 323 Kiihtelysvaara, 284, 295, 297,
56, 58, 60, 75, 78, 8083, Kangasala, 368 301, 305, 310, 315, 675
228 Kankaanp, 346, 371 Kiikoinen, 346, 371
Ilvesvaara, 292, 295 Kannus, 353, 354 Kiimarova, 151, 163
Imandra, 487, 488, 494, 501, Kapsajoki, 152, 163 Kiimaselk, 152
653, 673, 674 Karakkalehto, 60 Kiiminki, 11, 282, 284, 285,
Inari, 7, 24, 7072, 142, 175, Karankaniemi, 196 287, 313, 314, 317, 318, 331
176, 449, 487, 494, 496, 501, Karasjok, 175, 656 Kilvenjrvi, 110, 112, 129
503, 654, 685 Karelia, Russian, 26, 64, 78, Kirintkangas, 285, 305, 306,
Ipatti, 28, 36 142, 154, 171, 177, 179, 196, 313, 324, 326, 329, 330
Iso-Kartano, 355 198, 201, 203, 204210, Kirkkonummi, 2
Iso-Naakkima, 583, 586, 589 213, 214, 218, 226, 228, 290, Kirkkovuori, 539
Itmki, 317 295, 310, 324, 537, 555, 556, Kisko, 348, 381, 383387, 392
Ivalojoki, 685, 698 566, 574, 578, 618, 619, 698 Kiskonkoski, 312
Jaala, 539, 542, 545, 548, 552 Krenvaara, 37 Kitka, 283, 289, 324
Jalka-aho, 298, 323 Karikkoselk, 16, 584, 592 Kittil, 140, 142148, 151167,
Jalokoski, 654, 658 Karjakko-oja, 151 171, 175, 179183, 240,
Jrvenp, 348, 380, 381, 390 Krki, 422, 425 242, 262, 263, 271, 272,
392, 395, 396 Karkuvaara, 283, 285, 289, 295, 487, 489, 494, 497, 500, 503,
Jrvikinen, 151 297, 300, 326 504, 517, 518
Jeesirova, 153, 156, 157 Karpinskiy, 631 Kiuasautonoja, 151
Jergul, 69 Karstula, 584 Kiukainen, 564
Jero, 309, 310, 329 Katajalampi, 307 Kiuruvesi, 654, 658
Jerta, 582, 583, 585 Kauhajrvi, 428431 Kivakka, 215, 226
Jokijyrkk, 320 Kaukua, 105, 114, 115 Kivalo, 155, 177, 290, 301, 303,
Jnkping, 487, 491, 511513 Kautokeino, 182, 578, 579, 656 306, 675
Jonsa, 57 Kautoselk, 151, 153, 159, 161, Kivesvaara, 320
Jormua, 6, 11, 13, 25, 74, 153, 180, 181 Kiviaapa, 169
162, 203, 238, 240247, Keinokangas, 290, 317, 318, Kivijrvi, 49
249255, 257, 263273, 675 Kivipurnuvaara, 151
283, 285287, 291, 314, Keitele, 346, 351, 356, 361, Knaften, 487, 489, 494, 497,
318, 319, 325, 487, 497, 517 362, 365, 393, 394, 494, 498, 498, 503, 504
Joroinen, 348, 352354, 359, 500, 503505, 507509, Knapernummi, 572
360, 377, 379 511, 516, 517 Koillismaa, 43, 48, 59, 62,
Jouttiaapa, 153, 290, 309, 313 Keivitsa, 153, 157, 158, 172 63, 81, 104108, 114116,
Juuanvaarat, 307, 313 174, 202, 203, 221 118124, 131, 132, 210,
Juurikka, 314 Keivitsansarvi, 174 291, 293, 611, 652
Juurikkaniemi, 44 Keivy, 672 Koitelainen, 68, 114, 116, 118
Juva, 352, 379, 434 Kelkkakangas, 45 122, 146, 149, 150, 153,
Kaarestunturi, 165 Kellojrvi, 40, 46, 47 167, 169172, 215, 226
Kaavi, 50, 606, 616, 619622, Kellostapuli, 147, 152, 153, 167 Koiteli, 318
631639 Kemi, 59, 104, 106, 107, 108, Koivumki, 44, 47
Kainuu, 11, 53, 59, 201, 203, 116, 118, 120, 122, 132, 133, Koivusaarenneva, 413, 428,
215, 221, 226, 240, 282284, 291294, 313, 331, 698 430, 431, 433, 435437
287, 288, 291293, 295, Kemi airport, 293 Koivusaari, 315, 317, 675
297, 299, 302, 303, 305307, Kemihaara, 65, 67 Kkarsfjrden, 537, 539, 548
309311, 313315, 317320, Kemijrvi, 63, 282, 285, 287 Kokkola, 362
323327, 329331,586 Kemi, 348, 380382, 384 Kola Peninsula, 14, 64, 65, 175,
Kaipola, 413, 423425, 427, 387, 390392, 395, 396 177, 198, 202, 203, 290, 292,
430, 435 Kermavesi, 30 487, 567, 608, 653, 658, 672,
Kaivopuisto, 682 Keski-Penikat, 108, 294 673, 688
710 INDEX
Kolari, 144, 150 Kuopio, 285, 287, 292, 301, Lemland, 450, 460, 461
Koli, 36, 213, 220, 221, 223, 313315, 317, 319, 331, 606, Lempinniemi, 348
224, 284, 305, 307, 309, 310 608, 619622, 631637, 639, Lentiira, 618
Kolinummi, 546 687 Lieksa, 29, 30, 35, 37, 38, 40,
Koljola, 310, 324, 675 Kuorboaivi, 71, 175 82, 652
Kolkonkangas, 309 Kuotko, 152 Lina, 76, 459, 514
Kolmiloukkonen, 284, 285, Kuovila, 348 Linkujoki, 152
289, 310, 323, 324 Kurkikyl, 286, 291, 293, 297, Linkupalo, 147, 152, 153, 156,
Kolunkyl, 344, 366368, 370 300, 303, 305, 329, 330 166
Kolvitsa, 182 Kuru, 348, 374, 548 Lipevaara, 105, 114, 115, 117,
Kometto, 312 Kutsu, 82 123
Konchozero, 654 Kuusaa, 356 Lippumki, 292, 301
Kngs, 151, 160, 161 Kuusamo, 11, 62, 64, 65, 105, Lofoten, 674
Konivaara, 52 131, 142, 143, 154, 213, 217, Lohja, 684
Koitoiva, 151 226, 228, 282, 283285, 287, Loljunmaa, 119, 120, 122
Konttijrvi, 106, 107, 111114, 289, 290, 292, 295, 297, 300, Los, 392, 393
118, 120, 122, 125, 126, 303, 305, 306, 309, 311, 320, Losomki, 257, 258, 267270
129132, 205 323326, 329, 330, 487, 501, Lovasjrvi, 548
Korkiavaara, 290, 323 586, 608, 673, 674 Lovozero, 608
Korpijrvi, 547 Kuusijrvi, 105, 115117, 123, Luhanka, 371
Korpivaara, 31, 39 124, 284, 285, 290, 292, 300, Luikonlahti, 259, 265, 698
Korppoo, 380, 382, 384387, 303, 306, 329 Lujaur Urt, 608
395 Kvartsimaa, 290, 309, 313, 330 Lukkulaisvaara, 116, 118121,
Korsns, 576, 577 Kylmkoski, 368, 408, 421 215, 226
Kortejrvi, 611, 614, 615, Kylylahti, 258, 261, 262 Lule, 389
632635 Kymi, 537, 543 Lumimki, 54
Kortevaara, 317 Kynsijrvi, 115 Lumparn, 15, 16, 584
Korvuanjoki, 284, 286, 291, Kyt, 425 Luonteri, 450, 460, 470
303, 305, 307, 311, 329, 330 Kyykk, 295 Luossajavri, 72
Koskenniemi, 622 Laanhongikko, 293 Luvia, 572
Koskuenjrvi, 348, 367, 372 Laanila, 15, 577579, 589, 655, Maarianvaara, 30, 259
Kostamuksha, 82, 618, 619, 656 Mkipalo, 317
634, 635 Ladoga, 4, 15, 282, 283, 285, Makola, 436, 698
Kotajrvi, 348, 352, 358 319, 537, 566, 567, 569, 574, Mlaren, 567
Kotalahti, 413-416, 419, 433 577, 578, 588, 591, 654 Manamansalo, 50, 54, 282
436, 698 Lhdemki, 302, 307 Mantovaara, 147, 152, 153,
Kotila, 314 Lahti, 375, 377 165167
Koutoiva, 151 Lahtojoki, 638 Mntyharju, 539, 545, 547
Kovasinvaara, 312 Lainio, 145148, 152, 153, 155, Mntykangas, 298
Kovdor, 625 164167, 181183 Mntyvaara, 150, 151
Kovero, 24, 28, 36, 38, 40 Laitila, 15, 537, 539, 541, 543, Mrket, 575577, 655
Kuhmo, 11, 24, 40, 41, 4345, 545, 546, 548550, 556 Martimo, 290, 291, 318
4749, 51, 60, 75, 78, 81, Laivajoki, 611, 614, 632635 Marttivaara, 703
200, 201, 203205, 207209, Lambina, 653 Matinvaara, 299
213215, 221, 223, 224, 226, Lammaistenkoski , 572 Mauri, 354, 367
228230, 282, 284, 285, Lapinlahti, 412414, 416418, Melalahti, 311, 315
291293, 295, 297300, 309, 421, 435 Metskulma, 572
324, 326, 329, 330, 575, 611, Lappajrvi, 16, 574, 588, 589, Miihkali, 258, 265
614, 617619, 631635, 639 593, 698 Mikkeli, 617
Kuittila, 32, 35, 38, 39 Lappeenranta, 546 Moisiovaara, 44, 49
Kuljunki, 33, 35 Latvajrvi, 152, 153, 163167, Monchegorsk, 653
Kuloi, 619 181, 182 Moresveijohjkan, 71
Kumisevanmki, 54 Lauhanvuori, 15, 428, 431, 432, Mosshaga, 450, 460
Kummitsoiva, 145, 156 580582, 584, 586, 591 Mt. Generalskaya, 177, 653
Kumpu, 140, 144, 146, 147, Laukunkangas, 413415, 433 Mykkelm, 66, 68, 145, 150
152, 155, 164167, 181183, 436 152, 154
324 Lautaporras, 376 Muhos, 15, 285, 567, 573, 574,
Kumputunturi, 140, 160, 165 Lavia, 346, 355 580, 589
Kuntijrvi, 292 Lehtomki, 305 Multivuori, 370
INDEX 711
Multsilta, 383 Nysskoski, 152, 153, 163, 164, Pechenga, 70, 73, 153, 162,
Muonio, 69, 70 166, 167 177, 178, 292, 487, 488, 494,
Murtolampi, 105, 114, 115 Obbns, 537, 539, 548 501, 673, 674, 698
Mustamaa, 318 Ohravaara, 297 Peipohja, 537, 539
Mustavaara, 123, 132, 323 Oijrvi, 24, 50, 5961 Pekkarinen, 703
Myllyniemi, 366370, 372, Ojamo, 684 Pelkosenniemi, 165, 577
375, 394 Olanga, 104, 116, 121, 652 Pellinki, 348, 352, 380, 383,
Mynmki, 537, 539 Onas, 537, 539, 542, 548, 655 385, 386, 388, 390, 391, 395,
Naapurinvaara, 314 Onega, 177, 178, 226, 654, 673 396
Naarva, 35, 38, 82 Onkamo, 145148, 150156, Penikat, 59, 102, 104,106111,
Ntm, 73 158, 171, 176, 178, 179, 263 116, 118120, 122, 123,
Ntniemi, 45 Onkamonlehto, 150 125, 127, 128, 130, 132, 153,
Nabar, 583, 585, 586 Ontojrvi, 44 215, 291294
Nalganas, 583, 585 Opukasjrvi, 7072 Penikkajrvi, 151
Napapiiri, 62, 63, 66, 81 Oravisalo, 319, 321 Permaa, 413, 428, 430, 432,
Nrnkvaara, 42, 101, 104 Orijrvi, 348, 351354, 380 434, 435, 437
107, 114, 116120, 131, 388, 390392, 396, 684, Perpohja, 11, 59, 105, 106,
132, 167, 201, 205, 226 693, 694, 698 131, 142, 143, 153, 155, 171,
Narkaus, 106, 107, 110, 111, Orip, 470 172, 177, 201, 211, 212, 217,
116, 118120, 126, 128130, Orivesi, 367, 372, 373, 699 282285, 287, 290, 292295,
132, 292, 293, 301 Osara, 366, 367, 370, 372, 394 300, 303, 306, 309, 313, 314,
Naruska, 65, 67, 68 Oskarshamn, 487, 491, 511, 317, 318, 320, 323326, 329,
Naruskajoki, 67 512, 513 330, 487, 501, 670, 672, 673,
Naruskajrvi, 587 Ossaus, 309 675, 676
Nsijrvi, 344, 366, 370 Otanmki, 202, 203, 221, 286, Perho, 374
Nattanen, 68, 76, 143, 461, 462, 317, 689, 698 Petikk, 310
471 Oulanka, 226 Petonen, 315
Naulaper, 312 Oulu, 320, 459, 573 Petsamo, 698
Nauvo, 380, 382, 384387, 395 Oulujrvi, 53, 59, 282285, Peura-aho, 44, 45
Neiden, 73 298, 299 Peuranpalo, 670
Nenkangas, 291, 307, 309, 311 Ounasvaara, 290 Peurasuvanto, 146
Nilovaara, 285, 289, 303, 306, Outokumpu, 12, 161, 162, 203, Pielavesi , 313, 317, 319, 348,
326, 330 240, 241, 243, 244, 250, 252, 352354, 356, 358, 359,
Nilsi, 284, 301, 302, 307, 309, 255273, 282, 288, 291, 393, 395, 616
313, 616 313, 318321, 325, 327, 484, Pihlajavaara, 39
Nokia, 354, 367, 369 487, 497, 689, 698, 699 Pihtipudas, 348, 374
Nolppio, 152 Pjrvi, 196, 201, 228, 652, Piimsjrvi, 421
Nordingr, 567, 573 656 Piril, 450, 460, 471
Norrbotten, 487, 489, 494, 497, Paanajrvi, 285, 292, 297, 300, Pirivaara, 72, 73, 105, 114116,
498, 500, 501, 503-505, 508, 306, 326 123
509, 511, 517, 518 Paasivaara, 107109, 122, 123, Pirkanmaa, 12, 346, 350,
Norrgrynnan, 577 130 351, 359, 365, 368, 371374,
Norrlammala, 348 Paasselk, 16 388390, 394396, 411, 412,
North Karelia, 201, 203, 213, Pstispuro, 313, 323 417, 419, 421423, 426, 427,
215, 217, 220, 221, 224, Pahakangas, 45, 46 433, 434, 437
228, 240, 255, 256, 282, 283, Paloinen, 444 Pirttimki, 50, 54
287, 288, 291, 292, 295, 297, Palokivalo, 290, 303, 306, 676 Pirttiniemi, 348, 370
301, 302, 305, 306, 309, 310, Paltamo, 287, 297, 301, 305, Pite, 487
313315, 317, 323326, 331 311, 320 Pitkranta, 698
Nuasjrvi, 287, 291, 313, 314, Pampalo, 31, 33, 35, 36, 39 Pitukansuo, 307, 311
319, 320 Pampalonuurro, 31 Pogosta, 40
Nunnanlahti, 24, 28, 36, 37, 56 Panelia, 564 Pohjanmaa, 12, 346, 348,
Nuolusvaara, 68 Prekangas, 285, 291, 298, 305, 350 357, 361363, 388, 389,
Nurmela, 297 307, 309, 323, 329, 330 394396, 654, 658
Nurmes, 29, 30, 51, 52, 75, 82 Parikkala, 377, 378, 396 Pohtola, 370
Nurmo, 362, 364 Parkano, 348, 374 Poikkimaa, 290
Nuttio, 151153, 161, 162, Parkkila, 450, 460, 471 Plkkylampi, 297
240, 241, 243, 244, 250, Prnjrvi, 539 Pomokaira, 24, 61, 65, 68, 69,
262269, 271, 272 Pasvik, 70, 73, 292, 295 71, 74, 76
712 INDEX
Pomovaara, 462 Reposaari, 537, 539 Savo, 12, 282, 287, 288, 318,
Pori, 548, 569, 572, 576 Ridnitsohkka, 585, 586 326, 346, 348, 350362, 367,
Porkkalanniemi, 2 Rieskavaara, 314 380, 393395, 487, 489, 494,
Porkonen, 158 Riestovaara, 461, 462 498, 500, 503505, 508, 509,
Porrasniemi, 413, 422, 424, Riitavuori, 348 517, 518
425, 428, 433, 434, 435 Ristiina, 353, 354, 379 Savukoski, 64, 145148, 152,
Portimo, 59, 104, 106, 107, Ristijrvi, 284, 287, 311, 577 155159, 166, 172, 177, 179,
111114, 119, 120, 122, 579, 655, 656 181, 263, 586, 608
123, 125, 126130, 132 Roninkangas, 317 Seglinge, 450, 460, 462
Porttivaara, 105, 107, 114, 116 Ronkonriutta, 309 Seinjoki, 48, 361, 362, 364
118, 120, 123 Ropi, 24, 61, 69, 70 Seitaper, 618, 619
Porvoo, 383 Ropitunturi, 69 Selksenvuoma, 151
Posio, 62, 282, 284, 285, 297, Rotimojoki, 317 Sievi, 353, 354
300, 306, 310, 311, 323, 326, Rovaniemi, 306, 458, 462, 471, Siika-Km, 107, 110, 122,
329, 330 687 126, 128131
Pylijrvi, 290, 323 Rukatunturi, 289, 309, 311, 330 Siikavaara, 309, 312
Pudasjrvi, 11, 62, 81, 105, Runkaus,201, 211, 290, 301, Siilinjrvi, 13, 50, 53, 54, 56,
131, 142, 201, 204, 205, 207, 303, 326 65, 81, 608, 610613, 617,
226, 228, 230, 273, 282, 284, Runkausvaara, 153, 292 631, 632, 634, 635, 675, 690,
285, 291, 292, 294, 317, 318, Ruoholampi, 546 698
325, 326, 329, 330, 487, 489, Ruokonen, 314 Siipyy, 361, 537, 539
611, 614 Ruoppapalo, 152, 153, 164, 166 Siivikkala, 354, 368, 369
Puiroonmki, 256 Ruossakero, 69 Siivikko, 46
Pukala, 348, 366 Ruukki, 358 Siivikkovaara, 40, 4547
Pulesjrvi, 344, 366368, 370 Rybreka, 654 Silekallio, 368, 370
Punkaharju, 377, 378, 396 Ryn, 606, 622 Silisjoki, 72
Puolanka, 59, 81, 282, 284287, Rytikangas, 107, 112, 122, 123, Sillble, 684
291, 298, 299, 302, 305307, 126128, 130, 131 Silvevaara, 29, 30, 32, 37, 39
309312, 314, 315, 320, 321, Sksjrvi, 16, 588, 591 Simo, 50, 51, 59
326, 330, 331 Speri, 291, 292 Sirkka, 144, 156, 158, 183
Puolankajrvi, 285, 291, 295, Saari, 284, 285, 291, 299, 329 Siurua, 13, 50, 60, 61
297300, 303, 305, 329, 330 Saarijrvi, 348, 374, 583 Siurunmaa, 586
Puruvesi, 30, 470 Saarikyl, 40, 42, 43, 44 Sivakkojoki, 33
Puso, 310 Saarisenjrvi, 413, 414, 437 Skellefte, 5, 388, 389, 394, 395,
Pyhjoki, 363 Saimaa, 12, 350, 352355, 359, 487, 489, 497, 503, 504, 508,
Pyhsalmi, 348, 352, 356, 358 375, 377379, 395, 396 514, 518
360, 395, 698 Sakulahti, 703 Sodankyl, 142148, 150, 154
Pyhtunturi, 154, 165, 183 Salahmi, 284, 285, 287, 302, 156, 158, 165, 167, 171, 177,
Pyhitys, 105, 114, 115, 117 303, 307, 313, 314, 317, 318 179, 181, 263
Pylsynlahti, 370 Salittu, 352, 380, 381, 383387, Sderfjrden, 15, 16, 584
Pyssykulju, 284, 286, 298, 321 390392, 396 Sokli, 16, 67, 68, 143, 593,
Raahe, 4, 282, 283, 285, 319, Salla, 15, 65, 142, 143, 145 608, 615, 621, 623, 625628,
358, 363, 487, 654 156, 167, 169, 176, 178180, 631635, 689
Raatevaara, 288 183, 204, 226, 263, 285, 287, Somerjrvi, 284, 286, 298, 307,
Raiguba, 672 577, 579, 580, 589, 655 311, 320
Raisdno, 69 Salmi, 76, 537, 553, 556, 567, Sompujrvi, 107109, 122124,
Rajala, 151 569, 588 128, 130, 294, 301, 676
Rantamaa, 290, 309, 313, 318, Salmijrvi, 287, 307, 315, 321, Sompuvaara, 290
330 330 Sonkajrvi, 54
Rantasalmi, 352354, 377, 378 Sammatinjrvi, 348, 352, 367 Srvaranger, 24, 7073
Ranua, 48, 51, 53, 59, 60, 63, Sppi, 576 Sotkamo, 311
74, 75 Srkilampi, 291, 292, 297 Sotkaselk, 156
Rstojaur, 70 Sarvisoaivi, 69 Sotkuma , 295, 309
Rautalampi, 358360 Satakunta, 15, 567, 569, 571 Soukkio,412, 413, 426
Rautavaara, 50, 54, 56, 58, 74, 576, 579, 588, 589, 655 Sovasjoki, 158
78, 81, 82 Stknvaara, 147, 166 Suhanko, 106, 107, 111114,
Reitti, 301, 329 Satovaara, 172 118122, 126, 127, 130132,
Renko, 450 Sattasvaara, 145, 156 205, 285, 292, 300, 326, 329
Repolampi, 45, 49 Svi, 356, 358, 359 Sulva, 15
INDEX 713
Summa, 539 Tohmajrvi, 228, 313, 315 Varpaisjrvi, 50, 54, 5658,
Suodenniemi, 346, 368, 369, Toija, 381, 383, 384, 387 217, 228, 230, 650653
371, 373 Toivakka, 444 Varzuga, 487, 488, 494, 501,
Suomenniemi, 37, 539, 542, Tojottamanselk, 66, 68, 69, 673, 674
545548, 553 146, 169 Vaskojoki, 176
Suomu, 63, 64, 66 Torikyl, 314 Vtsri, 73
Suomujrvi, 64, 294 Tornio, 101, 104107, 113, 116, Vyrylnkyl, 297, 298
Suomussalmi, 13, 24, 40, 42 118120, 131, 132, 167, 201, Vystj, 290, 318, 675, 677,
45, 47 205, 226 678
Suopelto, 539 Tsipringa, 210, 215, 226 Vazhinka, 654
Suoper, 201 Tuomasvarri, 72, 654 Vehmaa, 15, 537, 539, 545, 556
Suorre, 71, 72 Tulisaari, 653 Veikasenmaa, 151153, 160,
Suur-Pellinki, 383 Tulomozerskaya, 673 163
Suursaari, 546 Tulppio, 65, 68, 625 Veitsivaara, 223
Suvasvesi, 16 Tuntsa, 24, 6468, 71, 74, 81 Veittijrvi, 370
Svartlven, 567 Tuomivaara, 314, 317 Venejrvi, 63
Syvjoki, 297 Turjanniemi, 608 Vesikkovaara, 147, 152, 153,
Syte, 105, 114119, 123 Turku, 450, 451, 458, 462, 548 167
Taalikkala, 546 Tuulijoki, 165, 182 Vesivaara, 305
Tilahti, 256 Tuuliniemi, 368, 370 Vesmajrvi, 151, 153, 159161,
Taivaannaapuri, 539 Tyypekinlampi, 413, 414, 437 163
Taivaljrvi, 40, 47, 48 Ukkolanvaara, 20 Vesterlen, 674
Taivalkoski, 200, 201, 204, 207, Uljaste, 581 Vestlax, 384387
209, 226, 228, 230, 317, 318 Umba, 175, 182, 487, 494, 496, Veteli, 468
Takamaa, 348, 366, 367, 370 500, 501, 503, 504 Vihajrvi, 284, 286, 291, 298,
373 Ume, 389, 394, 494, 499, 513, 307, 320, 323
Talvivaara, 315 518, 519 Vihanti, 348, 698
Tammela, 376, 690 Umptek, 608 Viianki, 119, 120, 122, 228
Tampere, 12, 14, 346, 348, Unikumpu, 300 Viinarnninnotko, 370
350355, 362, 365375, 377, Urjala, 368 Viistola, 310
388, 391, 393396, 411, 412, Urkkavaara, 295, 297 Viljakkala, 366, 368, 370
417, 423, 427, 484, 487, 489, Utajrvi, 283, 285, 318 Vimpeli, 354
498, 505, 516, 696 Utrio, 35 Vintilnkaira, 65, 67
Tanaelv, 175, 176, 182, 183 Utsjoki, 685 Virtasalmi, 348, 358361, 375,
Tapanila, 703 Uudiskorhola, 436 377379, 394, 395, 586, 589,
Tarkki, 540, 545 Uusimaa, 12, 346, 348, 350, 698
Tarvasenvaara, 151 352354, 375, 376, 380, Vitikkovaara, 303
Tasanvaara, 31, 38, 39 383388, 390392, 395, 396, Vittangi, 654, 658
Tepasto, 462 487, 489, 499 Vittinki, 362, 364
Terrinen, 425 Vrlampi, 546 Voche, 653
Tersk, 175, 487, 494, 496, 500, Vaasa, 15, 574, 576, 577, 655 Vuokatti, 284, 287, 311, 314
501, 567 Vaddas, 583, 585, 586 Vuoriniemi, 47
Tervakivi, 348, 367, 370 Vh-Kassari, 368 Vuorivaara, 312
Tervola, 670 Vh-Lima, 355 Vuosanka, 44
Tesoma, 348, 365 Vainosp, 72, 462, 471 Vuotto, 318
Tetrinmki, 358 Vaivanen, 315, 317 Wiborg, 15, 534, 537, 539546,
Teuravuoma, 150 Vkkr, 539, 545 548553, 556, 655
Tievjan, 71, 72 Valamo, 15, 578 Ylikiiminki, 318
Tiiliharju, 581 Valijrvi, 348 Yli-Penikat, 108
Tiirismaa, 352354, 375, 380, Vlimki, 355, 698 Ylivieska, 346, 350, 351, 356,
391393, 396 Vlivaara, 305 357, 361364, 374, 388, 389,
Tiittalanvaara, 31, 33, 35 Vammala, 346, 368, 396, 413, 394, 395
Tikanmaa, 290, 309, 313, 330 419, 421, 423, 424, 432436, Ylmaa, 545
Tilsa, 105, 114, 115 698 Ylls, 165
Tipasjrvi, 24, 30, 36, 40, 44, Vanttauskoski, 306 Yljrvi, 354, 366368, 370,
47, 48, 51, 52 Varissaari, 348 372, 373, 698
Tirmo, 385 Vrml, 453 Yrjrvi, 152, 163
714 INDEX
SUBJECT INDEX
Abitibi belt, 81 390, 412, 413, 426, 437, 484, 514,541, 545, 569,
Accretion, 58, 77, 79, 81, 82, 346, 365, 446449, 574, 575, 586, 611, 615, 616, 619, 638, 651, 652,
473, 474, 488, 489, 501, 503, 505, 507, 512, 674676, 692
515517, 520, 587, 637, 655, 660 Ages, zircon age, 5, 6, 14, 29, 3740, 43, 44, 46,
Accretionary arc complex, central and western 48, 49, 52, 53, 5759, 6265, 69, 71, 73, 81,
Finland, 5, 350 120, 149, 150, 152, 154, 157, 163165, 167, 171,
Accretionary arc complex, southern Finland, 5, 172, 175, 176, 203, 206, 211, 219, 243, 257,
350, 359 300, 307, 310, 318, 351, 353, 365, 374, 380,
Accretionary orogen, 346, 393, 488 381, 386, 390, 412, 413, 416, 426, 430, 437,
Accretionary prism, 26, 52, 79, 351, 516, 518 449, 452, 458, 459, 462, 498, 574, 575, 577,
Accretionary processes, 2628 611, 615, 616, 651, 652, 674676, 692
Accretionary stage, 507, 508, 520 Agmatite, 49
Accretionary unit, 484, 499 Ahvenisto (gabbroanorthosite) complex, 544
Accretionary wedge, 82, 417, 433, 498, 504, 505, 546
Actinolite, 31, 48, 262, 614 Ahvenisto pluton, 539, 545, 546, 548
Aegirine(-augite), 547, 611, 625, 628630 Ahvenisto rapakivi area, 539, 548
Aeromagnetic anomaly, 418, 427, 432, 489, 492 Albite, 43, 45, 53, 116, 124, 171, 172, 473, 541,
Aeromagnetic data, 39, 57, 59, 64, 223, 614 628
Aeromagnetic map, 8, 105, 147, 198, 200, 201, land batholith, 15, 537, 541, 545, 546, 548, 549,
203, 212, 228, 230, 323, 417, 418, 423, 426, 556
427, 432, 462, 489, 577, 614, 625, 629 Alkali feldspar diabase, 539
AFM diagram, 149, 251, 252, 434, 435 Alkali feldspar syenite, 547
AGDF (axial symmetry of the geocentric dipole Alkaline complex(es), 143, 587, 625, 627, 628
field hypothesis), 650 Alkaline intrusions, 16, 22, 486, 566, 567, 569,
Age group, Karelian metadiabases, 324 593
Age group, layered intrusions, 120 Alkaline rocks, 605, 608, 609, 628, 629, 631
Age group, mafic dike swarms, 203 634, 688
Age group, maficultramafic rocks, 155 Allanite, 454, 460, 541, 614
Age group, Mesoproterozoic, 574, 577, 586 Allochthon, 75, 144, 240, 263, 271, 319, 585
Age group, Mesoproterozoic granitoids, 446, Allochthonous, 11, 12, 25, 26, 36, 56, 58, 70, 75,
448452, 455, 456, 458, 459, 462, 468470, 76, 180, 240, 246, 262, 263, 297, 318,319, 321,
474 323, 325, 326, 331, 350, 362, 374, 394, 489,
Ages, Archean, 14, 22, 27, 29, 38, 39, 43, 44, 49, 504, 566, 584
52, 53, 5659, 6365, 68, 69, 71, 81, 175, 243, Alluvial braid, 311, 323
254 Alluvial deposits, 320, 588, 591
Ages, chronogram/histogram, 6, 27, 413, 448, Alluvial fan, 165, 299, 303, 305, 321
541, 567 Alluvial plain, 310, 312, 320, 573
Ages, depleted mantle model, 176, 467471, 576, Alluvial sediments, 303
577 Almandine, 60
Ages, K-Ar, 14, 53, 56, 74, 573, 586, 615 Alpine style, 26, 694
Ages, Lu-Hf, 76 Alteration, albite-sericite, 43
Ages, Rb-Sr, 42, 43, 48, 68, 69, 619, 627 Alteration, calc-silicate, 258
Ages, Sm-Nd, 5, 13, 14, 15, 39, 48, 56, 57, 59, Alteration, fenitic, 56, 617
61, 68, 75, 76, 120, 142, 151, 153, 154, 157, Alteration, hydrothermal, 33, 38, 45, 47, 51, 58,
163, 174, 176, 181, 200, 206, 207, 211, 215, 60, 63, 74, 75, 152, 588
221, 223, 226, 243, 251, 313, 315, 651, 652, Alteration, metasomatic, 257, 258
654, 655 Alteration, sericitic, 33, 47
Ages, U-Pb, 6, 14, 22, 26, 27, 29, 3739, 44, 46, Alteration, talc-carbonate, 37, 253
48, 49, 53, 57, 58, 62, 63, 65, 68, 69, 71,73, 75, Aluminous, 22, 68, 303, 419, 621
120, 142, 149, 150, 153, 154, 157, 163165, 167, Amalgamation (amalgamated), 22, 70, 180, 181,
171, 172, 175, 176, 181,183, 203, 204, 206, 207, 240, 346, 414, 437, 500, 507509, 651, 653,
211, 213, 217, 219, 221, 223, 226, 243, 257, 300, 658, 659, 661, 689
307,310, 318, 351, 352, 365, 374, 380, 381, 386, Amazonia, 506, 507, 510, 513, 659661
INDEX 715
Amazonian craton, 657661 Asteroid, 16
Amphiboles, 40, 57, 58, 64, 68, 128, 164, 172, Asthenosphere, 77, 633, 634, 638
173, 205, 214, 223, 251, 252, 254, 259, 311, Atmospheric changes, 13
330, 414, 417, 419, 424426, 433, 454, 547, Atmospheric oxygen, 672, 678
548, 610, 611, 615, 625, 626, 628, 635, 687 Augite, 111, 116, 123, 128, 205, 212, 215, 220,
Amphibolite, 7, 11, 45, 4749, 54, 57, 64, 65, 69, 223, 545, 547, 548, 575, 577
70, 175, 303, 314, 355, 359, 374, 585, 611, 625 Augite, in cumulate, 106, 108111, 116, 117, 123,
Amphibolite facies, 28, 33, 38, 48, 51, 54, 56, 60, 127, 421, 422, 425
68, 74, 80, 104, 144, 253, 282, 287, 349, 355, Autochthonous, 11, 12, 75, 144, 158, 179, 240,
361, 365, 375, 380, 394, 419, 519, 585 246, 262, 282, 314, 321, 325, 350, 489
Anatexis, 45, 63, 79, 80, 84, 180, 458, 519, 692
Ancylite, 623 BABEL (Working Group), 362, 388, 482, 484,
Andalusite, 35, 38, 58, 63, 301, 302, 381 490, 491, 504, 518
Andean-type, 508, 511, 512, 520 BABEL lines (seismic reflection surveys), 78,
Andesine, 536, 545 494, 495, 504, 511, 513, 518
Andesite, 58, 149, 150, 152, 154, 155, 159, 175, Back-arc basin, 180, 246, 273, 325, 327, 392, 394,
300, 348, 356, 360, 367, 371, 374, 376378, 484, 501, 503, 517, 520
380, 381, 387389, 392, 394, 395, 426, 449, Back-arc rifting, 501, 503
468, 656, 676 Baddeleyite, 5, 6, 204, 206, 223, 541, 546, 575,
Andino-type, 182 586, 610, 623, 652
Annelid, 580, 582 Baltic basin, 592
Anorogenic, 430, 446, 537, 552, 655, 693 Baltic limestone, 582
Anorthosite, 71, 74, 106, 111, 114, 168, 170, 176, Baltic-Bothnian megashear, 487, 497
417, 421, 430, 515, 520, 545, 546, 553, 659 Baltica, 557, 584, 585, 589, 657
Anthophyllite, 261, 694 Banded iron-formation, see also BIF, 20, 29,
Antigorite, 253, 257, 260262 3133, 35, 71, 73, 158, 314, 315, 317, 349, 350,
Apatite, 40, 54, 56, 61, 168, 212, 214, 215, 410, 380, 672
417, 419, 425, 430432, 451, 452, 454, 456, Barite, 610, 617
460, 462, 541, 546, 549, 608, 610618, 621, Barytocalcite, 623
623, 626630, 689, 698 Basalt, calc-alkaline, 356, 449
Apophyse, 38, 162, 259 Basalt, (continental) flood basalt, 170, 176178,
APWP (apparent polar wander path), 650 180, 209, 355, 557, 574
Arc complex, accretionary, 5, 350, 359, 448, 449, Basalt, EMORB, 159, 160, 183, 238, 240, 249,
474 250, 255, 262, 263, 267, 268, 270, 360, 361,
Arc complex, Central Finland, 5, 6, 350, 359, 366, 380, 384, 394396,497, 576
450, 474 Basalt, high-Mg, 46, 82, 159, 224
Arc complex, juveline, 175, 176 Basalt, komatiitic, 44, 46, 47, 152, 171
Arc complex, magmatic, 79 Basalt, low-K, 355, 356, 358, 395, 449, 466
Arc complex, primitive, 5, 350, 359, 411, 412, Basalt, low-Ti, 170, 171
414, 434, 437, 447449, 466, 467, 472, 474 498 Basalt, MORB, 51, 209, 212, 242, 246, 249, 262,
Arc complex, southern Finland, 6, 350, 359, 266, 267, 348, 350, 359, 361, 362, 364, 365,
412, 426, 434, 437, 447, 448, 450, 452, 459, 371, 373, 374, 377379, 381, 384, 387389,
472474 393, 497, 576
Arc complex, Svecofennian, 181, 256 Basalt, NMORB, 159, 180, 249, 262, 267, 268,
Arc complex, western Finland, 5, 350, 411, 412, 270, 360, 362, 389, 394, 395
437, 447450, 472, 473 Basalt, oceanic island basalts, OIB, 160, 183,
Archean ages, see Ages 240, 242, 243, 246, 247, 249251, 255, 263,
Archean bedrock, see Bedrock 266268, 270, 273, 497, 575, 576
Arkose, 165, 177, 201, 329, 353, 390, 391, 567, Basalt, olivine basalt, 212, 579
570 Basalt, siliceous high-magnesian basalts, SHMB,
Arkose conglomerate, 306 118, 152
Arkose quartzite, 165, 173 Basalt, tholeiitic, 33, 36, 40, 44, 46, 48, 49, 118,
Arkosic conglomerate, 297, 299 132, 155, 159, 161, 204, 221, 301, 360, 422, 426
Arkosic gneiss, 11, 69 Basalt, volcanic arc basalts, VAB, 180, 240
Arkosic matrix, 301 Basalt, within-plate basalts, WPB, 160, 180, 209,
Arkosic quartzite, 585 240, 395
Arkosic rocks, 7, 12, 507 Basalt, within-plate lavas, WPL, 348, 360362,
Arkosic sandstone, 295, 573, 588 365, 366, 374, 380, 384, 385, 394, 396
Arsenopyrite, 543 Basaltic dike, 250, 253, 258, 264, 577
716 INDEX
Basin development, Karelia, 326 Caledonian, 4, 7, 23, 69, 486, 513, 569, 570, 582,
Basin inversion, 503, 505, 507, 508, 512, 513, 519 584, 585, 592, 609
Basin, peritidal, 179 Caledonian foreland, 591, 593
Bastnsite, 541 Caledonian orogen, 593
Bedrock, 4, 6, 7, 1316, 26, 28, 56, 142, 283, 321, Caledonian orogeny, 16, 567, 582, 587, 588, 593
346, 348, 372, 415, 447, 449, 88493, 499, 536, Caledonides, 14, 143, 174, 489, 566, 582585,
539, 540, 542, 543, 546549, 566, 569, 577, 592, 593
586, 587, 608, 626, 627, 648, 685688, 690, Cambrian, 4, 15, 16, 570, 579, 580, 582, 584, 585,
693, 694, 699 591, 592
Bedrock, Archean, 13, 26, 56, 321, 415, 449, 489 Cambrian, basin, 592, 594
Belomorian mobile belt, 487, 489, 496, 500, 501 Cambrian sedimentary rocks, 570, 579, 580582,
Belomorian terrain (terrane), 22, 24, 28, 6466, 584, 591, 592, 672
74, 78, 82, 175 Camptonite, 615, 616
Bergslagen area (district, field), 5, 388, 390392, Canrinite, 628, 629
396, 487, 489, 491, 494, 507, 509, 511, 512 Carbon cycle, 672, 673, 678
Bergslagen microcontinent, 346, 351, 390, 392, Carbon isotope excursion, 669, 672, 673,
396, 494, 499, 500, 503, 507, 508, 512, 519 675678
BIF, see also Banded iron-formation, 46, 47, 263, Carbonate platform, 329, 331, 591, 592
291, 315, 318, 331, 677 Carbonate rock, 1113, 154, 158, 165, 175, 179,
Biotite, 14, 32, 33, 35, 37, 38, 40, 49, 52, 53, 56, 181, 246, 247, 257, 259, 271, 282, 310, 318, 357,
60, 64, 69, 71, 74, 110, 116, 164, 172, 362, 490, 584, 592, 672
173, 175, 205, 207, 212, 215, 223, 307, 417, 426, Carbonatite, 11, 13, 53, 54, 57, 68, 81, 143, 608,
449, 451, 452, 454, 456, 459, 460, 462, 470, 610614, 617, 621, 623, 625628, 631,
540, 541, 543, 545, 549, 616, 627629 634636, 689, 698
Black schist, 11, 12, 156, 158, 159, 172, 181, 203, Carbonates, magmatic, 610612, 614, 616, 623
240, 258, 271, 298, 310, 311, 315, 317, 318, 360, Carbonates, sedimentary, 310, 349, 350, 356, 358,
434, 436 360, 361, 366, 371, 375, 376, 380, 381, 385,
Black shale, 179, 246, 291, 348, 349, 355, 356, 388, 390, 392394, 396, 501, 672678
361, 362, 365367, 371373, 375, 380, 381, Cenozoic, 566, 586588, 593
389, 393395, 675 Cenozoic uplift, 593
Blueschist facies, 78 Central Finland granitoid complex, 12, 346, 348,
Boninite, 104, 157, 161, 209, 210, 212, 226, 264, 350, 351, 365, 369, 374, 382, 389, 394, 411,
268 412, 417, 423, 428, 430, 435, 437, 450455,
Boninitegabbronorite, 208215, 226 468, 469, 472, 474
Boninitenorite dikes, 201, 202, 204, 205, 207, Central Karelian complex, 487, 489
208, 217, 226 Central Lapland granitoid complex, 11, 63,
Bothnian basin, 5, 350, 389, 392, 487, 498, 508, 142144, 155, 282, 285, 287, 458, 459, 462,
514 487, 489, 497, 513, 514
Bothnia(n) microcontinent, 361, 494, 498500, Central Lapland greenstone belt, 139, 142144,
503505, 507, 508, 518 146, 154156, 158, 164, 167, 171, 177, 178, 183
Bouguer anomaly, 417, 418, 432, 492, 494, Central Puolanka Group, 59, 81, 282, 287, 298,
497499 299, 302, 305, 306, 309, 320, 326, 330
Bouma sequence, 317 Central Svecofennia, 346, 350354, 361, 362,
Braidplain, 305, 310, 311, 320, 323 364367, 372, 379, 380, 382, 392395
Bronzite, 106, 108, 109, 111, 116, 123, 127, 168, Chalcopyrite, 124, 127, 129, 253, 261, 415, 422,
205, 223, 421, 422, 424 424, 610
Bronzite, in cumulate, 106, 108, 109, 111, 116, Charnockite, 22, 175, 446, 501, 503, 652
123, 127, 168, 421, 422, 424 Chilled margin, 56, 106, 114, 118, 120122, 172,
Bronzitite, 106, 116, 122 205, 207, 214, 215, 223, 224, 238, 249, 259,
Burakovka intrusion, 201, 226, 652 422, 432
Chromian diopside, 260, 606, 620, 627, 638, 639
Calc-alkaline, 24, 43, 52, 70, 71, 76, 143, 149, Chromitite, 106108, 111, 116, 118, 122124, 130,
152, 161, 162, 176, 182, 204, 208, 209, 244, 154, 161, 167171, 246, 249, 254, 257, 270, 271
252, 263, 264, 271, 300, 356, 364, 377, 378, Chronogram/Histogram, 6, 27, 413, 448, 541,
380, 388, 426, 435, 615, 631, 654 567
Calcite, 56, 608, 610, 613, 614, 616618, 620, 621, Chronostratigraphic, 566, 567, 673
623, 626628, 635 CIA (Chemical index of alteration), 301, 302,
Calc-silicate rocks, 64, 175, 256, 258, 259, 356, 379
360, 361 Classification, basins, Karelian domain, 282, 287
INDEX 717
Classification diagram, rapakivi granites, 551 Continental breakup, 179, 241, 243, 252, 255,
Classification, Finnish granites, 692, 693 270, 273, 325, 501, 517
Classification, lithostratigraphic, 310 Continental crust, 6, 14, 15, 29, 37, 4547, 49,
Classification, maficultramafic plutonic rocks, 78, 82, 170, 180, 198, 228, 246, 271, 273, 315,
410, 411 331, 346, 446, 457, 517, 536, 537, 539, 540,
Classification, magmatectonic, Proterozoic gran 546, 552554
itoids, 446 Continental margin, 70, 71, 74, 182, 183, 241,
Classification, Paleoproterozoic dike swarms, 268, 271, 273, 325, 327, 331, 378, 379,
204 388390, 414, 499, 505, 512, 517, 585, 587,
Classification, tectofacies, 295, 300 591, 592, 660
Classification, Sokli carbonatites and alkaline Continental reconstruction, 201, 557, 648, 650,
rocks, 628, 631 656, 657, 660
Classification, volcanic rocks, 354 Cordierite, 12, 47, 54, 57, 58, 61, 63, 175, 385,
Clastic, 81, 156, 164, 165, 181183, 299, 314, 317, 391, 414, 456, 458, 693
361, 579581, 584, 591, 592 Corycium enigmaticum, 696
Clastic dike, 591 Cover rocks, 13, 36, 575, 584
Climate, arid, 181, 291, 292, 329 Cover rocks, Paleoproterozoic, 13, 489, 501
Climate, humid, 301 Cover rocks, Proterozoic, 228
Climate, semiarid, 291, 292 Cover rocks, Sariola, 292
Climate, tropical, 301, 329 Cover sequence, 26, 74, 263, 473, 497, 566, 567,
Clinohumite, 623 569, 579, 582, 587, 592
Clinopyroxene, 37, 46, 47, 116, 151, 152, 157, 172, Craton, 15, 25, 28, 73, 80, 81, 131, 167, 175178,
205, 207, 211, 212, 214, 215, 217, 223, 251, 254, 198, 203, 223, 228, 240242, 256, 263, 268,
258, 261, 370, 414, 417, 419, 424, 428, 434, 451, 271, 273, 327, 331, 346, 349, 356, 388, 389,
452, 456, 617, 618, 621, 628, 639, 640 393, 394, 412, 414, 416, 430, 434, 436, 437,
Clinopyroxenite, 114, 170, 204, 214, 223, 243, 448450, 455, 467, 468, 472, 484, 485, 487
254, 255, 269 489, 494, 496498, 500, 501, 503505, 508,
Collapse, 14, 80, 349, 473, 474, 484, 500, 503, 509, 513, 515, 517, 518, 577, 587, 589, 591, 592,
504, 507510, 513515, 518520, 556 618, 633639, 648, 650, 652, 653, 656661,
Collision, 14, 15, 2426, 53, 61, 62, 71, 75, 7779, 672, 673, 692
82, 84, 175, 179181, 331, 349, 350, 361, 365, Craton, Archean, 80, 81, 131, 167, 175, 178, 198,
392394, 446448, 484, 497, 500, 501, 503, 203, 223, 228, 242, 268, 346, 349, 356, 388,
504, 507, 508, 511513, 516, 517, 519, 520, 536, 389, 393, 394, 412, 414, 437, 448450, 455,
584, 592, 639, 654, 658, 661 467, 468, 472, 484, 489, 494, 498, 500, 501,
Collision, continentcontinent, 484, 504, 507, 577, 633, 636, 652, 653, 672, 673, 692
508, 511513, 517, 584 Craton, East European, 484, 485, 489, 515, 589,
Collision, oblique, 504, 507, 512, 519 591, 592
Collision, Svecofennian, 25, 53, 77, 78 Craton, Karelian, 25, 28, 240, 242, 256, 273, 349,
Colloform texture, 262 487389, 494, 496, 497, 500, 501, 503505,
Columbite, 5, 541, 543 508, 509, 513, 517, 518, 577, 633, 635, 638,
Complex deformation, 33, 36, 59, 62 639, 656
Conductivity, 351, 493, 499, 520 Craton, Kola, 487, 489, 494, 496, 501, 517
Conglomerate, 7, 11, 12, 29, 33, 35, 68, 73, 105, Craton, Norrbotten, 487, 489, 494, 497, 500, 504
140, 146148, 152, 153, 164167, 177, 181, Cratonic sedimentary cover, 575
182, 201, 203, 285, 291293, 295, 297, Cretaceous, 586, 593
299301, 303, 305307, 309311, 313315, Cross-bedding, 33, 148, 154, 368, 391, 571573,
317, 318, 320, 321, 323, 324, 329, 349, 350, 355, 580
356, 363, 364, 366368, 370, 371, 376, 379, Cross-stratification, 299, 305, 320
385, 395, 546, 567, 570, 573, 582584, 674, Crust, oceanic, 7, 164, 179181, 183, 241, 243,
692 244, 246, 251253, 271, 331, 346, 350, 392,
Conglomerate, basal, 285, 292, 293, 300, 301, 433, 489, 494, 505, 585, 637, 660
309, 317, 323, 349, 582, 674 Crustal growth, 28, 79, 346, 488, 493, 516, 520
Conglomerate, polymictic, 33, 35, 68, 105, 165, Crustal (intracrustal) melting, 79, 80, 83, 514,
177, 291, 300, 307, 309, 313, 314, 324, 329 556
Conglomerate, volcaniclastic, 146, 363 Crustal signature, 149, 155, 171, 180
Contamination, crustal, 76, 149, 152, 158, 171, Crustal thickening, 58, 518, 593
174, 176, 226, 415, 434, 437, 576, 577, 579 Crustal thinning, 80, 270, 510, 588
Contamination, sialic, 118, 159 Crystal fractionation (see also Fractional crystal-
Contamination, wall-rock, 48, 106, 113 lization), 47, 118, 149, 251, 267, 422, 424, 434,
718 INDEX
632 Deposits, alluvial, 165, 303, 305, 320, 588
Crystalline basement, 566, 574, 582584, 589, Deposits, Au/gold, 22, 25, 172, 698
591 Deposits, brained river, 165, 303, 305
Crystalline bedrock, see Bedrock Deposits, Cambrian, 591
Cubanite, 261, 422 Deposits, cover, 240, 349
Cummingtonite, 60, 261 Deposits, Cr, 120, 698
Cumulate complex, 43, 46, 47 Deposits, Cr-oxide, 106
Cumulate, chromite, 108, 123, 223, 419, 424 Deposits, chromitite, 122
Cumulate, dunite-troctolite-olivine gabbro, 586 Deposits, Cu-Co-Zn-NiAu (sulfide), 261, 262
Cumulate, gabbro, 168 Deposits, Cu-Ni-PGE sulfide, 172, 174
Cumulate, gabbroic, 123, 172, 244 Deposits, Cu sulfide, 273
Cumulate, komatiitic, 36, 44, 46 Deposits, Cu-Zn-Pb, 381, 698
Cumulate, olivine, 106, 111, 114, 116, 123, 128, Deposits, debris flow, 317, 321, 370
172, 251, 422, 424, 432 Deposits, deep-water, 368
Cumulate, olivine-clinopyroxene, 172, 223, 419 Deposits, epiclastic, 47, 48, 144, 146, 154, 303,
Cumulate, olivine-orthopyroxene, 414 331
Cumulate, olivine-pyroxene, 434 Deposits, Fe-Ti-V oxide, 104, 122
Cumulate, plagioclase-pyroxene, 431 Deposits, flash flood, 305
Cumulate, pyroxene, 36, 44, 106, 113, 172, 223, Deposits, (foreland) basin, 181183, 324, 593
414, 223, 414, 419, 422, 424, 431, 434 Deposits, fluvial, 292, 581
Cumulate, tholeiitic, 44 Deposits, glacigenic, 285, 291
Cumulate, two-pyroxene, 419, 422 Deposits, hydrothermal, 36
Cumulate, ultramafic, 170, 172, 241, 245, 415, Deposits, iron, 689, 698
417, 419, 421, 432 Deposits, kaolin, 586
Cumulus, 45, 106, 109, 111, 112, 116, 118, 127, Deposits, (magmatic/massive) sulfide, 126, 130,
128, 168, 172, 173, 205, 214, 215, 217, 220, 131, 261, 355, 356, 358, 366, 380, 390, 394,
253, 254, 262, 410, 417, 419, 421, 422, 424, 422, 425, 434, 437
425, 428, 430, 432 Deposits, mass flow, 81, 305, 319
Cumulus texture, 205, 214, 217, 253, 262, 422, Deposits, molasse, 182, 353, 364, 508, 510, 513
430 Deposits, mid-fan, 367
Current bedding, 582 Deposits, nickel, 698
Deposits, Ni-Cu-Fe sulfide, 424
Dacite, 149, 152, 154, 163, 164, 348, 352, 356, Deposits, Ni-Cu-PGE sulfide, 104, 410
367, 371, 372, 374, 378, 380, 381, 386, 388, Deposits, Ni-CuPGE (sulfide), 432, 435
394, 395, 698 Deposits, Ni-Cu (sulfide), 408, 412415, 417, 421,
Dacite, high-K, 181, 381 424, 434, 436, 437, 698
Dacite, low-K, 163 Deposits, Ni-Cu-Zn, 315
Decompression melting, 75 Deposits, Ni sulfide, 435
Deformation style, brittleductile, 56 Deposits, oxide, 120, 428
Deformation, Cambrian, 585 Deposits, Paleozoic, 579
Deformation, Caledonian, 584 Deposits, PGE, 110, 120, 122, 129, 130, 132
Deformation, Proterozoic, 28, 57, 62, 65 Deposits, platinum, 700
Deformation, Svecofennian, 36, 62, 63, 70, 181 Deposits, podiform, 122
Deformation, synsedimentary, 363 Deposits, pyrite, 36
Delamination, lithospheric, 83, 84, 507 Deposits, pyroclastic (flow), 29, 31, 33, 47, 62,
Depletion, 39, 40, 49, 52, 132, 133, 157, 158, 367, 374, 386
371, 374, 377, 378, 381, 384, 385, 387, 673 Deposits, pyrrhotite, 126, 127
Depositional age, 52, 59, 282, 287, 299, 310, 319, Deposits, Quaternary glacial, 586
352, 510, 574, 583, 588, 589, 675, 676 Deposits, resedimented, 81
Depositional basement, 29, 60, 73, 158, 291, 307, Deposits, shallow-water, 364, 367, 388
319, 393, 566 Deposits, siliciclastic, 81
Depositional basin, 154, 156, 179, 594, 677 Deposits, soapstone, 37, 699
Depositional environment, 81, 313, 391, 572, 581, Deposits, Ti, 436
583, 587 Deposits, Zn-Cu, 449
Depositional evolution, 142 Deposits, V, 116, 698
Depositional model, 325, 331, 573 Deposits, VHMS (volcanic-hosted massive
Depositional sequence, 289 sulfide), 389
Depositional younging, 29 Deposits, volcanic, 146
Deposit (see also Mineralization and Ore) Deposits, volcaniclastic, 35, 36, 59
INDEX 719
Deposits, volcanogenic sedimentary, 380, 393 295, 309, 313, 319, 349, 389, 457, 553
Denudation, 16, 177, 593, 594 Dome, basement, 69, 146, 150, 285, 309, 319
Detachment (fault), 24, 61, 71, 80, 269271, 273 Dome, gneiss, 69, 142, 146, 158
Diabase, 11, 13, 15, 156, 157, 162, 165, 166, 171, Dome, thermal, 349
203, 311, 428, 495, 539, 546548, 553, 554, Dropstone, 295, 297
556, 566, 569, 575580, 650, 653, 655, 692, Dunite, 161, 170, 174, 241, 253, 257, 263, 264,
693 428, 586
Diabase dike, 11, 13, 15, 157, 162, 166, 203, 539,
547, 548, 553, 554, 556, 566, 569, 575, 578, Earthquake, 16
579, 650, 653, 655, 692 East European craton, see Craton
Diabase sill, 15, 566, 577 Eclogite, 77, 640
Diallage-augite, 106 Eclogite, bimineralic, 636, 637
Diamond, 608, 617, 621623, 627, 628, 638640 Eclogite, diamondiferous, 636, 638, 640
Diamondiferous, 608, 619, 634, 636638, 640 Eclogite, mantle eclogite, 621, 639
Diapir, asthenospheric, 249, 254, 255, 270 Eclogite detritus, 617
Diapir, mantle, 243, 271273, 556 Eclogite facies, 49, 175
Diatexite (diatexitic granite), 458 Eclogite seams, 640
Diatomaceous earth, 587 Eclogite xenoliths, 637, 639, 640
Differentiation index, modified (MDI), 214, 221 Enderbite, 57, 58, 83, 175, 494, 501, 651
Dike, basaltic, 250, 253, 258, 264, 577 Electrotelluric studies, 61
Dike, basaltic, calc-alkaline, 264 EMORB, see Basalt
Dike, boninitenorite, 204, 205, 207, 209, 217 Eocambrian, 566
Dike, boninitic, 180, 241, 263, 267, 271, 324 Epiclastic, 31, 47, 48, 144, 146, 154, 303, 331
Dike, calc-alkaline, 152, 162, 263, 264 Epicontinental, 179, 183, 309, 324, 349
Dike, diabase (see Diabase dike) Epidote-amphibolite facies, 297
Dike, felsic, 152, 164, 166, 167, 176, 181, 324, 541 Erosional level, 14, 16, 65, 228, 591
Dike, Fe-tholeiitic, 201, 203, 204, 207209, 215, Eskolaite, 258, 260
217, 221, 226, 228 Eu anomaly, 49, 250
Dike, gabbronorite, 196, 204, 205, 209, 217 Eurajoki stock, 539, 540, 543, 545, 549
Dike, granitic, 37, 259 EUROBRIDGE, 488, 490, 512
Dike-in-dike, 244, 246, 247, 259 EUROPROBE, 78
Dike, komatiitic, 44, 45 Evijrvi field, 346, 350, 351, 361364, 389, 394,
Dike, mafic, 37, 54, 5658, 74, 119, 143, 151, 152, 395
159, 178, 203, 204, 229, 246, 264, 541, 566, Evolution scheme, Paleoproterozoic, 202
567, 569, 570, 574, 579, 593, 650 Exhumation, 38, 53, 57, 74, 80, 82, 83, 176, 182,
Dike, porphyritic, 39, 60, 374, 393 500, 504, 515, 587589, 593
Dike, porphyry, 40, 497, 537, 539, 546, 547, 549, Exsolution, 205, 217, 551, 614
554, 655, 659 Extension, 25, 79, 81, 154, 182, 198, 228, 257,
Dike, tholeiitic, 37, 201, 203205, 207210, 217, 267, 290, 302, 307, 311, 326, 376, 384, 385,
224, 226, 264, 271, 324, 497, 577, 652 388, 389, 446, 457, 474, 503505, 507, 509
Dike swarm, 178, 198201, 203205, 207, 208, 511, 514, 515, 518520, 555, 573, 587, 589, 592,
211, 212, 218, 223, 228, 324, 455, 539, 547, 650
548, 655, 656
Dike swarm, classification, 204 Fan, 291, 299, 303, 305, 317, 318, 321, 329, 331,
Dike swarm, mafic, 62, 74, 178, 198, 201, 203, 350, 367, 395, 589
207, 209, 223, 226, 570, 572, 589, 652, 653, Faulting, listric, 57, 62, 254, 553
660, 661 Fayalite, 174, 540, 543, 545
Dike, ultramafic, 49, 112, 246, 264, 267 Fe-tholeiite, 207209, 228, 324
Diopside, 252, 258261, 606, 614618, 620, 622, Feeder channel, 159, 198
627, 638, 639 Feeder dike, 117, 122, 133, 243, 244, 249,
Diorite, 57, 348, 358, 423, 452, 654 251253, 376, 574
Dividal Group, 582, 584, 585, 591 Fenite, 608, 610, 611, 617, 625, 627629, 636
Docking, 503505, 507, 513, 515, 518, 519 Fennian orogen, 500, 507
Dolerite Group, 655, 660 Fennian orogeny, 500, 503, 505, 507510, 518
Dolomite, 12, 56, 154, 203, 285, 291, 298, 306, Fennoscandia, 15, 26, 179, 201, 226, 446, 449,
309311, 313, 315, 317, 318, 324, 330, 395, 488, 507, 511513, 515, 519, 520, 536, 537,
585, 608, 610, 613, 614, 623, 670, 672, 673, 540, 544, 556, 566, 587, 591, 648, 656, 658
675677, 672, 673, 675677 661, 673, 677, 688, 691, 695
Dome, 54, 69, 73, 142, 146, 150, 158, 169, 285, Fennoscandian Shield, 5, 7, 14, 16, 22, 23, 25,
720 INDEX
28, 53, 57, 61, 68, 76, 77, 81, 83, 104, 142, 421, 428, 430
158, 167, 171, 176179, 201, 203, 204, 211, Galena, 48, 120, 261, 422, 591
218, 224, 226, 228, 282, 292, 313, 331, 471, Garnetite, 254, 269
484, 485, 487490, 492, 493, 496, 499, 500, Garsj and Bjrnevatn belts, 73
503, 507, 509, 511, 515518, 520, 554, 557, Geochemistry, basalt (lava), Jormua, 266270
566, 567, 569, 570, 574, 584, 587, 588, Geochemistry, basalt (lava), Outokumpu, 266
592594, 637, 646, 648661, 672674, 677, 270
694 Geochemistry, discrimination diagrams, 159,
Ferropicrite, 153, 162, 177 160, 163, 209, 355, 447, 466, 469, 549
Finnmarkian phase, 584, 585 Geochemistry, diagrams, Al2O3 vs. TiO2, 156,
FIRE (reflection seismic survey), 78 157
Fission track, 587, 588 Geochemistry, diagrams, Al2O3/TiO2 vs. Ti/Zr,
Fissure filling, 584 212
Flood basalt, see Basalt Geochemistry, diagrams, AFM, 251, 252, 435
Flood-plain, 573 Geochemistry, diagrams, box-and-whisker, 265
Fluidrock interaction, 75 Geochemistry, diagrams, CMA, 435
Fluorite, 454, 460, 462, 472, 541, 617, 628 Geochemistry, diagrams, Cr vs. Zr, 269
Fluvial, 165, 291, 292, 295, 299, 305307, 310, Geochemistry, diagrams, Nd vs. age, 153, 162,
311, 320, 321, 326, 329, 330, 349, 364, 366 352, 354, 467, 555
368, 390, 391, 393395, 564, 571, 572, 580, Geochemistry, diagrams, FeO*/MgO vs. SiO2,
581, 591 210
Fluvial plain, 580 Geochemistry, diagrams, Jensens cation plot,
Fgl diabase dike swarm, 548 209
Fold-and-thrust belt, 114, 508 Geochemistry, diagrams, La/Yb vs. Th/Ta, 213
Foredeep, 325, 327, 505, 592 Geochemistry, diagrams, MgO vs. TiO2, 208
Foreland, 16, 26, 28, 65, 68, 74, 81, 144, 319, 508, Geochemistry, diagrams, MgO vs. Cr, 208
588, 589, 592594 Geochemistry, diagrams, multielement, 466, 576
Foreland basin, 181183, 588, 591, 593 Geochemistry, diagrams, 143Nd/144Nd vs. 147Sm/
144
Fossil, 580, 582 Nd, 161
Fossil trace, 580 Geochemistry, diagrams, Sm-Nd data, 215
Forssa Group, 376378, 425 Geochemistry, diagrams, Th vs. TiO2, 155
Fractional burial rate, 678 Geochemistry, diagrams, Ti vs. Zr, 268, 355, 359,
Fractional crystallization (see also Crystal frac 362, 364, 371, 374, 377, 378, 381, 384, 385
tionation), 49, 106, 111, 122, 149, 164, 249, Geochemistry, diagrams, (Y+Nb) vs. Rb, 550
251, 269, 415, 430, 433436, 470, 576 Geochemistry, diagrams, Zr vs. Nb, 270, 633
Fractional crystallization, closed-system, 417, Geochemistry, diagrams, (Zr+Nb+Ce+Y) vs.
430 (K 2O+Na2O)/CaO, 550
Fractional crystallization, open-system, 436 Geochemistry, dike swarms, 208213
Fractionation, 47, 49, 106, 118, 132, 133, 149, 154, Geochemistry, felsic and intermediate plutonic
180, 214, 249, 251, 263, 267, 321, 414, 415, 417, rocks, 463466
422, 424, 434, 462, 576 632, 678 Geochemistry, HFSE (high-field strength ele-
Fractionation, chromatographic, 263 ments), 132, 152, 157, 161, 170, 381
Fractionation, closed-system, 251, 254 Geochemistry, history in Finland, 198, 695697
Fractionation, magmatic, 106, 133, 214, 249, 251, Geochemistry, immobile (trace) elements, 355,
414, 415, 417, 424, 576 389
Fractionation, mass independent (MIF), 678 Geochemistry, incompatible (trace) elements, 51,
Fractionation, metamorphic, 154 149, 157, 159161, 170, 172, 251, 264, 267, 432,
Fractionation, open-system, 132, 180 433, 466, 470, 617, 631, 632
Fractionation, REE, 49, 321 Geochemistry, Jormua ophiolite, 252
Fractionation, reverse, 414, 422 Geochemistry, layered intrusions (Tornio N-
Francolite, 626 rnkvaara belt), 118122
Funnel-shaped, 39, 116, 172, 417, 460, 625 Geochemistry, low-Al magnesian basalt, 172
Geochemistry, low-Al tholeiite, 215, 224
Gabbroanorthosite, 22, 123, 412, 415, 417, 418, Geochemistry, mafic dike swarms, 207214
421, 539, 544546, 554 Geochemistry, Nuttio ophiolite, 252
Gabbrowehrlite association, 171, 172, 177, 178, Geochemistry, ophiolites, 264, 265
203, 212 Geochemistry, Outokumpu gabbros, 252
Gabbronorite (see also Leuco- and Microgab- Geochemistry, PGE, 126131
bronorite), 123, 196, 204, 205, 207, 209, 217, Geochemistry, rapakivi granites, 550, 551
INDEX 721
Geochemistry, REE, 39, 40, 46, 49, 51, 52, 116, Geological evolution, 648, 659, 661
118, 120122, 155, 157, 159163, 172, 174, Geological evolution, Lapland granulite belt, 175
209, 214, 224, 249252, 254, 255, 263266, Geological evolution, Neoproterozoic, 589
282, 318, 321, 355, 360, 362, 364, 367, 372, Geological evolution, Northern Finland, 63, 587
374, 377, 380, 385, 386, 396, 549, 551, 577, Geological evolution, Paleoproterozoic, 201, 202
608, 616, 631, 632, 695 Gersdorffite, 253, 415, 422
Geochemistry, REE, dike swarms, 214, 224 Geotherm, 53, 57, 79, 81, 639
Geochemistry, REE, felsic rocks, Kittil area, Geothermal gradient, 49, 79
164 GGT/SVEKA (transect), 488
Geochemistry, REE, mantle dikes, 255 GIS database, 198, 200, 201
Geochemistry, REE, layered intrusions (Tor- Glacial erosion, Quaternary, 580, 586
nioNrnkvaara belt), 121, 122 Glaciation, Paleoproterozoic, 677, 678
Geochemistry, REE, mafic metavolcanic rocks, Glaciation, Pleistocene, 16
Kittil Group, 160 Glaciogenic rock, 295, 297, 301, 349
Geochemistry, REE, ophiolites (Jormua, Nuttio, Glimmerite, 54, 610, 612615, 631
Outokumpu), 162, 250, 252, 255, 266 Gondwana(land), 179, 661
Geochemistry, REE, ophiolites/serpentinites, Gothian belt, 658660
266 Gothian evolution, 488, 499, 500, 515, 519
Geochemistry, REE pattern, chondrite-normal- Gothian orogen (orogeny), 496, 500, 567
ized, 118, 121, 122, 130, 131, 155, 157, 159, Graben, 4, 291, 315, 327, 567, 573, 574, 588, 615
160, 172, 209, 214, 249, 251, 264, 266, 360, Graben, half-graben, 291
362, 364, 367, 372, 377, 378, 380, 386, 549, Graded bedding, 154, 305, 320, 368
631, 632 Granite, A-type, 469, 472, 514, 537, 549, 551, 552
Geochemistry, REE pattern, primitive mantle- Granite, I-type, 463, 469, 514, 550
normalized, 149, 152, 159, 162, 164, 254, 255, Granite, coarse-porphyritic, 451, 452, 454, 462
265, 266 Granite, lateorogenic, northern Finland, 458,
Geochemistry, REE, rapakivi granites, 551 462, 469471, 473
Geochemistry, REE, volcanic rocks, Evijrvi Granite, lateorogenic, southern Finland, 14, 448,
field, 364 456460, 462, 469472
Geochemistry, REE, volcanic rocks, Hme belt, Granite, Lina-type, 76, 459, 514
377, 378 Granite, M-type, 550
Geochemistry, REE, volcanic rocks, Pirkanmaa Granite, Nattanen-type, 68, 76, 143, 461, 462,
belt, 372, 373 471
Geochemistry, REE, volcanic rocks, Savo belt, Granite, postorogenic, northern Finland, 143,
360 183, 458, 461, 462, 470, 473, 474
Geochemistry, REE, volcanic rocks, Tampere Granite, postorogenic, southern Finland, 15, 428,
belt, 372, 373 460, 472, 474
Geochemistry, REE, volcanic rocks, Uusimaa Granite, Rovaniemi, 458, 462, 471
belt, 386, 387 Granite, S-type, 76, 463, 468, 469, 471, 474, 489,
Geochemistry, REE, ultramafic metavolcanic 491, 513, 550
rocks, Savukoski Group, 157 Granite, Vainosp, 72, 462, 471
Geochemistry, Ru anomaly, 129, 130, 133 Granite-migmatite (zone), Svecofennian, 349,
Geochemistry, trace elements, 149, 152, 155, 157, 375, 380, 391, 393
159161, 163165, 167, 170, 575 Granitoid, Archean, 11, 13, 14, 36, 54, 143, 153,
Geochemistry, trace elements, (arc, MORB, and 292, 293, 299302, 489
WPL lavas), 359, 364, 371, 377, 384 Granitoid, A-type, 489, 514
Geochemistry, trace elements, mafic volcanic Granitoid, calc-alkaline, 24, 70, 76, 468, 489,
rocks, Evijrvi field, 364 491, 509, 511
Geochemistry, trace elements, volcanic rocks, Granitoid, I-type, 463, 466, 468471, 491, 511,
Hme belt, 377, 378 514
Geochemistry, trace elements, volcanic rocks, Granitoid, petrogenesis, 48, 466472
Pirkanmaa belt, 371, 373 Granitoid, preorogenic, 446, 448, 449, 466, 471,
Geochemistry, trace elements, volcanic rocks, 474
Savo belt, 359 Granitoid, postkinematic, 423, 472, 474
Geochemistry, trace elements, volcanic rocks, Granitoid, Svecofennian, 29, 53, 285, 574
Tampere belt, 371, 373 Granitoid, synorogenic, 182, 472, 474
Geochemistry, trace elements, volcanic rocks, Granitoid, synkinematic, 351, 424, 468, 469, 472,
Uusimaa belt, 384, 387 474
Geochemistry, variation diagrams, 463465, 551 Granitoid, syntectonic, 29, 491, 511
722 INDEX
Granitoid rocks, 13, 26, 351, 446448, 471, 473, Hme Group, 376378, 426
474, 494, 509 Heterolith, 305, 306, 311, 330
Granodiorite, 2, 7, 12, 13, 29, 30, 37, 39, 40, 49, Hetta (granite) complex, 69, 449, 470, 472
52, 70, 82, 143, 152, 164, 166, 271, 348, 377, HFSE (high field strength elements), 132, 152,
381, 384, 385, 390, 391, 428, 582, 584, 628 157, 161, 170, 381
Granodiorite, coarse-porphyritic, 452, 454 High-grade terrane, Archean, 203, 228
Granulite (rock), 14, 37, 53, 5658, 61, 65, 71, 74, High-grade, terrain, 29, 78, 83
75, 77, 8183, 175, 176, 182, 228, 230, 380, Highstand, 291, 305, 306, 311, 312, 330
469, 494, 517, 651, 695, 696 Hinterland, 507, 509
Granulite complex, Lapland, (see also Lapland Hirsil belt, 374, 375
granulite belt), 14 Hirvaskoski shear zone, 59, 62, 282, 287, 326,
Granulite complex, Siurua, 60, 61 611, 614, 615
Granulite complex, Varpaisjrvi, 50, 53, 54, Histogram/Chronogram, 6, 27, 413, 448, 541,
5658, 228, 230, 651 567
Granulite facies, 7, 12, 29, 37, 38, 43, 53, 5658, Honkajrvi Group, 297, 299
61, 71, 74, 75, 80, 83, 144, 175, 176, 183, Hornblende, 39, 46, 48, 49, 51, 56, 57, 69, 71, 75,
349, 355, 361, 380, 394, 419, 496, 501, 512, 172, 214, 215, 220, 254, 370, 415, 417, 426,
650652 449, 451, 452, 456, 460, 540, 543, 545, 546,
Granulite terrane (terrain), Tersk, 175, 487, 494, 549, 615, 617, 625, 628, 629
496, 500, 501 Hotspot, 226
Granulite terrane, Umba, 175, 182, 487, 494, 496, Hytiinen basin, 282, 307, 313, 315, 319
500, 501, 503, 504 Hytiinen belt, 12
Graywacke, 12, 3032, 41, 165, 175, 246, 271, Hudsonian orogeny, 658, 661
314, 315, 317, 319, 344, 349, 350, 353356, Hyaloclastic, 45, 249
361, 362, 365367, 369, 370, 375, 376, 378 Hyaloclastite, 148, 159, 240, 246
381, 389391, 395, 396, 417, 421, 449, 498, Hybridization, 549, 552
504, 508 Hybrid rock, 46, 116, 180, 419, 428, 452, 539, 548
Gravimetric anomaly, 105 Hybrid zone, 417, 426, 428
Gravimetric survey, 546, 569 Hydrothermal alteration, see Alteration
Gravitational instability (disequilibrium), 47, 78 Hydrothermal venting, 271
Gravity data, (see also Map, gravity anomaly), Hyrynsalmi Group, 297, 311
38, 83, 117, 417 Hyvink layered intrusion, 413, 426, 428, 429,
Gravity differentiated sill, 171 434
Gravity investigation, 73 Hyypi Group, 288
Gravity flow, 329
Gravity low, 417 Iapetus Ocean, 584, 587, 592
Gravity studies, 61 IAT, see Tholeiite
Gravity survey, 71, 417 Ignimbrite, 368, 370, 385, 549
Greenschist facies, 53, 56, 57, 61, 80, 144, 146, Iisalmi block, 201, 225, 285, 303, 327, 330
285, 287, 301 Iisalmi complex, 11, 240, 273, 282, 285, 301, 302,
Greisen, 541, 543, 544 326, 329, 455, 587, 489, 651, 653
Grenvillian orogeny, 488, 499, 515, 389, 661 Iisalmi terrain, 51, 53, 54, 5659, 61, 68, 7478,
Grunerite, 31, 35, 46, 73 81, 82
Iivaara alkaline complex, 16, 593, 608, 628, 629,
Haaparanta (Haparanda) suite (plutonic rocks), 631
143, 166, 167, 181, 183, 290, 455 Ijolite, 608, 628632, 636
Hailuoto Formation, 573, 580, 591 Ilmenite, 114, 214, 251, 415, 454, 462, 541, 545,
Halti-Ridnitshohkka igneous complex, 585 549, 606, 610, 614, 616618, 620622, 696
Hme belt, 12, 346, 348, 350, 351, 375, 377, 378, Ilomantsi area, 13, 228
391, 392, 395, 396, 411, 417, 426, 487, 490, Ilomantsi belt, 11
499, 507, 509, 511 Ilomantsi terrain, 2832, 35, 36, 38, 40, 42, 45,
Hme diabase dike swarm, 539, 548 5254, 56, 5860, 75, 78, 8083
Hmeenkyr pluton (batholith), 453 Imandra intrusion, 653
Hanko granite, 470 ImandraVarzuga(Pechenga) belt, 487, 488,
Harzburgite, 25, 74, 77, 116, 241, 246, 253, 257, 494, 673, 674, 501
263, 264, 621, 636, 637, 639 Immiscibility, 424
Hassela shear zone, 487, 498 Immiscible sulfide liquid, 421, 432, 436
Hattu schist belt, 28, 29, 33, 3638, 48, 52, 82 Impact crater, 16, 574, 584, 697
Hattu supracrustal belt, 31, 32, 35, 36, 38 Impact structure, 583, 584, 587589, 591, 592
INDEX 723
Inari arc, 494, 501 Isotopes, Nd value, 53, 68, 75, 76, 153, 160164,
Inari area, 7, 142, 175, 449, 487, 494, 496, 501, 167, 171, 174, 180, 207, 210, 226, 320, 351,
505 384, 389391, 411, 437, 467, 468, 471474,
Inari terrain, 7072 553, 575579, 635
Inari terrane, 176, 654 Isotopes, Sr value, 635
Industrial minerals, 687, 689, 698 Isotopes, Os value, 169, 171, 174
Intercumulus, 109, 123, 127, 173, 214, 220, 251, Isotopes, Lu-Hf, 76
414, 417, 419, 422, 424, 425, 428, 430, 433 Isotopes, Nd, 149, 150, 165167, 351, 354, 369,
Intracratonic, 28, 131, 176, 179, 183, 315, 327, 389, 471, 489, 497, 577, 635
331, 349, 473, 497, 514, 588, 589, 591 Isotopes, Os, 161, 169, 171, 174, 257
Intracratonic basin, 176, 179, 331, 588 Isotopes, Pb (Pb-Pb), 37, 38, 44, 48, 52, 56, 58,
Intracratonic rift, 183, 327, 497 69, 76, 120, 355, 366, 394, 435, 498, 576, 695,
Intracratonic rift basin, 315, 473, 588, 591 696
Intracrustal reworking process, 26 Isotopes, Rb-Sr, 43, 660, 696
Intracrustal melting, 79, 83 Isotopes, Re-Os, 254, 270, 636, 638, 676, 677
Intrusion, emplacement mechanism, 457, 460 Isotopes, S, 158, 159, 174, 696
Intrusion, funnel-shaped, 39, 116, 172, 417, 460, Isotopes, Sm-Nd, 46, 57, 151, 152, 176, 209, 226,
625 243, 315
Intrusion, gabbro, 251, 257, 271, 428 Isotopes, Sr, 49, 51, 77, 634636
Intrusion, granitoid, 29, 35, 60 Isotopes, Sr-Nd, 634, 635
Intrusion, layered, 7, 11, 25, 59, 62, 104, 105, Isotopes, stable, 158, 633, 696
107, 108, 118, 120, 122, 125, 126, 131, 142, Isotopes, U-Pb, 22, 58, 179, 181, 575
143, 146, 154, 157, 167, 169172, 176178, 183, Isotopic age, 22, 26, 43, 59, 61, 104, 204, 228,
201, 203205, 210, 211, 214, 215, 219, 226, 244, 271, 362, 410, 548, 653, 654, 676678,
285, 291, 292, 294, 300, 324, 421, 423430, 692
433, 434, 436 Isotopic age, chronogram, U-P zircon and bad
Intrusion, maficultramafic, 7, 105, 142, 143, deleyite ages, 6
155, 168, 214, 410 412, 415, 417, 422, 423, Isotopic age (dating), K-Ar, 53, 56, 57, 75, 573,
432, 434, 435, 437 586, 615, 660, 696
Intrusion, polyphase, 415 Isotopic age, histogram, Paleoproterozoic gran-
Intrusion, postorogenic, 450 itoids, 448
Intrusion sequence, 455, 462 Isotopic age, histogram, Archean ages in Fin-
Intrusion, synvolcanic, 411, 412, 426, 434 land, 27
Island arc, 6, 14, 160, 161, 180, 182, 209, 224, Isotopic age, Pb-Pb, 38, 44, 64, 301, 318, 353,
241, 256, 263, 264, 267, 271, 325, 331, 346, 355, 435, 676, 677, 696
350, 356, 361, 364, 377, 379, 384, 388, 389, Isotopic age, Pb-Pb, titanite, 301
434, 446, 448, 466, 472, 484, 489, 490, 494, Isotopic age, Pb-Pb, zircon, 76, 353
497500, 503, 504, 507, 508, 512, 517, 576, Isotopic age, Rb-Sr, 43, 44, 48, 68, 69, 619, 627
655 Isotopic age, Sm-Nd, 151, 154, 157, 158, 160,
Island arc, evolved, 14, 490 162, 163, 174, 176, 223
Island arc, intra-oceanic, 180, 264, 271, 325 Isotopic age, TDM model age, 39, 61, 151, 152,
Island arc, oceanic, 180, 264, 271, 325, 388, 497, 154, 162, 320, 471, 494, 496
499 Isotopic age, U-Pb, 153, 176, 181, 182, 201, 203,
Island arc, primitive, 14, 489 204, 207, 213, 226, 514, 539, 545, 565, 574,
Island arc complex, 14, 256 575, 619, 638, 648, 650, 696
Island arc system, 6, 331 Isotopic age, U-Pb, baddeleyite, 6, 204, 206, 223,
Island arc tholeiites, 160, 180, 267, 361, 384, 576 541, 574, 575, 586, 652
Isostatic equilibration, 15 Isotopic age, U-Pb, dike swarm, 207, 218, 219,
Isostatic uplift, 16, 447 221, 223225, 227, 229
Isotope composition, Pb-Pb galena, 48 Isotopic age, U-Pb, maficultramafic intrusion,
Isotope composition, Pb-Pb whole rock, 48 412, 413
Isotope geology (history in Finland), 4, 687, Isotopic age, U-Pb, monazite, 38, 57, 175, 458,
695697, 699 503, 617, 651
Isotopes, C, 177, 179, 282, 285, 310, 311, 326, Isotopic age, U-Pb, ophiolites, 243
329331, 350, 501, 517, 635, 672676, 695 Isotopic age, U-Pb, perovskite, 575, 619
Isotopes, 13C value, 154, 158, 310, 318, 350, Isotopic age, U-Pb, titanite, 22, 38, 57, 65, 68, 69,
358, 501, 635, 636, 672678 71, 75, 175, 183, 380, 458, 503, 577, 616
Isotopes, 34S value, 158, 159, 174 Isotopic age, U-Pb, zircon, 6, 27, 29, 3740, 43,
Isotopes, Hf value, 120, 471 44, 46, 48, 49, 53, 57, 58, 6165, 68, 69, 71,
724 INDEX
73, 81, 120, 142, 149, 150, 152, 154, 157, 163, Kaleva, sub-Lower, 291, 313, 314, 317
167, 171, 172, 175, 176, 181, 203, 206, 243, 257, Kaleva, sub-Upper, 318, 319
300, 307, 310, 318, 351, 352, 365, 367, 374, Kaleva, traditional, 313
375, 380, 381, 386, 390, 392, 412, 413, 416, Kaleva, Upper, 203, 240, 246, 273, 285, 287, 291,
426, 437, 449, 458, 459, 462, 484, 498, 541, 314, 318321, 323, 325327, 331, 350, 379
574, 575, 611, 615, 616, 651, 652, 674676, 692 Kaleva tectofacies, 240, 314, 319, 326
Isotopic studies, 25, 2729, 57, 59, 65, 77, 142, Kalevian, 144, 198, 203, 317, 321, 349, 350, 691
176, 209, 313, 351, 352, 470, 693, 694 Kalevian Group, 198, 203
Isotopic studies, conglomerate clasts, 165 Kalix belt, 285
Isotopic studies, layered intrusion, 118, 120 Kaolin, 329, 586, 698
Itmki belt, 317 Kaolinite, 301, 587
Kaolinitic, 581, 586, 589
JaalaIitti complex, 542, 545, 548, 552 Kaolinization, 301
Jasper, 165 KareliaKolaKuloi cratonic block, 619
Jatuli, 203, 228, 240, 287, 291, 298, 300, 303, KareliaNorrbotten boundary, 509, 511
305307, 309311, 313315, 317, 320, 321, Karelian craton, 25, 28, 240, 242, 256, 273, 349,
324327, 329331 487489, 494, 496, 497, 500, 501, 503505,
Jatuli, Lower, 287, 305, 327 508, 509, 513, 517, 518, 577, 633, 635, 638,
Jatuli, Marine, 228, 310, 311, 313, 315, 317, 326, 639, 656
327 Karelian domain, 2226, 28, 43, 51, 53, 56, 57,
Jatuli, pre-Jatuli, 297, 327, 330 59, 61, 62, 65, 66, 6972, 7478, 8083, 282,
Jatuli, sub-Jatuli, 291, 307, 309 283, 291, 499, 635
Jatuli, Upper, 287, 300, 309, 327 Karelian formations, 13, 144, 179, 215, 223, 282,
Jatuli quartzite, 309, 314, 317, 320, 324 283, 287, 292, 295, 306, 320, 323, 325, 327,
Jatuli tectofacies, 303, 307, 309, 310, 313, 320, 331, 349
321, 329 Karelian province, 26, 75, 201, 203, 488, 651654
Jatulian, 13, 144, 145, 154, 155, 171, 177, 179, Karelian supergroup, 198, 201, 282, 287
201, 203, 291, 305, 307, 309, 314, 315, 331, 349, Karjalite, 171, 203, 212, 214, 215, 310, 324
350, 358, 653, 673, 691, 692 Krki block, 422
Jatulian Group, 201, 203, 673 Katarchean, 691
Jatulian quartzite, 13, 171, 305, 314, 315, 692 Kautokeino greenstone belt, 182
Jatulian, marine, 203 Keitele microcontinent, 346, 351, 356, 361, 362,
Jatulian, Post- Jatulian, 13, 144, 146, 154, 156, 365, 393, 394, 498, 500, 503505, 507, 508,
171, 177, 179, 201, 203, 306, 315, 317, 332, 350, 517
358, 653, 673, 691, 692 Keivy belt, 672
Jatulian, Pre-Jatulian, 150 KemiJrvenp field, 348, 380, 381, 390, 392,
Jatulian, Sub-Jatulian, 309, 310 396
Jensen cation plot, 149, 208, 215 Kenorland (supercontinent), 178, 179, 656
Jerta Nappe, 582, 583, 585 Kersantite, 615, 616
Jormua ophiolite, 6, 11, 13, 25, 238, 240, Khondalite series, 175, 494
242247, 249255, 263265, 269, 270, 272, Kianta terrain, 29, 3845, 48, 5153, 56, 58, 59,
285, 314, 319, 325, 497, 517, 694 62, 75, 79, 81, 82
Jotnian, 566, 567, 572, 655, 692 Kiiminki belt, 11, 285, 287, 313, 317
Jotnian period, 15 Kimberlite, 22, 25, 53, 57, 76, 566, 587, 592, 593,
Jotunite (ferrodiorite), 539 606, 608, 609, 615623, 627640, 689, 700
Juuanvaarat quartzite belt, 288, 313 Kimberlite, Group I, 617, 619, 621, 627, 630637
Juurikkaniemi Group, 44 Kimberlite, Group II, 617, 618, 631, 634
Kinoshitalite, 612, 616, 623
Kainuan, 302, 303, 305, 306, 323, 324, 349 KirunaArvidsjaur porphyry Group, 182
Kainuu (schist) belt, 11, 54, 59, 215, 240, 282, Kittil allochthon, 240, 263, 271, 487, 489, 497,
287, 288, 293, 297, 299, 302, 303, 305, 309, 500, 504, 517, 518
311, 314, 317, 320, 323, 325, 326, 329331 Kittil arc, 494, 497, 504
Kalahari craton, 656, 657, 661 Kittil greenstone, 142, 144, 154, 156, 158, 160,
Kalak Nappe, 585 162, 164, 183, 262, 263, 271
Kaleva, 201, 203, 240, 246, 273, 285, 287, 291, Kittil Group, 146148, 151153, 158167,
298, 313315, 317321, 323327, 331, 350, 379 179182
Kaleva, basal, 314 Kivalo Group, 155, 177, 301, 675
Kaleva, Lower, 240, 246, 285, 287, 291, 298, Kola craton, 487, 489, 494, 496, 501, 505, 517
313315, 317319, 321, 325, 327, 331, 350 Kola domain, 22, 24, 62, 65, 7072
INDEX 725
Kola province, 25, 201, 587, 652 Lateorogenic granites, 14, 446, 448, 449,
KolaLapland orogeny, 28 456460, 462, 469474
Koli belt, 307 Lauhanvuori granite, 428
Koli quartzite, 309 Laurentia, 507, 513, 557, 584, 589, 656661
Koli sill, 213, 220, 221, 223, 224 Laurite, 131
Komatiite, 22, 29, 33, 40, 4547, 60, 76, 82, 145, Lava, basaltic, 70, 160, 299, 365, 366, 376, 381,
150154, 156158, 171, 177, 183, 224, 300, 436 554
Komatiite, basaltic, 60, 104, 224 Lava, komatiitic, 46, 48, 68
Komatiite, cumulate, 36, 44, 46 Lava channel, 44
Komatiite, dike, 44, 45 Layered intrusion, 7, 11, 25, 59, 62, 104, 105,
Komatiitepicrite association, 156, 177 107, 108, 118, 120, 122, 125, 126, 131, 142,
Kornerupine, 58, 697 143, 146, 154, 157, 167, 169172, 176178, 183,
Kortejrvi carbonatite, 611, 614, 635 201, 203205, 210, 211, 214, 215, 219, 226,
Korvuanjoki Group, 303, 305, 307, 311, 330 285, 291, 292, 294, 300, 324, 421, 423430,
Kostamuksha greenstone belt, 81 433, 434, 436
Kotalahti Ni-belt, 415 Leucite, 616, 618, 633
Kotalahti-type (Ni-Cu sulfide deposit), 434 Leucocratic, 51, 123, 263, 422, 425, 541, 543, 545
Kuhmo belt, 11, 40 Leucogabbro, 106, 110, 116, 123, 417, 421, 430,
Kuhmo block, 201, 203205, 207209, 213215, 545
221, 223, 224, 226, 228230, 295, 299, 330, Leucogabbronorite, 539, 545
611, 614 Leucogranite, 29, 35, 38, 82
Kuhmo greenstone belt, 11, 41, 4345, 4749, 51, Leuconorite, 545
78, 81, 203, 215 Leucosome, 35, 52, 60, 67, 182, 349, 489, 491
Kuhmo terrain, 75 Leucotonalite, 32. 41, 52
Kumpu Group, 140, 146, 147, 152, 164167, Leucotrondhjemite, 39
181183, 324 Leucoxene, 301
Kuopio belt, 285 Lieksa complex, 29, 35, 37, 38, 40, 82
Kuorboaivi schist belt, 71 Lieksa complex, granulite, 37, 82
Kurkikyl Group, 297, 300, 303, 329 Ligurian-type ophiolite, 240, 243, 246
Kuusamo belt, 11, 62, 64, 65, 105, 131, 142, 143, Limestone, Baltic, 582
154, 283, 285, 287, 289, 290, 295, 297, 300, Limestone, calcilutitic, 582
303, 305, 306, 309, 311, 323, 324, 326, 487, Limestone, glauconitic, 584
501, 673 Limestone, Ordovician, 15, 584
Kuusamo block, 285 Lithosphere, 22, 25, 47, 7380, 83, 84, 120, 154,
Kyanite, 33, 35, 38, 47, 58, 301, 302, 329 178180, 198, 240, 241, 257, 262, 263,
Kyanite quartzite, 302, 329 269272, 497, 498, 510, 517, 630, 636638
Kyykk Group, 295 Lithosphere, Archean, 25, 73, 74, 76, 79, 80, 83
Lithosphere, continental, 7678, 270, 498
Labradorite, 223, 546 Lithosphere, oceanic, 77, 79, 180, 198, 240, 241,
Lainio Group, 147, 148, 152, 153, 164167, 257, 262, 263, 269, 271, 497, 517
181183 Lithospheric delamination, 83, 84, 507
Laitila batholith, 545, 546, 548, 549 Lithostratigraphic, 82, 144146, 158, 165, 287,
Laivajoki carbonatite, 611, 614, 635 310, 313, 320, 326, 331, 501, 567
Lamproite, 575, 615618, 631, 632, 634, 636 Lizardite, 253, 257, 262, 421
Lamprophyre, 459, 461, 615, 616, 627, 628, Loljunmaa dike, 119, 120, 122
630633 Lomagundi Group (Zimbabwe), 673, 677
Lamprophyre, ultramafic (UML), 246, 266, 267, Lonestone, 295, 297
615, 616, 627, 628, 630, 632 Lopian cycle, 26
Lapinlahti gabbroanorthosite, 412, 415, 417, Lopolith, 426, 574
418, 421 Lower Kaleva belt, 317
Lapland granulite belt, 6, 7, 14, 24, 28, 61, 65, 66, Lowstand, 291, 305, 312, 324, 329, 330
68, 71, 72, 74, 76, 142144, 158, 174176, 182, Luoma Group, 43, 44
183, 287, 487489, 494, 496, 500, 501, 503,
504, 505, 507, 513, 517 Mackinawite, 422
LaplandKola orogen, 14, 175, 176, 488, 500, Mafic dike, 37, 54, 5658, 62, 74, 119, 143, 151,
501, 503, 517 159, 178, 198, 201, 203, 204, 207, 209, 223,
LaplandKola orogeny, 182, 504, 518 226, 229, 246, 264, 541, 566, 569, 570, 572,
LaplandKola suture zone, 178 574, 579, 589, 593, 650, 652, 653, 661
Lapponian, 144146, 306, 691 Magma, basaltic, 118, 132, 164, 198, 271, 470,
726 INDEX
573, 576 227, 229, 230, 568, 570, 575
Magma mixing and mingling, 429, 452, 461, Map, geological, 5, 23, 24, 3032, 41, 42, 50,
472, 548, 551, 552, 554 66, 67, 72, 105, 108, 110, 112, 115, 143, 145,
Magma type, 104, 107, 118, 120, 132, 157, 204, 147, 168, 173, 242, 245, 256, 259, 263, 283,
210, 226, 618 286, 288290, 294, 298, 328, 347, 357, 366,
Magmatism, alkaline, 81, 255, 508 411, 418, 423, 425, 427, 429, 431, 432, 447, 450,
Magmatism, arc, 79, 82, 83, 356, 362, 375, 392, 453, 455, 457, 460, 461, 485, 486, 554, 568,
394, 446, 447, 472, 474, 496, 497, 501, 507, 517 570, 571, 575, 583, 610, 612, 629, 674
Magmatism, bimodal, 47, 62, 82, 180, 356, 381, Map, gravity anomaly, 9, 117, 418, 432, 492, 624
412, 428, 429, 461, 537, 539, 546, 549, 552, Map, lithological, 366, 382
555, 556 Map, magnetic (anomaly), 8, 30, 41, 105, 147,
Magmatism, calc-alkaline plutonic, 71, 473, 474, 200, 230, 418, 427, 432, 487, 492, 614, 620,
654 624, 629
Magmatism, carbonatite, 57, 81 Map, petrological, 542544, 547
Magmatism, granite, 356, 458, 461, 512, 518 Margin, passive, 77, 181, 241, 270, 272, 273, 319,
Magmatism, mafic, 25, 77, 83, 104, 155, 226, 231, 325, 327, 331, 508, 592, 672
414, 426, 520, 556, 688 Marginal chill zone, 173
Magmatism, obduction-related, 181 Marginal series, 106, 107, 111114, 116, 120, 122,
Magmatism, ocean-floor, 243 124127, 129133, 214, 414, 422, 426, 428
Magmatism, rapakivi granite, 515, 539, 552, 553, Megacyclic unit (maficultramafic rocks), 102,
555, 556 106108, 110, 111, 118, 119, 123, 132, 133
Magmatism, subduction-related, 179, 375, 484, Megacyclic unit (sedimentary rocks), 294
501, 504, 508, 509 Melagabbro, 123
Magmatism, TTG, 40 Melalahti Group, 311
Magnetotelluric, 25, 73, 496 Melanite (titanian andradite), 629, 630
Mantle, asthenospheric, 271, 273, 576, 635, 636, Melanocratic, 422, 430
638 Melasyenite, 608
Mantle, depleted, 75, 76, 158, 160, 176, 246, 249, Melatroctolite, 548
263, 266, 267, 352, 362, 366, 378, 384, 394, Melt migration, 45, 51, 630
433, 435, 456, 467471, 498, 555, 576579 Melteigite, 628630
Mantle, lithospheric, 25, 73, 74, 76, 77, 176, Mesoproterozoic, 4, 7, 285, 488, 499, 500, 515,
179, 209, 226, 243, 247, 251, 254, 255, 262, 537, 564, 566, 567, 569, 570, 573577, 580,
269271, 273, 435, 470, 473, 498, 509, 556, 581, 587589, 591, 594, 648, 660
577, 606, 608, 619, 620, 627, 631, 633640 Mesozoic, 2, 241, 566, 586588, 591, 593, 594
Mantle, lithospheric, oceanic, 243, 254, 262 Metabasalt, 32, 72, 259, 496
Mantle, lithospheric, subcontinental, 25, 74, 77, Metadacite, 497
176, 209, 226, 243, 247, 251, 254, 255, 269, Metagabbro, 159, 165, 258, 261, 298, 306
270, 271, 273, 435, 470, 498, 509, 619, 633, Metagraywacke, 158, 181, 240, 313, 317, 318,
635, 636 366, 497
Mantle, melt(ing), 69, 118, 158, 177, 265267, Metaluminous, 76, 428, 466, 469471, 474, 549
269, 273, 434, 515, 553, 619, 630, 634, 635 Metamorphism, amphibolite-facies, 28, 33, 38,
Mantle, primitive, 149, 152, 159, 162, 164, 226, 43, 48, 51, 54, 56, 60, 68, 74, 80, 83, 104, 144,
254, 255, 264267, 269, 270 175, 253, 282, 287, 349, 355, 361, 365, 375,
Mantle-derived, 37, 39, 180, 452, 468, 470, 509, 380, 394, 419, 519, 585
514, 553, 606, 620, 638, 693 Metamorphism, blueschist-facies, 78
Mantle diapir, 243, 271, 273, 556 Metamorphism, burial, 648
Mantle metasomatism, 264, 265, 271 Metamorphism, contact, 58, 648
Mantle peridotite, 240, 246, 249, 251, 253, 255, Metamorphism, eclogite-facies, 49, 175
257, 265, 269, 271, 553, 617, 618, 636 Metamorphism, epidote-amphibolite facies, 78
Mantle plume, 47, 131, 154, 176180, 183, 198, Metamorphism, granulite belt, 175
209, 226, 556, 557, 588, 656 Metamorphism, granulite-facies, 7, 12, 29, 37,
Mantle tectonites, 240, 241, 243, 244, 246, 247, 38, 43, 53, 5658, 61, 71, 74, 75, 80, 83, 144,
249, 251, 253, 257, 258, 262264, 266, 271 175, 176, 183, 349, 355, 361, 380, 394, 419,
Mantle xenocryst, 606, 616, 618, 620622, 627, 496, 501, 512, 650652
638, 639 Metamorphism, greenschist-facies, 53, 56, 57, 61,
Mantle xenolith, 25, 75, 77, 243, 269, 616, 618, 80, 144, 146, 285, 287, 301
619, 622, 636639 Metamorphism, Outokumpu nappe, 261
Map, bedrock, 490493, 540 Metamorphism, Pirkanmaa belt, 365
Map, dike swarms, 199, 200, 206, 218, 219, 225, Metamorphism, Tampere belt, 365
INDEX 727
Metamorphism, ultramafic rocks, 419 Mineralization, PGE, 120, 125, 128, 130, 133
Metarhyolite, 508 Mineralization, principal types (TornioNrn-
Metasandstone, 285, 315, 319, 321 kvaara belt), 125, 126
Metasedimentary rocks, 12, 14, 16, 22, 27, 142, Mineralization, reef-type, 124, 125, 132, 133
144, 146, 156, 287, 346, 354, 423, 496, 498 Mineralization, W-Mo, 39
Metasomatic, 77, 116, 123, 161, 243, 257, 258, Mineralogy, history (in Finland), 684697
473, 625, 628, 636, 692 Minette, 615617, 630, 632
Metasomatism, 51, 76, 264, 265, 271, 469, 470, Mingling, magma, 429, 452, 454, 455, 461, 472,
473, 610, 625, 626 546449, 551, 552, 554
Metasomatism, K, 626 Mingling, magmasediment, 417
Metasomatism, mantle, 243, 264, 265, 271 Mixing, magma, 116, 249, 267, 270, 447, 461, 621
Metasomatism, Na, 469, 610, 625 Mixing, rocks, 362, 412, 428, 455, 613, 635, 636
Metavolcanic rock, felsic, 146, 149, 151153, 165, Mixing, sulfides, 262
180, 226 Moho, 53, 78, 203, 553
Metavolcanic rock, intermediate, 155, 167 Moho-depth map 491, 494, 497, 553, 554, 556
Metavolcanic rock, mafic, 105, 142, 147, 150, 151, Molasse (molasse-like, molasse-type), 164, 181,
153156, 158160, 162, 163, 165, 179, 180, 484 182, 353, 364, 508, 510, 513
Metavolcanic rock, ultramafic, 150, 153, 157 Molybdenite, 39, 415, 422, 543
Mg-ilmenite, 605, 617, 620, 621 Monazite, 14, 38, 39, 57, 176, 458, 462, 503, 541,
Microcline, 33, 451, 541, 610 571, 610, 614, 617, 651
Microcline granite, 14, 429, 446, 458 Monticellite, 615617, 620
Microcline porphyroblast, 307 Monchegorsk intrusion, 653
Microfossil, 566, 573, 574, 580, 583, 584, 587 Monzodiorite, 143, 444, 454, 456, 458, 514, 539,
Microgabbronorite, 116, 118121, 125 546
Microtonalite dike, 450, 455, 456, 472 Monzogranite, 30, 4042, 51, 52, 63, 71, 76, 80,
Mid-ocean ridge, 180, 240, 389, 517 82, 83, 452 , 548
Migmatite, 6, 11, 22, 26, 35, 38, 40, 4345, 48, Monzonite, 7, 11, 152, 165, 456, 460, 462, 469,
49, 51, 52, 54, 58, 59, 67, 80, 8183, 143, 175, 473, 474, 509
285, 287, 313, 319, 349, 351, 359, 361, 365, 375, Monzonite, va, 460, 462
380, 381, 391, 393, 414, 416, 417, 419, 421, 422, Mooidraai Formation, 676
457, 491, 498, 504, 511514, 518, 692, 693 MORB, (mid-ocean ridge basalt), see Basalt
Migmatite, agmatite, 49 Moresveijohjkan complex, 71
Migmatite, granite, 349, 375, 380, 391, 393 Mudrock, 355, 367
Migmatite, nebulitic, 48, 51, 52, 692 Mudstone, 306, 309, 311, 569, 573, 579, 580,
Migmatite, neosome, 22, 49, 51, 58, 59, 61, 63, 582584, 592
419 Muhos Formation, 285, 567, 573, 574, 580, 589
Migmatite, paleosome, 49, 52, 53, 57, 63, 81
Migmatite, stromatic, 40, 48, 51, 52, 59, 67 Nabar Nappe, 585, 586
Migmatite, TT (tonalitetrondhjemite), 11, 43, Nalganas Nappe, 585
48, 51, 5759, 61, 73, 349, 416, 417 Napapiiri terrain, 63, 63, 64, 66, 81
Migmatite, veined, 287 Nappe, 15, 28, 69, 144, 182, 257, 261, 263, 273,
Mineralization, see also Deposit and Ore 282, 291, 297, 309, 313, 319321, 497, 582,
Mineralization, Ag-Pb-Zn (Taivaljrvi), 43 584586
Mineralization, Au, 28, 29, 33, 60 NauvoKorppoo field, 380, 385
Mineralization, chalcophile elements, 120 Neogene, 567, 587, 593, 594
Mineralization, classification (TornioNrn- Neoproterozoic, 143, 566, 579, 580, 582, 586,
kvaara belt), 120, 121 587, 589, 591, 592, 595, 619, 648, 660, 672,
Mineralization, Cu-Ni-PGE, 124, 125 676
Mineralization, Cu-PGE, 126 Neosome, 22, 49, 51, 58, 59, 61, 63, 419
Mineralization, disseminated oxides (ilmenite Nickeline, 422
ore), 431 Nilsi belt, 307, 309
Mineralization, disseminated sulfides, 120, 122, NMORB (normal mid-ocean ridge basalt), see
124, 126, 127, 129132, 173, 174, 414, 415, 428 Basalt
Mineralization, massive sulfide (deposits), 355, Nordic orogen, 500, 513, 514
356, 380, 390, 394, 414, 415, 421 Nordic orogeny, 500, 505, 507, 513515, 519, 520
Mineralization, Ni-Cu, 414 NORDSIM (ion microprobe), 64, 181, 219, 243,
Mineralization, Ni, komatiite-hosted, 40 488
Mineralization, Ni-PGE, 173, 174 Norite, 175, 204, 414, 415, 422, 423, 652
Mineralization, offset, 110, 128, 129 North Karelia (schist) belt, 215, 224, 228, 240,
728 INDEX
255, 256, 282, 297, 302, 317 321
Norrbotten craton, 487, 489, 494, 497, 498, 500, OskarshamnJnkping belt (OJB), 487, 491,
501, 504 511, 512, 513
Norrbotten microcontinent, 500, 503505, 508, Otanmki belt, 317
517 Otanmki intrusion, 202, 203, 221
Nunnanlahti greenstone belt, 36, 56 Oulanka complex, 266
Nunnanlahti shear zone, 36 Oulujrvi shear zone, 53, 59, 282286, 298, 299
Nuttio ophiolite, 240, 262, 263, 265, 266, 268, Outokumpu association (assemblage), 12, 259,
271, 272 319, 327, 484
Nuttio serpentinite belt, 161, 162, 262, 263 Outokumpu nappe (complex), 257, 261, 273, 282,
Nuttio serpentinites, 152, 153, 161, 162, 240, 262, 291, 313, 319321
265, 267 Outokumpu ophiolite, 161, 162, 203, 240, 241,
250, 257, 263266, 268, 271273, 291, 318,
Obduction, 74, 181, 240, 257, 258, 262, 271, 273 319, 325
Obduction, ophiolite, 273 Outokumpu-type deposits/occurrences/ores, 261,
Ocean floor arc, 446 262, 319
Ocean floor basaltic (volcanic) rocks, 254, 271 Outokumpu-type (serpentinite/ultramafic) mas-
Ocean floor environment, 358 sifs, 240, 243, 250, 255257, 260, 261, 264,
Ocean floor magmatism, 243 271, 273
Ocean floor ophiolites, 504 Overprint, 25, 35, 38, 53, 54, 57, 58, 60, 63, 66,
Ohravaara Group, 297 74, 203, 636
OIB (ocean island basalt), see Basalt Overprint, metamorphic, 53, 57, 60, 74
Oijrvi greenstone belt, 50, 5961 Overprint, metasomatic, 636
Oligoclase, 536 Overprint, Proterozoic, 25, 54, 58, 63, 66
Olivine clinopyroxenite, 173 Overprint, Svecofennian, 74, 203
Olivine gabbro, 251, 415, 417, 426, 430, 586 Overprint, tectonic, 23, 54, 63
Olivine gabbronorite, 115, 418, 430 Overprint, thermal, 25, 54, 63, 66
Olivine leucogabbronorite, 539, 545 Overthrusting, 74, 158, 181183, 503
Olivine norite, 107, 415 Oxygen fugacity, 47, 430
Olivine pyroxenite, 172, 173
Olivine websterite, 173, 417, 422 Pjrvi bock, 228
Onkamo Group, 146, 148, 150154, 156, 158, Paanajrvi belt, 285, 297
171, 176 Paleoclimate, (see also Climate), 586, 653
Ophiolite (see also Jormua, Outokumpu, and Paleocurrent, 183, 571, 572
Nuttio ophiolites), 179, 180, 201, 202, 204, 223, Paleogene, 567, 587, 591, 593
237, 240244, 246, 251, 253, 257, 266, 268, Paleolatitude, 650652, 654656, 6559, 660
271, 273, 291, 325, 349, 484, 489, 504 Paleolongitude, 650, 651
Ophiolite complex, 11, 25, 161, 162, 179, 180, Paleomagnetism, 198, 228, 648, 688
285, 291, 318, 319 Paleopole, 652, 655
Ophiolite, Ligurian-type, 240, 243, 246 Paleopole, key pole, 650, 655
Ophiolite, tectonic setting, 272 Paleoproterozoic cover (rock), 170, 175, 181
Opukasjrvi Group, 7072 Paleoregolith, 36
Orangeite, 616 Paleosol, 295, 301303, 349, 586588, 591
Ordovician, 15, 582, 584, 585, 591593 Paleosome, 49, 52, 53, 57, 63, 81
Ore deposits (see also Mineralization), 261, 684, Paleostress, 198, 226, 228, 229
687, 698, 699 Paleosuture, 450, 469
Orijrvi area, 348, 380, 382, 384, 385, 388, 391, Paleozoic, 4, 15, 22, 25, 53, 77, 346, 566, 579,
392, 694 582, 587, 588, 592594, 648, 650, 689
Orijrvi granodiorite, 348, 352, 381, 384, 385, Parautochthonous, 12, 144, 282, 314, 326
386, 390, 391 Parent(al) magma (melt), 118, 120, 129, 132, 149,
Orthoamphibole, 57 152, 156, 170, 172, 174, 180, 198, 210, 212,
Orthoclase, 454 215, 226, 251, 410, 415, 417, 422, 425, 429,
Orthocumulate, 46, 111, 112, 127, 128, 425 430, 432, 433, 436, 553, 640
Orthoferrosilite, 540 Parent rock, 301, 586
Orthopyroxene, 37, 56, 57, 170, 172, 204, 205, Partial melting, 14, 22, 38, 46, 47, 49, 52, 53,
207, 209, 210, 214, 217, 223, 249, 253, 260, 58, 61, 62, 69, 75, 76, 79, 84, 164, 175, 253,
414, 415, 417, 419, 424, 430, 434, 436, 452, 545, 265, 266269, 468, 469, 553, 554, 556, 693
548 Pechenga belt, 70, 487, 488, 494, 501
Orthoquarzite, 154, 303, 305, 307, 309311, 313, Petchenga ferropicrite, 162, 177, 178
INDEX 729
Pegmatite (pegmatitic), granite, 2, 68, 75, 297, 241, 516
424, 459, 514, 585 Plate tectonics, 13, 78, 198, 241, 242, 324, 346,
Pegmatite, gabbro, 116, 125, 128, 243, 244, 418 516, 694
Pegmatite, ultramafic, 109, 114, 126, 254 Platform, 81, 183, 313, 327, 329, 331, 566
Pellinki Group, 383, 385, 386, 388 Platform carbonate, 329, 331, 591, 592
Pellinki field, 348, 380, 385, 386 Platform sedimentation, 591
Pentlandite, 124, 127, 253, 261, 415, 422, 424 Pleonaste, 621, 623
Peraluminous, 38, 49, 63, 71, 76, 428, 466, Plume, 26, 47, 7779, 84, 104, 131, 154, 176180,
468471, 473, 474, 549 183, 198, 209, 226, 556558, 625, 636, 638,
Perpohja (schist) belt, 11, 59, 105, 131, 142, 652, 656
143, 155, 171, 172, 177, 283, 285, 287, 290, Podiform, 122, 246
293295, 300, 309, 317, 320, 323326, 487, Pohjanmaa belt, 12, 346, 348, 350357, 361363,
501, 670, 672, 673, 675, 676 388, 389
Peridotite, abyssal, 271 Poikilitic, 106, 111, 112, 114, 116, 123, 127, 128,
Peridotite, mantle, 249, 265, 553, 617, 618, 638 172, 417, 425
Peridotite massif, 257, 260, 271 PolmakPasvikPechenga belt, 70, 73
Peridotite, orbicular, 408, 421 Pomokaira terrain 24, 61, 65, 68, 69, 71, 74, 76
Peridotite zone, 414, 419, 422 Porphyry, 29, 40, 147, 148, 152, 153, 157, 162
Perovskite, 615619, 621 167, 179182, 290, 300, 306, 317, 318, 348,
Perthite, 509, 541, 547 351, 367, 374, 376, 426, 452, 453, 462, 485,
Petrogenesis, alkaline rocks, 608 497, 537, 539, 543, 545549, 554, 615, 650,
Petrogenesis, diabase dikes, 577 655, 659, 675
Petrogenesis, Finnish Precambrian, 687 Porphyry, feldspar, 348, 452, 453
Petrogenesis, granitoids, 48 Porphyry, felsic, 147, 148, 152, 153, 162167, 180,
Petrogenesis, layered mafic intrusions, 292 181, 318, 374
Petrogenesis, magmatic sulfide ores, 422, 435 Porphyry, felsite, 546
Petrogenesis, rapakivi granites, 557, 688 Porphyry, granite, 157, 351, 462, 485
PGE reef, 106112, 122124, 126128, 130133 Porphyry, hornblende-plagioclase, 426
Phanerozoic, 14, 29, 78, 79, 143, 198, 433, 446, Porphyry, plagioclase, 348, 367, 376
484, 488, 496, 520, 554, 569, 574, 587, 588, Porphyry, quartz, 157, 300, 351, 462, 546, 549,
591, 636 650, 655, 659
Phoscorite, 623, 628, 631 Porphyry, quartz-feldspar, 166, 348, 537, 539,
Phosphorite, 315, 317, 318, 362 545547, 548, 554
Phosphorus ore, 608, 625, 626 Porphyry, rhyolitic, 497
Phlogopite, 172, 173, 214, 414, 419, 425, 608, 610, Portimo complex, 104, 106, 111, 122, 123, 125,
612618, 623, 625628, 630 128130, 132
Picrite, 156158, 162, 174, 177, 178, 183, 212, Portimo dikes 111, 112, 114, 119, 125, 126, 129,
374, 378, 380, 381, 383, 384, 386, 387, 390, 130
396 Post-collisional, 25, 53, 70, 78, 81, 519
Picrite (ferropicrite), 162, 177, 178 Postcumulus, 251, 425
PielavesiPyhsalmi region, 356 Postjotnian, 15, 203, 566, 569, 574576, 578, 650,
Pigeonite, 116, 174, 205, 217, 540 655, 657, 660
Pillow basalt, 35, 45, 385, 389 Postorogenic granites, 15, 143, 183, 428, 446,
Pillow breccia, 150, 156, 159, 247, 363 458, 460462, 470474, 514, 638
Pillow lava, 148, 150, 151, 156, 159, 160, 244, Pothole, 113, 421
246, 249, 306, 313, 358, 360, 363, 368, 376, Preorogenic rocks, 446, 448, 449, 466, 467, 471,
378, 379, 381, 383, 391, 394396 472, 474
Pillow structure, 44, 156, 355, 360, 362, 374, 380 Pretoria Group, 676
Pirkanmaa belt, 12, 346, 351, 359, 365, 371374, Primitive arc complex (of central Finland), 5,
388390, 393396, 411, 412, 417, 419, 350, 359, 412, 414, 434, 437, 447449, 462,
421423, 426, 427, 433, 434, 437 467, 472, 474, 498
Pilgujrvi Group, 177 Primitive island arc, 14, 489
PiteRaahe shear zone, 487 Primitive magma (or melt), 111, 156, 249
Plagiogranite, 180, 240, 241, 243, 250252, 255 Primitive mantle, 264, 265, 267, 269, 270
Plate tectonics, 13, 78, 198, 241, 242, 324, 346, Primitive mantle-normalized, 149, 152, 159, 162,
516, 694 164, 254, 255, 266
Plate tectonics, tectonosedimentary model, 327 Protolith, 54, 69, 176, 257, 287, 369, 585
Plate tectonic model, 484, 488, 693695 Provenance, Archean, 56, 69, 155, 299, 314, 318,
Plate tectonic (accretionary) processes, 6, 28, 320, 325
730 INDEX
Provenance, Proterozoic, 71, 314, 317, 320 Rapakivi granite, distribution, 537, 539, 540,
Provenance, Proterozoic, volcanic, 13, 349, 364, 542544, 548, 554, 556
366368, 376 Rapakivi granite, (granite) magmatism, 5, 515,
Pudasjrvi block, 201, 204, 205, 207, 226, 228, 553, 555, 588
230, 318, 330, 611, 614 Rapakivi granite, origin, 552556
Pudasjrvi complex, 11, 105, 131, 142, 273, 291, Rapakivi granite, paleomagnetic, 198, 656, 658
292, 294, 317, 318, 325, 326, 329, 487, 489 660, 695
PudasjrviIisalmi block, 330 Rapakivi granite, stratigraphic, 247, 326
Pudasjrvi terrain, 62, 81 Rapakivi granite, texture, 48, 533, 536, 537, 550,
Puolanka Group, Central, 59, 81, 282, 287, 298, 552
299, 302, 305307, 309, 320, 326, 330 Rapakivi granite, texture, origin, 550552
Puolanka Group, East, 291, 198, 307, 309312, Rautalampi region, 358
330, 331 Rautavaara complex, 54, 56, 58, 78, 81, 82
Pyrite, 36, 48, 253, 261, 292, 415, 436, 610, 617, Rautavaara, terrain, 74
698 Reconstruction, ArcheanProterozoic boundary,
Pyrochlore, 610, 623, 626, 689 484
Pyroclastic, 29, 33, 43, 47, 62, 150, 297, 300, 313, Reconstruction, continental, 201, 557, 648, 650,
362, 366, 367, 374, 376, 380, 385, 386, 426 656661, 695
Pyrope, 606, 617, 620622, 627, 638, 639 Reconstruction, global-scale, 656
Pyrrhotite, 32, 124, 126, 127, 253, 261, 415, 422, Reconstruction, paleogeographic, 325, 326, 329
424, 436, 610, 623 Reconstruction, stratigraphic, 247, 326
Pyterlite, 536, 539, 540, 543, 545, 549
Recumbent folding, 29, 144, 349, 356, 361, 365,
Quartz arenite,7, 315, 317, 349, 352, 353, 375, 414
380, 390393, 396, 570, 583 Redbed, 181
Quartz arenite, Los, 392, 393 Reef-type PGE-deposit (see also PGE reef), 120,
Quartz arenite, Tiirismaa, 352, 375, 391393, 396 122, 132
Quartz diorite, 110, 448, 451, 456 Reflection, 25, 71, 73, 78, 80, 82, 203, 228, 482,
Quartz gabbro, 173 484, 488, 490, 491, 493, 494, 496, 499, 507,
Quartz-feldspar porphyry, see Porphyry 511, 516, 518
Quartz monzodiorite, 448, 546 Refraction, 25, 53, 71, 73, 77, 78, 83, 484, 488,
Quartz monzonite, 12, 444, 448, 454, 456, 548 490, 491, 493, 494, 496, 497, 507, 517
Quartz syenite, 114, 547 Reitti belt, 301
Quartzite (see also Orthoquartzite, Sericite Remanent magnetization, 648654, 694
quartzite), 6, 7, 1113, 58, 64, 68, 70, 105, 144, Remanent magnetization, multicomponent
146, 148, 150, 154, 155, 165, 166, 171, 203, analysis, 649, 650
280, 282, 285, 288, 290, 291, 297, 301303, Remanent magnetization, primary remanence,
305307, 309311, 313315, 317, 318, 320, 321, 648655,
323, 324, 329, 490, 497, 510, 582, 585, 586, Remanent magnetization, secondary remanence,
659, 692 648650
Quaternary, 586, 587, 688690 Reworking, complex, 62
Quetico belt, 52 Reworking, crustal, 26, 27, 82, 494
Reworking, tectonic, 36, 54, 59, 62, 70, 73, 78,
RaaheLadoga (zone) belt, 4, 282, 283, 285, 319, 83, 587
654 Reworking, thermal, 22, 25, 28, 29, 43, 58, 69,
Radiogenic heat, 79, 83 73, 74, 77
Rain drop imprint, 572 Rhyodacite, 164
Ranua terrain, 48, 53, 59, 60, 64, 74, 75 Rhyolite, 149, 163, 175, 180, 183, 348, 349, 356,
Rapakivi granite, 4, 15, 16, 446, 454, 498, 520, 360, 364, 367, 370, 371, 374, 376378, 380,
536, 537, 539541, 543546, 548557, 566, 381, 388390, 394, 395, 449, 461, 462, 508
567, 569571, 575, 584, 588, 637, 655, 660, Rhyolite, high-K, 348, 367, 370, 371, 381, 394,
688, 692, 693 395
Rapakivi granite, age, 536, 537, 539, 541, 548, Rhyolite, spherulitic dike, 461, 462
554, 555, 556 Richterite, 610, 612614, 616618, 623, 627, 628
Rapakivi granite, bimodality, 515, 539, 546, 549, Rift basin, 154, 291, 297, 315, 326, 327, 329, 330,
552, 555, 556 473, 498, 508, 557, 588, 591, 653
Rapakivi granite, chemical composition, Rift inversion, 291293, 329
549552 Rifting, 13, 25, 47, 57, 70, 7678, 104, 167, 176,
Rapakivi granite, definition, 636, 537 178, 179, 198, 201, 226, 228, 249, 255, 271,
INDEX 731
273, 291, 309, 315, 317, 327, 331, 349, 367, 377, SCLM (subcontinental lithospheric mantle), 243,
391, 395, 396, 426, 497, 501, 503, 556, 573, 254, 255, 269, 270, 273, 635638
587, 636, 637, 652, 653, 655, 656, 658, 672, Sea-floor spreading, 179
673 Sedimentary cover, 26, 240, 263, 489, 566, 569,
Rifting, continental, 104, 176, 201, 249, 255, 327, 573575, 582584, 586, 588, 589, 591,
652 593, 594
Ring complex, va, 459, 460, 462, 470 Sedimentary (rocks), 142, 156, 161, 171, 172, 175,
Ring complex, emplacement (intrusion) mecha- 177, 178, 180, 181
nism, 460, 462 Sedimentary sequence, 146, 154
Ring complex, Seglinge, 460462 Sedimentation, 12, 15, 25, 28, 81, 154, 167, 177,
Rio NegroJuruena belt, 657, 659 181183, 203, 287, 295, 303, 319, 320, 325,
Riphean, 566, 589 327, 329, 331, 446, 501, 517, 582, 587589,
Ripple mark, 571, 572, 581, 582 591, 691, 692
Rodingite, 252 Sedimentation age, 325
Rodinia, 592, 648, 661 Sedimentation, deep-water, 501
Ropi terrain, 24, 61, 69, 70 Sedimentation, margin, 319, 327
Ruoppapalo granodiorite, 152, 164, 166 Sedimentation, platform, 591
Russian platform, 589 Sedimentation, rift, 325, 517
Segregation, 251, 252, 254, 432, 434, 619621
Saamian cycle, 26 Seismic data, 78, 494, 516, 573, 580, 582
SaariKiekki belt, 285, 299 Seismic profile, 75, 488, 511, 573
Saarikyl Group, 43, 44 Seismic reflection, 25, 71, 80, 203, 228, 488, 493,
Salahmi belt, 285, 302, 303, 307, 314, 317 499, 507, 511
Saimaa area, 12, 350, 353355, 359, 375, Seismic refraction, 53, 73, 77, 83, 484, 488
377379, 395, 396 Seismic soundings, 625
Salittu picrite, 384, 387, 390, 391, 396 Seismic structure, 499
Salla greenstone area (belt), 142, 143, 146, 150, Seismic studies, 76, 82, 271, 517, 546, 553
156, 167, 204 Sericite quartzite, 70, 154, 301303, 305307,
Salla Group, 146, 148154, 167, 169, 180 309, 310, 330, 585
Salmi rapakivi (granite), 76, 537, 553, 556, 569, Shale, 52, 179, 567, 573, 582585
588 Shear zone, 12, 16, 33, 35, 36, 51, 53, 54, 59, 62,
Sandur, 297 75, 78, 80, 144, 175, 282, 285, 287, 298, 299,
Sandstone, 15, 295, 297, 306, 310, 314, 317, 326, 349, 355, 356, 381, 390, 423, 449, 452,
320, 323, 368, 390, 564, 567, 569, 571574, 457, 458, 487, 496, 498, 499, 507, 508, 512,
579585, 588, 589, 591 515, 519, 539, 611, 615, 636, 640
Sandstone, arkosic, 573 Shear zone, brittleductile, 51
Sandstone, clastic, 580, 584 Sheeted dike, 159, 238, 240, 243, 244, 246, 247,
Sandstone dike, 584 249, 251, 254, 257, 267, 271, 273
Sandstone, fluvial, 368, 564 Shoshonitic, 355, 367, 394, 395, 463, 470, 474
Sandstone, graded, 295, 320 SHRIMP (zircon studies), 37, 39, 69, 71
Sandstone, laminated, 317, 323 Silicocarbonatite, 610, 613, 631
Sanidine, 616 Sill, 15, 33, 36, 43, 44, 47, 49, 64, 112, 114, 155,
Sapphirine, 58, 697 159, 171, 172, 177, 198, 201, 203, 204, 211215,
Saprolite, 586, 587, 589 219221, 223, 224, 291, 301, 303, 306, 307,
Sariola, 285, 287, 289, 291295, 297303, 306, 309, 310, 324, 362, 370, 385, 386, 419, 423,
307, 309, 324, 326, 329 425, 430, 449, 495, 566, 569, 574, 575, 577,
SariolaJatuli, 326, 329 586, 615, 653655, 660
Sariolian Group, 677 Sill, (meta)diabase, 301, 303, 307, 495, 566, 577
Sarmatia, 484, 507, 511, 512, 515, 519, 520 Sill, differentiated, 43, 49, 171, 177, 212
Sarmatian, 484, 507, 515 Sill, karjalitic, 212214
Satakunta sandstone, 567, 569, 571574, 588 Sill, komatiitic, 47
Savo arc, 362, 393, 494 Sill, layered, 44, 203, 204, 211213, 215, 221,
Savo belt, 12, 346, 348, 350, 351, 353, 355361, 223, 324
367, 380, 393395, 487, 489, 498, 503, 504, Sill, (ultra)mafic, 43, 44, 47, 49, 64, 155, 309,
509 423, 574
Savukoski Group, 148, 152, 156159, 166, 172, Sill, tholeiitic, 586
177, 179 Sillimanite, 57, 58, 64, 69, 175, 300, 363, 375,
Scandian phase, 584586 391, 586
Scapolite, 305, 473 Silvevaara granodiorite, 29, 30, 37, 39
732 INDEX
Sirkka line, 144, 156, 158 488, 494, 504, 505, 507, 508, 511, 512, 516,
Siurua granulite complex, 60, 61 518, 519, 556
Skarn, 64, 259, 260, 313, 362, 366, 685 Subduction zone, migration, 507, 508
Skellefte district (SD), 5, 487, 489, 497, 503, 508, Subjotnian, 15, 203, 566, 567, 569, 589, 655
514, 518 Subjotnian diabase dike, 15, 203, 566, 567, 569,
Skellefte field, 388, 389, 394, 395 655
Slumping, 29, 320, 428 Subsolidus mineral, 220
Snowball Earth, 658 Subsolidus (re)equilibration, 419
Soapstone, 37, 161, 699 Suisaarian, 177
Sodankyl Group, 148, 150, 154156, 158, 165, Sulfide assemblage, Vammala, 421
171, 172, 177 Sulfide saturation, 415, 436
Sokli carbonatite, 68, 143, 608, 621, 625, 626, Sumi, 226, 285, 287, 289, 290, 291, 293, 300,
635, 689 306, 324, 326, 329
Somerjrvi Group, 298, 307, 311, 320 Sumi Group, 226
Sompujrvi block, 108, 294 SumiSariola Group, 201, 226
Srvaranger terrain, 24, 7074 SumiSariola rift, 285, 326, 329331
Sphalerite, 48, 261, 415, 422 SumiSariolian, 154, 176
Spidergram, 159, 371 Suomenniemi diabase dike swarm, 539, 540,
Sperrylite, 124, 125 542, 547, 547
Spinifex, 46, 48 Suomenniemi pluton, 537, 539, 545548, 553
Stannite, 261 Suomu terrain, 64, 66
Staurolite, 33, 38, 58, 63, 70, 258, 297, 317 Suomussalmi greenstone belt, 40, 4245, 47
Stratigraphy (see also Lithostratigraphy), 29, 36, Supercontinent, 178, 179, 226, 507, 517, 589, 592,
40, 80, 106, 109111, 113, 114, 127129, 131, 648, 656, 658, 661, 695
146, 156, 169, 214, 220, 243, 244, 246, 247, Supercontinent, breakup, 178, 179, 226, 517, 589,
249, 263, 267, 271, 282, 289, 306, 309, 310, 592, 658
312, 320, 325, 391, 417, 421, 426, 433, 592, Supergroup, Karelian, 198, 201, 282, 287
639, 687 Supergroup, Svecofennian, 201
Stratigraphy, cumulus, 127, 128, 421 Superior craton, 81, 656, 657
Stratigraphy, Karelian sequence, 300, 330 Supracrustal belt, 12, 28, 29, 32, 35, 36, 38, 40,
Stratigraphy, layered intrusion, 106, 109111, 44, 59, 62, 65, 68, 142, 178, 282, 287, 346, 350,
114, 131, 169, 421, 426, 433 374, 380, 390, 394, 395, 417, 468, 472, 673
Stratigraphy, magmatic, 129, 220, 433 Supracrustal belt, Svecofennian, 380, 390, 394,
Stratigraphy, ophiolite, 243, 247, 249, 267, 271 395
Stratigraphy, Tampere belt, 12, 362, 365, 367, Supracrustal gneiss, 24, 29, 56, 64, 459
370, 373 Supracrustal rocks, 7, 12, 13, 26, 35, 36, 38, 51,
Strike-slip, 33, 35, 56, 78, 508, 517 59, 63, 64, 68, 72, 74, 105, 142, 144, 146, 150,
Strike-slip, dilatacy pumping, 457 175, 177, 179, 203, 282, 285, 287, 290, 294,
Stromatolite, 154, 177, 179, 306, 309, 313, 388, 324, 329, 331, 346, 348350, 358, 361363,
391, 670 368, 374, 375, 380, 381, 383, 385, 388, 393,
Strontianite, 610 396, 417, 449, 452, 456, 458, 459, 489, 491,
Subarkose (subarkosic), 309, 310, 570, 580, 581 498, 511, 554, 566, 588, 691
Subdivision, Kaleva, 314 Supracrustal rocks, Karelian, 297, 290, 324
Subdivision, Mesoproterozoic, 566 Supracrustal rocks, Proterozoic, 7, 146, 175, 331
Subdivision, Neoproterozoic, 566 Supracrustal sequence, 28, 29, 51, 62, 80, 81,
Subduction, 14, 26, 47, 71, 76, 79, 176, 179, 144, 164, 285, 356, 566
198, 251, 273, 325, 346, 350, 351, 356, Svecobaltia, 494, 519
362, 365, 367, 375, 377, 381, 388, 392, 394 Svecobaltic orogen, 500, 507, 519, 520
396, 410, 414, 482484, 488, 494, 501, 503 Svecobaltic orogeny, 507, 511513, 518, 519
505, 507509, 511520, 556, 557, 588, 694 Svecofennia, central, 346, 350354, 361, 362,
Subduction, locking, 503, 508 364367, 372, 379, 380, 382, 392395
Subduction, opposite polarities, 508, 517 Svecofennia, southern, 346, 350353, 359, 365,
Subduction-related, 179, 346, 350, 381, 388, 392, 374, 375, 382, 393, 395, 396
484, 501, 504, 505, 508, 509 Svecofennian, 4, 5, 350
Subduction, retreating, 507, 511, 512, 516 Svecofennian arc complex, 181
Subduction reversal, 484, 503, 505, 509 Svecofennian basement, 569, 570
Subduction switch-over, 503, 505 Svecofennian bedrock, 6, 13, 14, 348, 447, 536,
Subduction zone, 47, 79, 161, 180, 273, 325, 346, 539, 546548
351, 362, 365, 388, 392, 394, 410, 482, 484, Svecofennian belt, 351, 355, 692, 694
INDEX 733
Svecofennian domain, 6, 14, 22, 25, 75, 83, 346, Tectonic emplacement, 161, 164, 180, 181
348350, 375, 390, 393, 410, 484, 488490, Tectonic event, 40, 42, 52, 64, 78, 181, 428, 507,
499, 694 587, 593, 648, 650
Svecofennian island arc, 6, 14, 256, 325, 655 Tectonic (geotectonic) model, 78, 81, 82, 180,
Svecofennian nappe, 28 324, 488, 500, 503, 507, 515, 520, 594
Svecofennian orogen, 14, 181, 410, 412, 430, 488, Temperature, blocking, 56, 380
500 Temperature, unblocking, 649, 652
Svecofennian orogeny, 14, 15, 22, 25, 26, 53, Tempestite, 291, 299, 323
54, 56, 57, 62, 74, 165, 181, 201, 203, 268, Tempestitic, 305, 306, 329, 330
319, 329, 331, 412, 428, 448, 484, 500, 552, Tersk (granulite) terrane, 175, 487, 494, 496, 500,
567, 649651, 653, 654, 659, 692 501
Svecofennian orogeny, lateorogenic stage, 446 Tertiary, 567, 586
Svecofennian orogeny, postorogenic stage, 446 Tetraferriphlogopite, 610, 612, 614, 616, 618, 623,
Svecofennian orogeny, preorogenic stage, 446 626, 627
Svecofennian orogeny, synorogenic stage, 412, Thermochronometry, titanite-rutile, 513
428, 437, 446 Tholeiite, 15, 29, 40, 4446, 49, 73, 149, 163, 201,
Svecofennian rocks, 4, 484, 539, 547, 552, 569 203205, 207210, 212, 215, 217, 224, 226,
Svecofennian (sub)division, 4, 5, 350 228, 251, 252, 263, 378, 380, 430, 434, 435,
Sveconorwegian, 488, 492, 515, 570, 587589, 449, 472, 548, 575, 576, 586
591, 650 Tholeiite, basaltic, 318
Sveconorwegian orogeny, 492, 587, 589, 650 Tholeiite, continental, 204
SVEKALAPKO (an Europrobe project), 488 Tholeiite, Fe-rich, 36, 48, 68, 159, 209, 224
SVEKA (seismic refraction profile), 77, 78, 488, Tholeiite, Fe-tholeiite, 60, 201, 203, 204,
490 207210, 215, 217, 221, 224, 226, 228, 324
Svionian, 350, 393, 692 Tholeiite, IAT, 160, 204, 209, 224, 262, 576
Syenite, 68, 114, 115, 498, 547, 608, 610612, 628 Tholeiite, island arc tholeiite, 160, 161, 180, 224,
Syenitoid, 514 267, 356, 361, 384, 576
Synorogenic rocks, 70, 182, 411, 412, 421, 430, Tholeiite, low-Al, karjalite, 203, 204, 212, 215,
446, 448, 450, 455, 468, 469, 471474, 654 224, 310, 324
Tholeiite, low-Ti, 204, 205
Taivalkoski block, 207, 209, 228 Tholeiite, Mg-tholeiite, 60
Talus, 299 Tholeiite, Mg-rich, 36
Tampere belt, 12, 348, 350355, 362, 365367, Tholeiite, MORB, 51
369375, 377, 388, 391, 393396, 417, 423, Tholeiite, olivine, 548, 569, 577, 579
427, 487, 489, 498, 505, 516 Tholeiite, transitional, 575
Tampere belt, central, 365367, 371 Thrust, 36, 53, 61, 65, 68, 73, 175, 361, 362, 365,
Tampere belt, eastern, 369 417, 512, 582, 584586
Tampere belt, lithological map, 366 Thrust belt, 144, 182, 242, 508, 593
Tampere belt, western, 369, 371 Thrust front, 68
Tanaelv (Tana) belt, 175, 176, 182, 183 Thrust plane, 457, 512, 514
Tarkki granite, 540, 545 Thrust sheet, 25, 175, 182, 319, 584
Tasanvaara tonalite, 36, 38, 39 Thrust slice, 282, 514
Tavastia island arc, 499, 500, 503, 507, 508, 512 Thrust wedge, 496, 501
TDM model ages, see Isotopic age Thrust zone, 158, 325
Tectofacies, 289, 291, 300 Thrusting, (see also Overthrusting, Underthrus-
Tectofacies, Jatuli, 245, 303, 306, 307, 309, 310, ing), 38, 40, 53, 54, 57, 82, 83, 144, 176,
313, 320, 321, 329 181, 182, 501, 503, 504, 507509, 512514,
Tectofacies, Kainuu, 299, 303, 305307, 313, 326, 516518, 585
329, 330 Tidalite, 330
Tectofacies, Kaleva, lower (eastern), 240, 245, Tipasjrvi greenstone belt, 40, 47, 48, 51, 53
314, 326 Tipasjrvi supracrustal belt, 44, 51
Tectofacies, Kaleva, upper (western), 240, 245, Ti-pyrope (titanian pyrope), 616, 638
319, 320, 326 Tirilite, 540, 543
Tectofacies, Karelian, 289, 291, 320, 327 Tirmo Group, 385
Tectofacies, Sariola, 289, 295, 299301, 305, 307 Tonalite, 32, 35, 3840, 43, 51, 52, 57, 58, 70, 71,
Tectofacies, Sumi, 289, 290 79, 251, 416, 449, 451, 456, 489
Tectofacies, SumiSariola, 329 Topaz-bearing granite, 541, 543, 545, 549
Tectonic contact, 46, 51, 161, 282, 285, 291, 307, Topaz-bearing quartz porphyry, 549
311, 456 TornioNrnkvaara belt, 104107, 113, 116,
734 INDEX
118120, 131, 132, 167, 201, 205, 226, Ume, (area) field, 389, 390, 394, (494)
Tornquist line, 570, 592 Unconformity, 36, 54, 59, 62, 64, 74, 144, 177,
Tornquist Ocean, 592 203, 204, 213, 289, 291294, 299, 301303,
Trachyandesite, 165, 358, 378, 305, 307, 309, 310, 314, 317319, 321, 393, 674,
Trachyandesite, high-K, 358 677, 692
Trachyandesite, high-P, 358 Unconformity, angular, 181, 320, 323, 393, 396,
Trachyte, 164, 165, 167, 367, 370, 378, 394 566
Transform fault, 503, 504, 507, 512, 518, 519 Unconformity, erosional, 307, 314
Transpression, 35, 38, 51, 53, 54, 82, 512, 519 Underplating, 53, 75, 77, 78, 83, 429, 484, 518,
Transpression, dextral, 38, 51, 54, 82 554, 556, 558, 588, 639
Transpressional, 15, 36, 349, 457, 473, 507 Underplating, magmatic, 75, 78, 83, 518, 554,
Transscandinavian igneous belt (TIB), 5, 487, 556
492, 499, 554 Underthrusting, 71, 77
Tremolite, 36, 37, 46, 60, 253, 257261, 614 Uplift, 14, 16, 38, 74, 84, 105, 177179, 181183,
Troctolite, 545, 548, 586 203, 228, 230, 447, 460, 505, 591, 593, 594,
Trondhjemite, 13, 40, 43, 51, 52, 251, 349, 446, 636
456 Uplift, crustal, 179, 183
Trondhjemitic, 39, 40, 48, 57, 58, 61, 62, 69, 73 Uplift, isostatic, 16, 447
Tsuomasvarri (gabbrodiorite) intrusion, 654 Urtite, 628
TTG (trondhjemite-tonalite-granodiorite), 39, 43, Uusimaa belt, 12, 346, 348, 350, 352354, 375,
47, 49, 51, 52, 57, 73, 79, 142, 251, 416, 417, 376, 380, 383388, 390392, 395, 396, 487,
456 489, 499
TTG, Archean, 39, 49, 51, 142
TTG, magmatism, 47, 49, 79 VAB (volcanic arc basalt), see Basalt
TTG, migmatites, 43, 51, 58, 73, 416, 417 Vaddas Nappe, 583, 585, 586
Tuff breccia, 370, 376, 383 Vkkr granite, 539, 545
Tuffite, 156, 159, 165, 285, 298, 303, 309311, Valleriite, 422
313, 318, 330, 348, 356 Vammala Ni-province, 419, 421, 423, 424, 432,
Tulppio supracrustal belt, 65, 68 433, 436
Tundra intrusion, 649 Vammala-type (Ni-Cu sulfide deposit), 434
Tuntsa supracrustal belt, 65, 68 Variolitic, 46, 150, 156
Tuntsa terrain, 24, 6468, 71, 74, 81 Vrml pluton, 453
Turbidite, 33, 35, 36, 60, 203, 273, 285, 291, Varpaisjrvi granulite complex, 53, 54, 57
297, 299, 313315, 317319, 325, 361, 364, Varpaisjrvi block, 228
366369, 371, 373, 375, 385, 388, 389, 393, Vyrylnkyl nappe, 297
394, 494, 696 Vehmaa batholith, 15, 537, 539, 556
Turbiditic, 12, 32, 63, 203, 240, 297, 299, 300, Veittijrvi conglomerate, 370
305, 309, 313315, 317, 318, 321, 329, 331, Vendian, 566, 579, 591
348350, 361, 365, 366, 389, 393, 394, 417, Vendian period, 15
497, 504 Vetreny belt, 154, 171
Turbidity current, 295, 319, 367 VHMS (volcanic-hosted massive sulfide)
deposit, 389
Ukrainian Shield, 485, 515, 519, 520, 651, 659 Vihajrvi, Group, 298, 320, 321, 323
Ultramafic dike, 49, 112, 161, 246, 264, 267, 269 Viianki block, 228
Ultramafic lamprophyre, 246, 249, 266, 267, 410, Virtasalmi field, 359361, 394
615, 627, 628, 630, 632 Virtasalmi region, 348, 358, 359, 375, 377
Ultramafic massif, 250, 255259, 261264, 267, Vodlozero block, 652
271, 273, 419 Volcanic rocks (see also Metavolcanic rocks)
Ultramafic pipe, 415 Volcanic rocks, acid, 290, 300, 329
Ultramafic rocks, 11, 12, 25, 36, 37, 45, 48, 60, Volcanic rocks, bimodal, 12, 62, 356, 394, 395
68, 70, 74, 82, 104, 106, 108, 116, 122, 132, Volcanic rocks, calc-alkaline, 152, 300, 356, 364,
148, 150, 153, 156, 157, 161, 162, 173175, 180, 377, 378, 380, 388, 426
183, 203, 244, 257, 260, 262, 298, 361, 365, Volcanic rocks, felsic, 7, 11, 12, 36, 37, 43, 44,
379, 385, 410, 415, 417, 484, 497, 566, 585, 615, 47, 48, 63, 152, 180, 183, 290, 350, 356, 360,
618, 625 362, 374, 376, 384, 388390, 393, 449, 507,
Ulvspinel, 616, 621 675
Umba granulite terrane (UGT), 175, 182, 487, Volcanic rocks, intermediate, 11, 12, 290, 300,
494, 496, 500, 501, 503, 504 385
Ume allochthon, 499, 513, 518, 519 Volcanic rocks, mafic, 7, 11, 12, 29, 44, 68, 73,
INDEX 735
177, 318, 355, 356, 358362, 364, 372, 374, 549, 551, 552
380, 384, 385, 387391, 394, 449, 653 WPB (within-plate basalt), see Basalt
Volcanic rocks, rhyolitic, 62, 180, 388, 395
Volcanic rocks, ultramafic, 11, 48, 60, 635, 685, Xenocrysts, 29, 43, 243, 306, 606, 616618,
396, 497 620622, 627, 634, 637639
Volcaniclastic deposit, 35, 36, 59, 385 Xenocrystic (zircon), 68, 69, 244, 324, 498
Volcaniclastic rocks, 33, 44, 146, 148, 156, 363, Xenolith, 73, 77, 83, 114, 116, 118, 119, 121, 125,
385, 386, 389 150, 174, 414, 449, 459, 608, 616,
Volcanism, 154, 158, 177, 179, 181, 182, 317 634, 637, 638, 639
Volcanism, ocean floor, 179 Xenolith, crustal, 53, 57, 75, 77, 78, 434, 515,
Volcano-sedimentary sequence, 14, 144, 226, 620, 623
240, 417 Xenolith, gneiss, 150, 414, 459
Volgo-Uralian, 484, 488, 519 Xenolith, mantle, 25, 75, 77, 243, 269, 616, 618,
Vuokatti Group, 311 619, 636, 637, 639
Xenoliths, in kimberlite, 22, 25, 53, 57, 76, 77,
Weathering, 13, 16, 36, 52, 150, 201, 249, 291 622, 638
293, 295, 297, 300303, 305, 307, 327, 329, Xenotime, 58, 75, 541
330, 393, 581, 586589, 591, 616, 626, 674
Weathering crust, 586 Yilgarn craton, 80, 81, 656658
Weathering profile, 291, 305, 586, 591 Ylivieska field, 346, 350, 351, 356, 361364,
Weathering, chemical, 52, 201, 291, 301303, 374, 388, 389, 394, 395
307, 327, 329, 330, 586
Weathering, in situ, 292, 293, 307, 586 Zircon, 25, 27, 29, 39, 40, 43, 44, 46, 48, 52, 56,
Weathering, kaolinitic, 581 59, 61, 63, 64, 68, 69, 76, 120, 163, 166, 243,
Weathering, paleoweathering, 150, 305 247, 254, 255, 269, 270, 324, 348, 376, 374,
Weathering, physical, 291, 295, 297, 329 379, 381, 392, 412, 425, 448, 451, 452, 454,
Weathering, subareal, 591 456, 460, 462, 467, 473, 498, 501, 515, 541,
Websterite, 106, 107, 114, 174, 417, 422 546, 548, 575, 577, 610, 611, 613615, 623,
Wehrlite (see also Gabbro-wehrlite association), 638, 651
77, 204, 214, 223, 422, 621, 635637, 639 Zircon, detrital, 22, 6264, 142, 155, 166, 167,
Wiborg batholith, 534, 539, 540, 542, 543, 545, 181, 273, 282, 291, 314, 319, 323, 325, 350,
546, 548, 549, 551 352, 353, 362, 367, 375, 379, 381, 390, 392,
Wiborgite, 534, 536, 539, 540, 542, 543, 545, 396, 493, 494, 498, 571
736 INDEX

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Developments in Precambrian Geology, 14

Further titles in this series

1. B.F. WINDLEY and S.M. NAQVI (Editors)

Amsterdam Boston Heidelberg London New York Oxford

2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Electronic Storage or Usage

First edition 2005

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data

ISBN-13: 978 0 444 51421 9

PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND v

vi PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND

PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND vii

viii PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND

PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND ix

x PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND

PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND xi

PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND xiii

Martti Lehtinen Pekka A. Nurmi O. Tapani Rm

xiv PRECAMBRIAN GEOLOGY OF FINLAND

M. Vaasjoki, K. Korsman, T. Koistinen

The bedrock of Finland belongs to the Precambrian East European craton of

300 0 300 600 km

2. Regional geographic 3. Enonteki area. The northwestern part,

P. Sorjonen-Ward, E.J. Luukkonen

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 21

22 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

Archean Karelian domain

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 23

24 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 25

26 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 27

28 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 29

30 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

High strain zones

Tiittalanvaara Formation Pat

Sivakkajoki Formation Granitoid intrusions

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 31

Basaltic to intermediate volcanic

Polymictic conglomerates and

Depositional younging direction

32 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 33

34 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 35

36 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 37

38 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 39

40 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

Kuhmo greenstone belt

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 41

Post-Archean rock units

Archean rock units

Older greenstones (Luoma Group Juntusranta

Older granitoids 6500N

42 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 43

44 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS

CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS 45

46 CHAPTER 2 ARCHEAN ROCKS