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Tli~ Tomb in Ancient Egypt
Royal and Private Sepulchres from
the Early D n.tstic Period to the Romans
"'
Aidan Dod!>:-ln and Salima Ikram
.. - . ~ ON TH E JACKET :
! he ka-s/.:"c of Mereruka sreps out of his false-door in his 6th Dynasty tomb
hapel >.t Saqqara. Photo: Al bert Shoucair, © Thames & Hudso n Ltd, London
L
THE TOMB
IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Roya l and Pr ivate Se pulc hre s
from t he Earl y Dynast ic Pe r io d
t o the Ro ma ns
·a
[,
A I DA N DO D SON A N D SA L I M A I K RAM
THE TOMB
IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Royal and Pr ivate Sepulc hres fro m
the Ea r ly Dyn ast ic Pe ri od
to the Ro mans
PREFACE 7 Chapter 8
T H E FIRST INTERMEDIA TE PERIOD,
FRONTISPIECE: Anubis holds the mummy ofRoy before the stela of his INTRODUCTIO N 8 MIDDLE KINGDOM AND
tomb, while Roy's wife kneels in grief before him (TT255, late 18th SECOND IN TERMEDIATE PERIOD 186
Dynasty).
Part I
Chapter 9
Designed by Thomas Keenes Chapter I T HE N EW KIN GDO M: TH E EARLY YEA RS 209
EGYPTIAN MORTUARY BELIEFS
Chapter 10
Any copy of this book issued by the publisher as a paperback is sold AND THE NATU RE O F T HE T OMB 12
THE NEW KINGDOM: THE A MARNA YEARS 229
subject to the condition that it shall not by way of trade or otherwise be
lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher's Chapter 2
Chapter II
prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than chat in which it is THE TOM B A ND SOCI ETY 23
published and without a similar condition including these words being
T H E NEW KINGDO M: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 247
imposed on a subsequent purchaser. Chapter 3
C hapter 1 2
CONSTRUCTION A N D D ECORAT ION 31
First published in the United Kingdom in 2008 by THE TH IRD IN TERM EDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS 270
Thames & Hudson Led, I8IA High Holborn, Chapter 4
London WCIV 7QX C hapter 13
THE STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN T O MB 55
T HE LATE AND GRAECO-RO MAN PERIODS 288
www.thamesandhudson.com
Part 11
© 2008 T hames & Hudson Led, London Part IV
Chapter 5
NI Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
T HE D ECORATION OF THE TOMB 76 NOTES 310
including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and CHRONOLOGY 314
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Part Ill GLOSSARY 318
Chapter 6 T H E PRIN CIPAL CEM ET ERIES 320
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library MAPS 324
PREDYNASTIC A N D EARLY DYN ASTIC PERIODS 132
A BBREVIATIONS AN D BIBLI OGRAPHY 336
ISBN 978-0-500-05139-9 Chapter 7 SOURCES O F ILLUSTRATIONS 359
THE OLD KINGDOM 142 INDEX 360
Printed and bound in China by Everbest Printing Co. Ltd.
Preface
A !though Egyptology as a science is two centuries old, it and magnificence of the royal tombs to blind one to such
is surprising how few volumes provide a systematic coverage areas of convergence. While almost infinitely greater in size
of particular types of monuments. This is especially true and complexity, the Great Pyramid at G iza is actually made
with the tombs of ancient Egypt, ubiquitous as they are in up of th e same basic components as the very smallest of the
the popular conception of the country and its culture. private tombs that lie at its foot.
While there are many books available on particular types of The broad division oflabour in the writing of this book
comb (for example the pyramids), individual monuments, has been between the architectural and archaeological
sites or specific aspects of comb design (for example O ld aspects of the tombs, which are the responsibility ofDodson
Kingdom decorative schemes), no modern work attempts to and the technological and sociological material, together
deal with Egyptian tombs as a whole. with decorative schemes, which are from the pen oflkram,
Generally, royal and private tombs are rarely considered although our pens (or perhaps, rather, keyboards and mice)
together, leading to many misunderstandings. T hus one still have not infrequently strayed across these boundaries! The
finds it stated as a 'fact' that private and royal tombs of the remainder of the volume is generally a joint effort.
New Kingdom differ in that while the former are decorated We would like to express our thanks to the following
with scenes of daily life, the latter have scenes of the friends, colleagues and loved ones for hospitality, help,
underworld. This stems from a failure to grasp that the two permissions, photographs, information and assorted
sets of monuments in question had completely different kindnesses: T omas Bacs; Ladislav Bard; M iroslav Barta;
functions. T he private 'tombs' with 'daily life' scenes are Violaine Chauvet; Andrew Chugg; Mark Collier; Lorelei
actually public offe ring places, their royal equivalent being Corcoran; Martin R. D avies; Dana DePietro; Francis
not the sepulchres in the Valley of the Kings but the great Ozokowski; C hristine End; Fayza Haikal; Melinda H artwig,
mortuary temples, such as D eir el-Bahari and Medinet Z ahi Hawass; O yan Hilcon; Sheila Hilcon; Alison Hobby;
Habu, whose decoration includes equivalent 'daily life' Janice Kamrin; Jaromir Malek; Bill Manley; Elizabeth
elements. Conversely, the equivalent of the Valley of the M iles; Karol M ysliwiec; David O 'C onnor; Sara Ore!;
Kings monuments are the subterranean pits, passages and Maarten Raven; J an et Richards; Otto Schaden; J .J. Shirley;
chambers that lie below most of the private 'combs'. On the lbrahim Soliman; Hourig Sourouzian; Nigel Strudwick;
rare occasions that these are decorated, their adornment is John Swanson; John Taylor; Francesco Tiradritti; Medhat
like\Vise based on compositions dealing with the Saad; Miroslav Verner; Nathalie Walschaerts; Leslie
underworld - sometimes the very same ones. Warden; Nich olas W arner; Kent Weeks; Penny W ilson;
T hus, this volume aims to tell the story of the Egyptian Alain Z ivie; and the Inspectors and gaffirs throughout
tomb, its developmen t, construction and study, in an Egypt. To any we have omitted, we extend our sincere
integrated manner. Royal combs will be considered apologies.
alongside their private contemporaries and similarities
emphasized where they exist, rather than allowing the size Bristol and Cairo Aidan Dodson and Salima Ikram
P RE FAC E 7
Introduction
'Little is in life on earth, Eternity is in the necropolis' decorated, especially during the New Kingdom, and give us
(AM EN) USER (TT131), 18TH D YNASTY ' some of our best evidence for the minutiae of Egyptian
religion. Tombs remain fundamental to our understanding
The tombs of ancient Egypt remain, for many, the defining of life on the ancient banks of the Nile: one is able to follow
monuments of that civilization. This is not because the the agricultural and domestic life of the country; the
Egyptians were an overly morose and morbid group of industrial processes that created some of the monuments at
people, obsessed by death, but rather because they were which the world still marvels; social organization and
obsessed by life and wished it to continue. Tomb familial relationships; and funerary beliefs and the
construction and decoration were key to the continuation ceremonies that accompanied an ancient Egyptian burial.
of existence, albeit on another plane. Tomb-chapels enshrined the name and profession of
The burial places of the nobiliry, artisans and lesser folk their owners, but frequently we can learn more about his 2 The Valley of the Kings. with EI-Q um in the backgro und the entrance to Ramesses VI's tomb (KV9) can be seen in the right fo reground and
of ancient Egypt are fundamental to our understanding of or her family and life. While the latter aspect is often only those of Sety I and Ramesses I (KV 17 and I6) on the left.
that great civilization. From tombs come both the physical a tantalizing glimpse, in a few cases we find extensive
remains of the ancients and their possessions, and the autobiographical texts. In the famous example of the 6th where there is no autobiographical text, there may be clues historical document, a number of tombs being the sole
decorations of their walls open significant vistas on life lived Dynasty African explorer Harkhuf (Aswan QH34n) , we in the texts or layout of the decoration that will provide evidence that a particular king had ever lived.
on the banks of the Nile. Small or large, they often contain read of his African explorations and his return to his evidence of the events contemporary with the tomb's However, the importance of Egyptian tombs is not
extremely fine examples of rwo- and three-dimensional art, boy-king, Pepy II , bringing with him a dancing dwarf; in construction. A good example is the tomb of the Vizier limited to purely historical and sociological aspects: they
which are also important objects of modern study. another (QH26), we learn of a journey into the desert by Ramose (TT 55) , in which a sudden change in the are also frequently stunning works of art and architecture.
Owing to the richness and ubiquiry of tomb sites and a son bent on avenging his father's murder and bringing decorative style shows how its owner presided over the Ramose's tomb, for example, besides being a key document
the relatively small number of archaeologically accessible home his body for decent burial. Yet more texts describe transition from the reign of the New Kingdom pharaoh for the study of the early Amarna Period, is also adorned
settlement sites, the larger part of our knowledge of ancient a man's participation in the ancient mystery-play ofOsiris, Amenhotep Ill to that of his 'heretic' son and successor, with some of the finest reliefs ever executed in Egypt. Other
Egyptian sociery and history is still derived from the study of god of the dead; the construction of the first royal tomb Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten). particularly choice monuments include the 5th Dynasry
sepulchres. Egyptian tombs were divided into rwo portions: in the Valley of the Kings (TT81); the duties of the Vizier; Mortuary temples, the royal equivalents of the private Saqqara tomb ofTi, the 26th Dynasry sepulchre of
the accessible tomb-chapel, which was decorated and bore the way in which General Amenemheb (TT85) saved his tomb-chapels, usually omit such elements, instead focusing Mentuemhat (TT34) and the exquisite 19th Dynasry royal
vivid depictions of the world in which the tomb-owner(s) king's life when charged by an enraged elephant. Even on the pharaohs' cosmic roles as a god in heaven and on tombs ofSery I (KVq) and his daughter-in-law Nefertiry
lived, and the burial chamber, usually undecorated, which earth, with only occasional hints at events during the (Nefertari; QV66) . Another tomb, that ofPetosiris at Tuna
contained the body and the grave goods. Burial installations I (above) Banquet scene from the I8th Dynasty tomb-chapel of monarch's reign. The very existence of a royal burial el-Gebel, illustrates its period- that of the beginning of the
of the kings were unusual in that they were not infrequently Nebamun at Thebes (TIE.2: BM EA37984) . installation, however, is sometimes in itself a fundamental Greek dominion over Egypt- by being adorned with a
8 INTRODUCTION I NTRODUCTION 9
composite form of art, which attempts to fuse elements of
both Hellenic and Egyptian practice.
Besides the paintings, reliefs and statues adorning their
walls, many tombs are significant manifestations of the
architect's craft. At one extreme, there is the sheer scale of the
royal pyramids of the 4th Dynasty, still the most massive free-
standing monuments raised by mankind; at the other is the
ingenuity displayed in some of the tombs of the Middle
Kingdom and Saite Period, where much skill was expended in
protecting the sepulchre from the attentions of tomb robbers.
Unfortunately, in spite of such efforts, the cemeteries of
Egypt have been the subject of extensive plundering since
4 The rear wall ofthe early 12th Dynasty to m b ~c ha pe l of
the very earliest times. Nonetheless, tombs have revealed Kh numhotep 1i i at Beni Hasan ( B H ~ II I) , w ith t he cl ass ic Egyptian scenes
vast quantities of funerary equipment, ranging from of fishing and fow ling. Th e lower part of t he wall bears t he to mb~
everyday items to gorgeous jewelry and luxury mortuary owne r's autobiography.
'
items. Amongst these are the furniture ofHetepheres,
mother of Khufu (G;oooX); the treasures of the 12th their influence on the design of the tomb. The next chapter
Dynasty princesses at Dahshur; ofYuya and Tjuiu (KV46), examines the spatial organization within cemeteries, the
parents-in-law of Amenhotep Ill; ofKha and Meryet (TT8), layout of the tombs and what this may tell us about ancient
the form er being in charge of the construction of the royal Egyptian culture and social organization. This is followed
tomb during the middle years of the r8th Dynasty; of by a discussion on the methods of tomb construction,
Tutankhamun (KV62), the richest of all such finds; of decorative techniques and the builders and artisans
Pasebkhanut I (NRT-III) of the 21st Dynasty. Sadly, other responsible for the construction of the tombs. The section
items in our museums are monuments to the tombs' concludes with a history of the key figures who have studied
destruction . The beautiful fragments of wall-decoration the Egyptian tombs, freeing them from the all-embracing
displayed were usually removed at the cost of the utter sands and clearing and copying them.
destruction of the remainder of the scenes that first attracted Part II gives an overview of the fundamentals of tomb
the cupidity of vandals and self-proclaimed antiquarians. decoration in a high-level way, considering the iconographic
Vandals, often in the guise of collectors and antiquities approaches taken by the Egyptian designer and then
dealers, have been responsible for large-scale destruction in discussing the individual kinds of scene that are to be found
tombs. For example, in Theban Tomb (TT) 222, two within Egyptian funerary monuments. These range from
portions of the wall decoration were removed (and later particular motifs such as hunting and weaving to much larger
sold in the international art market), which resulted in the units such as the Book of the Dead and the Pyramid Texts.
destructio n of most of the decoration on the surrounding The story of the Egyptian tomb is traced in Part Ill,
walls. The tomb was also burnt, out of sheer malice. Some from the dawn of Egyptian history down to the Roman
tombs have been bulldozed in order to gain access to the domination. A range of typical and exceptional tomb
burial chamber. In addition to tomb robbers, many tombs designs are described and illustrated, from the multiple
have also been destroyed to a large extent through the points of view of architecture, decorative arrangement,
vicissitudes of time, visitors, pollution, weather and reuse. style, location and contents.
The volume concludes with Part IV, providing a
This book is divided into four sections. Part I starts with a conspectus of the main cemeteries of Egypt, maps and a
discussion of what is known of Egyptian funerary beliefs and bibliography. The latter and extensive endnotes aim to
provide between them references to all the key works
3 (left) The entrance t o t he 5th Dynasty mortuary temple of Sahure dealing with Egyptian tombs in general and the particular
at Abu Sir. monuments discussed in the text.
I N TR O D UC TION 11
Part I
' When you prosper, found your household .... When you The afterlife that the Egyptians were attempting to
make a place for yourself, make good your dwelling in the attain and maintain was visualized as a more perfect Egypt
graveyard. Make worthy your dwelling in the west.' in which they, as a maa kheru, or 'justified one', could pass
INSTRUCTIONS OF H O RDJEDEF, 4TH 0 YNASTY 2 an ideal life eternally and harmoniously in the company of
the gods. This place, which could be either a mirror image
The preservation and housing of the body on earth so that of Egypt, subterranean, or even celestial, was often called
the individual could be resurrected formed a fundamental the Fields oflaru, or Field of Reeds, and was the domain
part of the ancient Egyptian view of the necessities for the of the god Osiris (see below). Here the deceased could live
afterlife. Consequently, provision of eternal accommodation eternally at one with the gods.
for the body in the fo rm of a tomb was granted high priority Our knowledge of the Egyptians' belief in the afterlife
by the well-to-do Egyptian. Of course, the less well-off were is largely derived from New Kingdom and later evidence,
also concerned with their life in the hereafter. In their case, although the basic ideas appear to h ave been in place from
however, economic reality determined that they would have the beginning of Egyptian history, evolving over time.
to be content with a hole scooped in the low desert, the only Throughout Egypt's long and varied history there remained
luxury being perhaps burial in some fo rm of coffin, rather one essential element that was the cornerstone of the
than simple wrapping in one's own sleeping mat, or Egyptians' belief in the afterlife: maat. This was the divine
possessing a grave marker in the form of a stela. order and balance that had to be maintained if the universe
Cemeteries tended to be located on the Nile's west bank, were to continue. It was every individual's responsibility to
the side of the setting sun that marked the end of the day. contribute to maintaining the balance of the cosmos (maat)
This was not always practical, so that many burials occur on by living a good and balanced life (one of the symbols for
the east; however, such tombs contain an internal geography the maintenance of maatwas a pair of scales), although the
that fits with the Egyptian belief system. burden of responsibility for this fell on the pharaoh and
priests. By appeasing the gods through offerings and prayers
and by living within the laws of maat, life could continue in
5 (/eft) An image of King Ramesses VI before the goddess Maat (KV9:
Egypt and in the afterworld.
20th Dynasty).
The tomb was the point of contact between the wo rlds
6 (above) The Opening-of-the-Mouth ceremony, as shown in the of the living and of the dead and provided a space where
tomb of Pairi (IT 139: 18th Dynasty) . both worlds could co-exist symbiotically. Tombs were
~ -
( dlij
,~f~
access to burial chambers through shafts or sloping passages, from their associated mortuary temples or enclosures. ~
blocked in antiquity, is now sometimes possible. T he approach to the burial chamber was closed after the ~
~
include first a simple superstructure, which later became an Kingdom and Late Period (see pp. 205, 286). The =
elaborate complex, richly decorated with scenes from 'daily substructure was rarely decorated and when it was, the
life'. A complete funerary chapel thus came into existence decorations concentrated on the netherworld, rather than
and became a clear requirement for any fully equipped that of the living. In the case of the royal tombs of the New
sepulchre. Its form varied, depending on the local Kingdom, the burial chambers were an elaborate invocation
geography: cut into the flank of a rocky outcrop in some of the world of the sun god, in whose company the pharaoh
locations; free-standing or incorporated into the core of a would see out eternity.
bench-shaped structure known as a 'mastaba'J in others.
Various combinations of these types, with their associated PROVIDING FOR THE BODY AND THE SOUL 8 O si ri s, ruler of the dead, on a fragment of an I 8th Dynasty stela
decorations, are of course to be found and will be described (Chiddingstone Castle) .
and discussed below. 'I am strong therein; I am glorious there; I eat there ... ;
9 Mutilated hieroglyphs on the
The substructure of the tomb was the abode of the I plough and reap there; I drink and eat there; I make aloud: the articulation of the name magically charged the coffin of Hor; from Dahshur
corpse. It could consist of a single room or a labyrinth of love there.' life-force of the deceased so that he or she could flourish in (CM CG281 06: 13th Dynasty).
corridors and chambers, housing one or many bodies. This BOOK OF THE D EAD, SPELL no, NEW KlNGDOM the afterworld.
element was wholly separate from the chapel and the The ancient Egyptians believed in the magic and power Many tombs contained texts that are called 'Appeals to
superstructure. While the latter was intended for continued The Egyptians believed that the individual was made up of of both written and spoken words. One of their creation the Living', which ask the living visitors to say a prayer or
several parts, some physical, others metaphysical. These myths refers to how the great god Atum had a thought or even just the name of the deceased so that he or she can
7 Section of an Old Kingdom mastaba. showing the key elements of parts were: khet, the body; ren, the name; shuyet, the shadow; conception and then, by voicing it, it came into being. thrive in the afterworld. The name was what gave people
an Egyptian tomb. ka, the double or life-force; ba, the personality or soul; and The Egyptians believed that once a word was written down, their identity and its protection and promulgation was
akh, the spirit. A considerable portion of Egyptian funerary it was inherently magical and could make whatever was therefore crucial to their eternal survival. If one wanted to
religion was dedicated to ensuring the survival not only of written true, especially when spoken aloud, an act which punish an enemy, the worst thing to do would be to remove
SUPERSTRUCTURE
the body by mummification, but of all these components. breathed life into the words. Thus, the representations on his name from his tomb as this one most severe act would
- I
r---
The tomb was a house for eternity, the repository of all the walls could come alive and make real what they depicted render him nameless and beingless in the Fields of laru.
Chapel
Shaft
1\ parts of the personality, but most importantly of the body
and the name. The former was mummified, wrapped in
and had to be chosen with care lest some dangerous being This damnatio memoriae has been carried out in some tombs
came into existence in a tomb. This is why sometimes one (e.g. the Vizier Rawer at Saqqara, KVro and WV23 [both in
bandages and then protected both physically and magically finds hieroglyphs of potentially harmful animals being the Valley of the Kings] and Theban Tombs 39, 42, 48 and
SUBSTRUCTURE by being placed in coffins and a sarcophagus. It was finally disarmed in some way: snakes are shown with a cut in their 71, to name but a few).
u
Bunal chamber
interred in the burial chamber, cut deep into the rock and
secured against intruders. Magical texts, inscribed both on
the exterior and the interior of the tomb, made the person
body, lions are shown without legs and so-on, lest these
dangerous beasts come to life and damage the tomb-owner.
These precautions were especially common in the Middle
The shadow, appearing in funerary texts, was a reflection
of the body through the sun, itself the quintessential symbol
of resurrection and rebirth. An image created by the sun, the
live forever, especially when the name was spoken or read Kingdom. shadow would vanish and reappear with the help of the sun.
14 EGYPT IAN MOR TU ARY BE L I EFS AND THE NATU RE OF THE TOMB EGY PTIAN MORTUARY BEL I EFS A N D THE NATUR E OF THE TOMB 15
Thus, during life it was a constant reminder and reassurance deceased, apparently frozen in its passage between the two and texts, became identified with the realm of Osiris, rather
of rebirth and in death would also be granted the protection worlds. The false-door was arguably the most potent place in than merely serving as a conduit to it.
it needed to continue and emphasize its role as an agent of the tomb as it was the point where the worlds of the dead While Osiris was the ruler of the dead and especially
resurrection. and the living came together and, as such, the focus of the prominent in funerary iconography from the New Kingdom
The ka, ba and akh, all aspects of the soul and cult celebrations of the deceased. and later, a wide range of other deities are found in mortuary
personality, are as difficult to understand as our concept of Related to such false-doors are the statues that were contexts from the Old Kingdom onwards. Amongst these
soul. The ka was depicted with a pair of up raised arms on placed in serdabs (Arabic for 'cellar'), closed rooms are Osiris' sisters, Isis and Nephthys, who traditionally
top of the head, while the ba was shown as a human-headed connected to the main chapel, if at all, by a narrow hole or guarded the foot and head of the corpse respectively and
bird, sometimes with a pair of arms. The akhwas rarely slit in the partition wall. This allowed the statues to 'see' out are often depicted as mourning Osiris. The funeral rituals
depicted, although it was written using the hieroglyphic sign and for incense and prayers to reach them, while remaining suggest that some of the chief female mourners or even
of the Hermit or Bald Ibis, Geronticus eremita. The ka and safe and hidden in the mysterious darkness. priestesses took on the persona of these divinities when
the body were created simultaneously by Khnum, the conducting funeral rites outside and within the tomb-
creator-god, on his potter's wheel. Both continued through TH E REALM O F OSIR IS chapel. Thus, during the course of the funeral, as the
life and into death, rather like doppelgangers or twins. The deceased became a divine akh, the mourners and officiants
kawas the animating force for the individual and, according The tomb could be viewed as a passageway to the realm of at the funeral took on the personae of different divinities,
to texts dating from the Old Kingdom onwards, it outlasted the dead, the Fields oflaru, ruled by Osiris. Myth had it that so moving the funeral into the divine plane.
the body, while needing the same sustenance as the body he had been a prehistoric king, son of the earth-god Geb and Two other goddesses, Neith and Selqet, regularly join
had needed during life. Thus, the offerings depicted on I 0 lnherkh au and hi s ba praisi ng each other in h1s tomb at Deir the sky-goddess Nut, murdered and later dismembered by them in their protective duties, along with four beings
tomb walls, or placed in the tomb, were for the sustenance ei-Med1na (TI359: 20th Dynasty). his brother, Seth. The body's parts were ultimately rescued known as the 'Four Sons ofHorus' . Named Imseti,
of the ka, which absorbed the potential sustenance that the and reassembled by his sister-wife Isis (with whom he was to Hapy, Duamutef and Qebehsenuef, the Four Sons were
offerings provided and was therefore 'charged' so that it associated with the stars and the gods. To become akhwas posthumously sire a son, Horus), embalmed by the jackal- particularly linked with the internal organs, removed during
could be active in the afterlife. After the death of an the ultimate means of securing a successful afterlife. Thus, headed god, Anubis and resurrected to become ruler and mummification. However, they also have their place
individual, the ka resided in the mummified body of the individuals who had lived lives not in keeping with the rules judge of the dead. He is almost always represented with a guarding the flanks of the corpse, in conjunction with two
deceased, as well as in the burial chamber and tomb-chapel of maatwould not achieve the state of being akh and would fully sheathed body, which became the characteristic aspect aspects of the embalming-god, Anubis, named Imywet and
and any representations of the deceased that they contained. be consumed by Ammit (see below) . ofOsiris as a wrapped mummy. There is, however, an Khentysehnetjer.
The bird-bodied ba was a more active part of the spirit, It should be remembered that kings, who were divine interesting question as to whether this meant that Osiris was Various other divine beings inhabit the world of the
being able to move through the tomb, into the cemetery and beings, had a different afterlife and as a consequence being represented as a mummy- or that the mummy was dead; some are true gods, to whom temples were built, such
beyond. According to some texts, in life the ba could be different tombs and cultic practices in which to achieve it, represented as Osiris. In favour of the latter is the fact that as Ptah, Hathor, Anubis and Atum, to name but a few.
released from a sleeping body to travel. Like the ka it had all from non-royal individuals. The divinity of the king meant the classic fully wrapped mummy only begins to be found
the characteristics enjoyed by a human: an ability to eat, that after death he joined with the gods and journeyed with after the rise to prominence of Osiris late in the Old
drink, speak, move and, unlike the ka, a capacity for travel. the sun god as part of his entourage. Kingdom. Early mummies have a very different aspect,4 I I ls1s as a kite conceives Ho r us with the mummified body of Osiris
Despite this facility, the bawas tied to the physical body to The ba and the ka both had human characteristics and while other sheathed gods exist who have nothing to do with (te mpl e of Set y I.Abydos: 19th Dynast y).
ensure the survival of the deceased in the afterlife. The human needs, regardless of whether they were royal or not. death, such as M in and Ptah. The exposed flesh of Osiris's
reunion of the ba and the mummy was the subject of many The tomb was where these needs could be met. Sustenance face is usually painted black or green, both colours of
portions of the well-known funerary text, the Book of the for the soul was provided in the form of provisions left in the fertility and rebirth, the former recalling the black silt that
Dead (see below) . The ba increased in importance in burial chamber, as well as by the images adorning the tomb- was annually deposited on the fields by the inundation of
funerary texts from the Middle Kingdom onwards, although chapel's walls that would be magically made real. However, the Nile and the latter the resulting crops.
depictions of it were not common until the New Kingdom. fresh goods were preferable; thus there was a requirement for Osiris' royal status is emphasized by his representation
The New Kingdom rishi or feathered coffin appears to evoke a place where such offerings could pass between the worlds. with his arms crossed at the breast, holding the royal insignia
the ba with its human head and feather decoration. In its simplest form, a slab of stone, or stela, placed above of the crook and the flail, as well as by his atefcrown,
The akh is the most complicated portion of the ground, could form this interface. Frequently, this stela took consisting of a royal white crown flanked by two feathers,
individual to understand. It seems to be the result of a union the form of a door- the so-called 'false-door' - through alluding to maatand a pair of horns which might refer to the
between the ba and the ka. This akh was the manifestation which the spirit could emerge, partake of its offerings and ram-headed Khnum and his role as a creator of bodies and
of the transformation of the deceased from a living creature then return whence it came. Indeed, in some tombs the souls. In the Ramesside Period the tomb itself, because of
into an eternal and unchanging being made oflight who was false-door actually has a three-dimensional image of the the inclusion of depictions of Osiris and other divine beings
16 EGYPT I AN MO RTUARY BEL I EF S AN D TH E NATU RE O F T H E TOMB EG Y PT IAN MORTUAR Y BE L I EFS AN D TH E NATUR E O F T HE TOMB 17
However, m any seem only to exist within the mortuary being; his posthumous fate was thus to re-join his fellow
context- strange beings whose sole purpose seems to be in deities in voyaging the heavens. Ultimately the king was
the cycle oflife and death that is exemplified by the daily linked most closely to the sun god, with his resurrection
passage of the sun god through the sky and nightly journey manifested as the continual voyage of the sun through the
through the netherworld. Different aspects of the sun god sky during the day and the netherworld, or 'mirror-Egypt',
also play crucial roles in mortuary beliefs associated with during the night. This solar trek is an important aspect of
resurrection, as death did not just mean a journey to the the decoration of the royal tombs of the New Kingdom and
afterworld, but becoming omnipresent through uniting later, but is hardly seen in other contexts as the private
with the sun god in the cycle of death and resurrection. individual had a different journey to make, in this case to
reach the Fields of Iaru, that even more perfect eternal
ACCESS TO THE NETHERWOR LD Egypt.
This was not a straightforward journey; in order to
Just as this life was not the same for royalty and commoners, achieve the goal a series of tests had to be passed and gates
divisions existed in the afterlife as well. At the very traversed until the deceased arrived successfully in the H all
beginning of Egyptian history the king was himself a divine of Osiris to be judged. There, the heart, as the organ that
13 The sun god proceeds on his barque towards his eter nal reb irth in the tomb of RamessesVI (KV9 : 20th D ynasty).
identified an individual's 'essence' or individuality, was Forth by Day', and usually found in the form of a papyrus
weighed on a scale against the feather symbolizing maat. roll placed in the tomb or with the mummy. In addition to
If the heart and the feather were balanced, it meant that the guiding the dead successfully, the Book of the Dead was also
person had led a good and just life and could enter the realm able to predict a successful outcome for the journey. The fact
of Os iris as one who was 'true of voice'. If the heart were that the papyrus depicted and/or described the dead person's
heavier, then the person would forfeit the afterlife and his successful passage through the judgment meant that he or
heart would be consumed by Ammit, the female Devourer she actually had been successful.
of the Dead, depicted as a terrifying amalgam of crocodile, The Book of the Dead is, however, by no means the
lion and hippopotamus . earliest of these 'guides' to the hereafter, incorporating as it
Aids to this spiritual journey appeared in tombs in the does many elements from more ancient sources. The oldest
form of a series of texts containing all the necessary substantial works are contained in the Pyramid Texts,
information and spells that would bring the spirit to its final inscribed inside the burial chambers of royal tombs of
destination. T hese were essentially crib notes that would the late 5th and 6th Dynasties, followed by the Middle
help the deceased pass the tests that barred his access to 'the Kingdom Coffin Texts and related works. The New
12 H aving successfully passed through the trials that followed bodily deat h, Horus presents Hunefer to Osiris, lsis and Nephthys; before O siris, on West', or the afterlife. The most famous of these is the Book Kingdom and later periods saw the development of a wide
a lotus flowe~ are the Four Sons of Horus, here shown all with human heads. From the Book of the Dead of Hunefer (B M EA990 I: 19th D ynasty). of the Dead, or more accurately called the 'Book of Coming range of funerary ' books' . Although they employed certain
18 EGYPTIAN MORTUARY BELIEFS AND THE NATURE OF THE TOMB EGYPTIAN MORTUARY BEL I EFS AND THE NATURE OF THE TOMB 19
parts of the Book of the Dead, royal burials were provided pulled, ideally, by oxen, taken in procession with the
with a separate set of funerary books that were but rarely tomb goods to the cemetery.? The procession included
found in commoners' sepulchres during the New Kingdom. the mourning family and friends of the deceased, priests,
Unlike that of commoners, the rebirth of kings ensured the grave goods and, if the deceased were wealthy, a host of
continuation not just of their lives, but the continuation of professional mourners who would rend their clothes, beat
the very cosmos, hence its importance. Once texts such as their breasts and pour ash upon their heads, ululating all the
the Pyramid Texts, initially composed for royal use, are while. Such hired mourners remain a feature of Egyptian
found in non-royal tombs, one is almost always guaranteed funerals. A peculiar object that fo rms part of the procession
that a new composition will appear in royal funerary from the Middle Kingdom on is the tekenu. In the Middle
contexts. Curiously, during the Third Intermediate Period, Kingdom it appears as a wrapped figure that is crouching or
the Book of the Dead became used much more extensively is in the foetal position, with only the head emerging. In the
in royal tombs, reversing the previous emphasis and now New Kingdom it is shown as an entirely wrapped bundle, or
including the judgment hall scene, in which the pharaoh is with the head and sometimes an arm showing. Its role in rhe
shown being judged like a mortal. Details of this whole funerary ritual is enigmatic.
corpus are given in pp. 129-31. Special sacred dances, the most famous of these
performed by the muu dancers, also played a part in the
FUNERALS AND IN TE RMEN T funerary ritual. The ceremonies of burial culminated in the
Opening-of-the-Mouth ceremony, in which the dead body
The chapel was the focus for the funeral ceremonies, the last was reanimated. 8 Each of the five senses was restored to
point at which the earthly body of the deceased could be rhe deceased in this ritual, which involved the use of
viewed and bidden adieu by friends and relations before the implements that on one hand recalled those used in the
soul went to the netherworld. A stela in TTIIo, belonging to carving of statuary, in particular the adze. This may have
the Royal Herald, Djehuty, of the middle of the r8th been linked with the fact that artificial images could also be
Dynasty, provides a vivid account of an Egyptian funeral: animated through the same ritual. The other tools recalled
those used at birth, a key item being the pesesh-kef k11ife,
A goodly burial arrives in peace, your 70 days having been
which consisted of a flint blade that broadened to a fo rk at
fulfill ed in your place of embalming. You are placed on the
the end. The knife was probably a model of one used to cut
bier ... and are drawn by bulls without blemish, the road
the umbilical cord of the baby and as such was necessary for
being sprinkled with milk, unril you reach the door of your
the soul's rebirth in the netherworld and its ability to eat and
romb. The children of your children, united of o ne accord,
drink again, just as severing the umbilical cord means that
weep with loving hearts. Your mouth is opened by the
the child must use its own mouth to ear and therefore live.9
lecror-priest and your purificatio n is performed by the Sem-
The fo releg of an ox was also used in the ritual, coming
priest. Horus adjusts for you your mouth and opens for you
from a sacrificial animal that no doubt provided a main part
your eyes and ears, your fl esh and your bones being perfect
of the funeral meal. Once the mummy was reanimated it
in all that appertains to you. Spells and glorifications are
joined the mourners for one last time in a funerary feast. No 14 Female professio nal mourners, bare-breasted, weeping and t hrowing dust in their hair (TTSS: 18th Dynasty) .
recited for you. There is made for you a 'Royal Offering
doubt many of the fresh food-offerings of the deceased were
Fo rmula', your own heart being with you, your h eart of
consumed during the course of this meal, with a share being
your earthly existence. You come in your former shape, as
set aside for the delectation of the deceased. All of these INTE RACT ION BETWEE N THE LIV ING AND cult, in order to pay the priest who rook care of the tomb.
on the day on which you were bo rn . T here is brought ro THE DEAD
activities rook place in front of the tomb's offering place. In essence, the offerings derived from these lands would be
you the Son-whom-you-love, the courtiers making
Once the deceased had feasted, the corpse was placed consecrated for the deceased and then given as payment to
obeisance. You enter imo the land given by the king,
in the tomb with accompanying pomp and ritual, with It was not enough to build a tomb if one wanted to live the priest in ch arge of the cult. Passing visitors - ideally for
imo the sepulchre of the west.>
garlands and flowers often being placed on the corpse, as eternally. A mortuary cult/foundation h ad to be established centuries into the future- were also encouraged to enter
Egyptian funerary ceremonies were long and well as on the coffin(s) and sarcophagus. Meanwhile the to provide for the upkeep of the tomb and the celebration of the chapel to admire it and to recite a prayer, preferably
complicated. 6 The prepared mummy would be retrieved spiritual aspect of the deceased had set our on its journey the cult through prayer and food offerings. These cults were the hetep-di-nesu, a traditional incantation that gave the
from the embalmers, encoffined and, being placed on a sled to eternity, described earlier in this chapter. endowed by dedicating some land and its revenues to the deceased's name and titles as well as the basic offerings,
20 EGYPTIAN MORTUARY B EL I EFS A N D THE N A TURE OF T HE TO M B EGY PT I A N MORTUARY BE L I EFS A N D T H E NATU R E OF TH E T OMB 21
Chapter 2 The Tomb and Society
' You have entered your tomb in peace; your grave is eterniry. Tomb size and complexity are two of the most obvious
A place of arising and resting fo r your noble mummy, a criteria that can be used fo r determining status. Presumably,
place of receiving gifts and offerings to your ka: your true the larger and architecturally more intricate the tomb, the
repository . . . .' more labour and materials would have been used, thus
SARCOPHAGUS OF H AREMAKHET, PTOLEMAIC P ERIOD 11 reflecting the prom inence and wealth of its owner. C ertainly,
the pyramid of the king dwarfs the tombs of his nobles, and
It is important to recognize that the study of tombs is not the royal mortuary complexes of the New Kingdom are
15 Offering lists w ere one of the most important component s of tomb decorat io n and could even be per sonalized to offer more or less of an end in itself: sepulchres, their contents and such factors significantly larger and better decorated than the tombs of
specif1c items t hat the deceased favoured.This one is to be found in the tomb-chapel of Ramose (TISS: 18th Dynast y) . courtiers. They could achieve this as they were built at the
as the layout of a cemetery can provide us with key
information about Egyptian society, in the same way that it expense of the state. M uch of the labour fo r such projects
thereby magically empowering the deceased (see further did for the ancient Egyptians. The identity and gender of was in the form of corvee and/or religio us duty, especially
p. 86) . the tomb-owner, family relationships, religious affiliations in the O ld Kingdom.
Family m embers would visit the tomb, especially on and the social position of the deceased can be gleaned from Size is also dependent on space within the cemetery
festivals associated with the dead, such as the New Kingdom tombs, all of which help to construct a picture of ancient and its general topography, as well as the general prosperity
Festival of the Valley, which involved visiting the tomb, Egyptian society. The elements that enable this are all part of the country at a given time. Tombs of the early New
making offerings of food and incense to the deceased and of the tomb complex: size, architectural complexity, location Kingdom were quite small, increasing in size as the 18th
feasting in the presence of their deceased ancestors. New 16 A typical M iddle K1ngdom hetep.-dt-nesu fo rmula; it reads,'A royal within the cemetery, the materials used in co nstruction and Dynasty became well established and the country prospered .
Kingdom tombs show a scene that takes place in the chapel's offering to Os iris, Lord of Busiris, the great god, Lo rd of Abydos, so decoration, and, in the case of intact tom bs, the number After the reign ofRamesses II they shrank and continued to
that he may give a voice offering (consisting of) bread, beer, ox, fowl,
courtyard, the festival of the god Sokar, who was also and varieties of grave goods included in the burial. 12 An do so until the renaissance of the 25th and 26th D ynasties.
alabaster, linen and ever ything good and pure o n w hich a god lives for
associated with Osiris. A feature of these regeneration interpretation of a tomb-owner's place in society can best Under King Khufu, areas of the Giza cemetery adjacent
the ko of TITLES AND NAME' .The deity and locations may differ
festivals involved a grain mummy, a small mummiform depending on t he location of the bunal and other factors. be obtained by analyzing and combining all these criteria to his pyramid were laid out in streets, with a standard
figure filled with grain, symbolizing the regenerative powers together. Of course, we cannot always determine which of 'nucleus' cemetery allocated to family m embers or individual
of Osiris. In modern Egypt visits to the tomb are also a prosperity, or to help heal the sick. The most popular way of these was most important to the ancient Egyptians, so that members of the court. T hese then completed and decorated
feature of life, with elaborately woven palm-leaves or doing this was in letter form. Such 'Letters to the Dead' were modern interpretations can at best only be hypothetical. them, according to their individual tastes (see pp. 154- 5).
'grain-dollies' being left on the tomb. inscribed on papyrus, or, more often, on pottery bowls. The Practical considerations also came into play, especially wirh
Once the deceased was safely in the netherworld, the bowls contained food that would entice the ka out of the regard to the location of tombs (the position of earlier tombs 17 (above) Dancers at a funeral, as depicted o n a block which o nce
living could approach the dead and ask for supernatural tomb and provide 'payment' for it to speed along the desired being a hindrance), the general economic climate, as well as fo rmed part of a late I 8t h/early 19th Dynasty t omb; from the area of
intervention in their affairs, be it for advice, an increase in intervention.10 changes in religious beliefs.1J t he Serapeum at Saqqara (CM JE4872).
22 EGYPTI AN MORTUARY B EL I EF S AND T H E N ATURE OF THE TOMB THE TOMB A N D SOC I ETY 23
There are records of 4th Dynasry kings providing land, Dynasry tomb ofRedines (G5032), who stresses how he
stone, a parr of the tomb or labourers for tomb construction; built his tomb using his own resources. Certainly, by the end
both rhe sire and rhe labourers were a gift of King Menkaure of the Old Kingdom it was more usual for the tomb-owner
himself to the nobleman Debhen (LG9o) at Giza. Thus, at and his family to be responsible for the construction and
that rime, the size of rhe tomb was in part dependent on decoration of the tomb, with the king being less and less
one's relationship with the king. The more favoured the involved. The endowment of a funerary cult was also a
individual, the more probable that the tomb would reflect personal matter. A text from the 4th or 5th Dynasry tomb of
this in size, location and decoration. Penmeru (G2197) at Giza gives the arrangements that rhe
Perhaps the earliest versions of the hetep-di-nesu (literally deceased had made to establish and sustain his cui t, and the
'gifts that the king gives') offering formulae (see pp. zr-z, early rzth Dynasty tomb of the governor Hapidjefa i at
86) that are found on tomb walls are stating an actual fact: Asyut (Tomb r) contains several inscriptions that deal with
that rhe tomb was provisioned (and provided?) by the king. his properry and the provisioning of his funerary cult.
In contrast, tombs at Giza dating to later periods contain It is possible that, especially in provincial cemeteries,
inscriptions that assert that the tomb-owner paid for rhe the local government or some other municipal body carved
construction and decoration of the tomb. An inscriptio n in simple shaft tombs and sold them to potential tomb-owners.
the 6th Dynasty mastaba ofRemenuka (Giza, Central Field) This is very similar to the modern tradition of purchasing
states that he paid the artisans with bread, beer and linen. In cemetery plots. It has also been suggested by some scholars
his recently discovered tomb in Giza's Western Cemetery, that even in royal cemeteries the option of'purchasing' a
Kai asserts how he himself paid for the construction of his mastaba was offered, probably to help finance the
tomb. A similar inscription can also be found in the 6th construction of the royal burial place. In this instance, the
18 The intact burial chamber offi8 (Kha). showing t he t ypical funerary equipment (now in Turin) of an 18th D ynasty official and his w ife.
19 (above) The Giza necropolis seen from t he sout h; Islamic and Coptic cemet eries occupy t he foreground. Certainly t here is a t radition of
locating cemeteries in the same place since antiquity. How ever; t he new cemeteries do not reflect the social o rganization fo und around the
pyramids, with the clustering of tombs close to the central royal bunal.
20 (below) A reconstruction of t he G iza necropolis as it may have been around the end of the 4th Dynasty, w ith the pyramids of Menkaure,
Khafre and Khufu.The area in the right low er part of t he drawing includes modern features.
stone elements such as granite, alabaster and basalt would it a focal point for funerary rituals. The pyramids of the
again add to the price. Doors, which for the most part are Old Kingdom, solar symbols promising the rebirth and decreased and changed to fit the new social system and the tomb of their patron continued throughout almost the
missing (though the hinge fixtures and swing-back areas are resurrection of the kings, were probably positioned with dynamic that grew out of the events of the disordered First entire span of Egyptian history.
still visible) , might also have been a way of displaying reference to the main sun temple of Egypt, located at Intermediate Period. During this time the tombs of the T he choice of tomb location also depended on
wealth. Expensive woods such as imported cedar or juniper Heliopolis. The Valley of the Kings may have been chosen nobility were built in some cases hundreds of kilometres family and job. As one might expect, family tombs are
might have been used, or the doors could have been carved for the burials of New Kingdom royalty due to the pyramidal from the king's tomb; indeed, in most cases the king's very clustered together. In fact, the similarity in decoration of
and enhanced with metals such as gold, copper or bronze. peak that dominates the sky above the wadi, recalling the tomb remains unknown. Clearly the decrease in the king's chapels can be linked by the kinship of their owners, as can
T hus size, complexity and decoration all taken together solar connotations of a pyramid and the primeval mound of power and importance rendered burial next to him be seen in several cemeteries. This is especially true of the
provide some sort of indication of wealth and status. creation- as well as for its potential for security. uni mportant and even undesirable. provinces, where many positions were inherited and the
Some people seem to have made up for a lack of space, The king's importance and power are manifest in In the Middle Kingdom the king regained much of his tombs of subsequent generations can be seen in a group.' 4
or indicate a change in position, by having two tombs. cemetery organization. In the Early Dynastic Period and strength, but due to both political and religious changes, Tombs of people sharing the same major position were
Examples of this are generally found in the New Kingdom. Old Kingdom the king was regarded literally as an burial near him was apparently not as prestigious as in earlier also sometimes grouped together. It is unclear whether
Horemheb is an obvious example: his tomb at Memphis omnipotent divine being whose word was law. Thus, to periods. Indeed, his prominence was dimmed by the strong this was due to rules of official cemetery organization or
dates to his years as a general, while his The ban tomb is royal be buried near the god-king was a mark of prestige and provincial governors, or nomarchs, who governed much of to chance.
and located in the Valley of the Kings. Some attempts were possibly a greater guarantee of achieving admittance to the the country at this time. T hey built large and well-decorated The location of a tomb within a non-royal cemetery was
made to adapt the Memphite tomb to its owner's subsequent afterworld as part of the king's entourage. The closer one to mbs in the provinces (e.g. Beni Hasan), away from the also significant. In non-royal cemeteries, especially in Upper
status: a small uraeus was added to Horemheb's brow in was to the king, the more important one's position. The capital, until the government was reorganized under the Egypt, where we have a more complete record of funerary
several images. Other individuals with two tomb-chapels at same idea is manifest in the large number of graves centred 12th Dynasty monarch Senwosret Ill, whereupon large, remains than from Lower Egypt, the location of one's tomb
Thebes include User (TT6r and TTr3r) , Menkheperresonbe on cemeteries associated with ~aints' tombs in modern lavishly decorated provincial tombs vanish from the along the cliffs was indicative of status. At Beni Hasan the
(TT86 and TTrn) and Djehutynefer (T T8o and TTro4) . Egypt, among other countries. Of course, there was an archaeological record. most important people, the nomarchs or governors, had
It is unclear what use was made of the 'spare' tomb. Perhaps additional reason to be buried near a specific ruler: if the Tombs of the 26th Dynasty and later show a resurgence tombs located in the highest level of the cliff, where the best-
it allowed a duplication of the deceased's cult, with a deceased served in the royal cult then he probably had the of the power of kings; however, this is manifested not in a quality rock was located. Individuals oflesser importance
consequent enhancement of posthumous status; members of right to be buried in that king's cemetery. Although this was desire to be buried near the reigning monarch, but rather in and wealth (generally the servants and less important family
his family might also have been buried in its substructure. not always the case, it often held true. The cemetery around a desire to be buried near rulers and people who had made members) either had much smaller tombs in the same level,
The location of tombs within a cemetery can also the 6th Dynasty pyramid of King Teti is actually surrounded Egypt great in earlier periods . Thus the cemeteries of or simpler shaft tombs lower down on the slope. Broadly
elucidate social organization and mores in ancient Egypt. by a wall. Giza also had a wall, now known as the 'Wall of Giza (the site of the Sphinx and the pyramids providing speaking, the lower on the slope was a person's tomb, the
Naturally, the degree to which this was true varied the Crow' separating it from secular areas; perhaps the other attraction) and Saqqara (the location ofDjoser's pyramid lower his/her rank, until the poorest graves were located at
throughout the long course of Egyptian history, being most sides were protected by the natural geology of the site. and the tomb of his deified architect Imhotep) enjoyed a the desert edge and consisted of shallow pits dug into the
observable and formal in the 4th Dynasty and becoming Although the idea of a divine king persisted in renaissance during this period. However, it should be noted desert gravel, similar in style to tombs of the Predynastic
more flexible as time progressed. The afterlife was a subsequent periods, the actuality and limits of his power that the tradition of dependents being buried near or around Period. Of course, if a cemetery was used over time, then
T he m ajority of information concerning the subject down the design of his tomb. It was thus essentially fin ished
derives from royal tombs. It should be remembered that when he died after only six years on the throne. Others, such
the wo rking week consisted of 8 days with a 2-day as Ay and Ramesses VI, took over the unfinished tom bs of
weekend.• 6 predecessors, and in the latter case (just about) finished it on
The constructio n of a king's tomb would start at his a grand scale.•8 T he decade of Sety I's reign was almost
accession . According to H erodotus, it took 20 years to build sufficient to com plete and decorate his tomb, KVr7, leaving
th e Great Pyramid at Giza - plus ten for the causeway - but just one room decorated in outline only.'9 In the tomb of
since he was writing two millennia after the event this can Ramesses IX (KV6), it is possible to see how the quality of
only be a guess. W hile apparently a credible length of time, decoration changed radically as the artists hastened to
the evidence of quarry marks on some of the four pyramids complete the monument.
built by Seneferu gives a som ewhat different picture. For It has been posited that a m odest New Kingdom
example, the Red Pyramid at Dahshur, ro ughly two-thirds tomb-chapel at T hebes could have been carved , plastered
the size of the G reat Pyramid, seems to have taken little over and painted during the 70 days when the corpse was being
a decade to build. •7Yet Menkaure could not quite complete embalmed.20 T hus, the unfinished state of m any of the
his pyramid in r8 years, despite it being only 13 per cent of smaller Theban tombs seems inexplicable, although it is
the volume of the Red Pyramid. C learly the number of m ore understandable for the larger rock-cut tombs. Perhaps
workers and resources used would, together with other financial and other considerations caused delays in the
issues, influence the am ount of time it took to build a construction of the tombs (see next section). It seems that
funerary monument. ultimately a variety of factors influenced the time it took
In the N ew Kingdom , there are instances when , because to complete a sepulchre. Until the discovery of sufficient
the king was advanced in age at his accessio n, the numbers textual evidence o ne can only speculate about the length
of workmen used were drastically increased . Ramesses IV of time necessary for building and decorating one's house
enlarged the crew from 6o to 120 men, as well as scaling for eternity.
11 Nakht seen hunting 1n a double scene from the north-east wall of the transverse hall of h1s I 8th Dynasty tomb chapel on Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna IV (ove rleaf) The ka was a spiritual 'double' of a person, created with them at the time of conception . lt was symbolized by a pair of raised bent
(TT52). Such a scene is typical of chapels down to the late 18th Dynasty, whose decoration focuses on the so-called 'daily life' of the deceased. arms, which are seen on this figure of the ka of King Hor of the 13th Dynasty. From Dahshur L.LXVII/ I (CM CG259).
~TIITIT o(l 12 ~ 0/ 0
27 Images showing the construction of the pyramid com plex w ere depicted on t he walls of the causeway of Unas. Here one can see the granite
palmiform columns that were used in the temples being brought from Aswan by boat (Saqqara: 5th Dynasty) .
PL A NNING TH E TO M B and decorated royal and noble tombs at Thebes, allow one
to reconstruct the organization of the workers and the actual
There are several sources that provide information about minutiae of tomb construction in Thebes. Other texts,
the construction and decoration of tombs. The tombs such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus,22 are vital to
themselves, in their various stages of completion, provide understanding the mathematics of tomb construction.
evidence for the sequence of work and techniques of the Unfortunately, there is little evidence of architectural
craftsmen . Many tombs, especially the New Kingdom plans for tombs, especially prior to the New Kingdom.
examples at Thebes, are in various stages of completion. Possibly plans were made on papyrus and are therefore lost
There are several explanations for this: insufficient funds, to us. 2 J As private tombs, especially of the r8th Dynasty,
the stopping of work by relatives if the tomb-owner died seem to have relatively standard plans, no doubt well known
prior to the completion of the tomb, or perhaps, as has been to the ancient Egyptian builders, it is probable that the
suggested, even an aspiration to delay death by not having workers needed no formal architectural drawings. Instead,
the burial apartments prepared. 21 The tomb-chapel of the builders, like many of their modern counterparts, must
Ramose (TT 55, r8th Dynasty), whose inner chamber is have worked from an oral description, periodically
unfinished, as well as the decoration of the outer room, is an elucidated by swift sketches onto pieces oflimestone and
especially telling example of the way that parts of a tomb pottery (ostraka) that were afterwards discarded. Certainly,
could be all but complete when other parts had hardly yet rock-cut tombs, with their fairly standard plans, would
been quarried. have required less in the way of architectural drawings than
Rem nants of construction aids, such as ramps, like the the free-standing built tombs that were more common in
one fou nd at the southern face of the Great Pyramid at Giza, Lower Egypt. Had more plans been found, there would be
also provide information about construction techniques. less discussion on the 'mysteries' of pyramid construction.
Masons' marks found in tombs, together with graffiti with The plans that have been found include the incomplete
instructions to builders such as the red and black example ofRamesses IV's tomb, drawn on papyrus,
construction lines found in Mastaba 17 at Meidum, as well currently in the Egyptian Museum at Turin (ill. 28), a plan
as in a number of pyramids at Abu Sir, that ofPepy I at ofRamesses IX's tomb on an ostrakon (Cairo Museum,
Saqqara and a queen's pyramid (Gla) at Giza, also shed CG25184) and another ostrakon with a plan of a noble's
additional light on the way that structures were levelled and tomb found in TT7r (Cairo JE 66262). An unusual, and
laid OUt. perhaps unique, artifact related to tomb construction is
From the New Kingdom, the extensive texts from the a limestone model of the innermost chambers of a 13th
village ofDeir el-Medina, home of the workers who carved Dynasty pyramid, found at Dahshur.'4 However, the
were largely built, rather than carved into the living rock, gave construct Middle Kingdom pyramids were larger, measuring used, but it was often whitened by a final coat of gypsum
on average 45 x 22 x 12 cm. Brick size remained roughly 33 x plaster, or painted with a variety of colours and designs. It is Stone began to be used for details of funerary buildings
their plans greater flexibility and scope for variation .
The first step in constructing free-standing tombs, 15 x 10 cm during the New Kingdom through the Late thought that this final white layer, a colour associated with during the 1st Dynasty, when granite was used to pave the
Period, with larger bricks being common in Graeco-Roman purity, was sometimes intended to represent limestone. burial chamber of Den and limestone within private tombs
regardless of whether they were made of stone or mud-brick,
was to level the site. If the building was not placed straight times (38 x 19 x 12.5 cm, although further upward variations Kiln-fired bricks were uncommon prior to the Roman at Helwan.3° Then, from early in the 3rd Dynasty it became
onto the solid rock, then foundations had to be laid down, are documented). occupation, although there are a few examples from the increasingly important, until the majority of the highest
Bricks used in pyramid construction tended to be Ramesside Period onward. The tomb ofHori iii at Bubastis status free-standing sepulchres were composed of the
especially in the case of a stone construction. Generally,
for stone edifices, the foundations consisted of a trench larger than those used for nobles' tombs. During the latter (20th Dynasty) is amongst the earliest known examples, with material. Even more buildings primarily of other materials,
part of the nth Dynasty, pyramids were composed of fired bricks being used for flooring and the lowest parts of the such as mud-brick, had architectural elements, such as
filled with sand and topped with a few courses of rough
bricks averaging 45 x 22 x 12 cm, laid in sand and (in the walls. T his was presumably due to the relatively damp doorways, in a wide variety of stones. Until the New
stonework, upon which the main structure rested. The sand
may have been symbolic of purity, rather than functional , or conditions in the Delta that were not conducive to the Kingdom, limestone was most often used in building, after
perhaps both. 2 7 Once the foundations were in place, actual preservation of mud-brick. The roughly contemporary vaulted which sandstone became increasingly common, particularly
tombs 21 and 35 at Nebesha were made entirely of burnt brick. for major temples. Hard stones, such as granite or basalt,
building work could begin.
Brick structures were roofed with wooden beams and were rarely used in non-royal burials, though they were
sometimes mats, above which were built the brick and gravel frequently employed to line royal burial chambers and
Building in Brick 28
superstructures. At the end of the 1st Dynasty, however, the corridors leading to the chambers, the portcullises and
The earliest built tombs were made of mud-brick. The basic first true brick vaults appear (subsidiary graves around thresholds, as well as other portions of royal tombs.
constituents of a mud-brick were Nile mud, chopped straw Saqqara S3500), larger examples being found within tomb Occasionally, they were used as thresholds in non-royal
Kr at Beit Khallaf, early in the 3rd Dynasty. Corbelled sepulchres. In the Old Kingdom, when the use of granite
31 (right) Mud-brick-making has remained the same since the time vaulting, where the roof is spanned by successive courses of was particularly a royal prerogative, limestone would be
of the pharaohs. Mud and straw/temper are m1xed together and put bricks, each set slightly further out than the one below until painted so as to achieve a 'faux' granite look- or even
into moulds.The bricks are then left in the sun to dry.
they meet at the apex, is found from the 2nd Dynasty, the magically become granite. The type(s) of stone used might
32 (below) Scene of brick-making (TT I00 18th Dynasty) .
best examples coming from Naga el-Deir, with others at have had symbolic as well as practical value: burial chambers
El-Amra and Qau and a concentration occurring in would be constructed out of the white travertine/Egyptian
Graeco-Roman contexts in the oases. In the 4th Dynasty, alabaster, symbolic of purity, or elements would be made of
domed roofing occurs in the workmen's cemetery (p. 154) at reddish-orange quartzite, associated with the solar strength
Giza, while domed rooms are found in various later tombs and energy useful for resurrection.
(e.g. pp. 207, 282), as are vaulted ceilings.
Throughout Egyptian history the basic techniques of QU A RRY IN G 31
construction remain broadly the same as those found in the
earlies t times, vaulting being frequently employed to roof Much of the building stone employed in funerary
both above-ground chapels and subterranean chambers. monuments was quarried close by. In the Memphite
Flat roofs, made with palm logs overlaid by matting and necropolis and as far south as Esna, this was limestone, some
mud plas ter, were also sometimes used and often served as particularly good examples of quarrying activity being seen
the model for the skeuomorphic (imitating some other thing at Giza, where the landscape was fundamentally altered by
40 The well room of New Kingdom royal tombs was often des1gned to look like the term1nal chamber of the tomb to prevent plundering.Thus
t he decoration would pass over the entrance to the next series of passages and rooms. Here, in Horemheb's KVS7, only part of a scene featuring
Osiris su rvives t he breakthrough into the next chamber
4 1 Horemheb's tomb in the Val.ley of the Kings (KV57) was never properly finished and is thus a source of invaluable informat ion concerning
~o mb construction and decoration. Part of the grid and the drawing, including corrections, appear on the left side of the scene of marching
eltles, while the nght s1de has already been carved away. Such examples show that the sequence of tomb decoration was not immutable, and
pro bably was the result of exped1ency rather than ritual (18th Dynasty) .
and Senwosret Ill, leaving a carved record of his activities. The new masters of the country had little concern for the
Djoser's Step Pyramid complex still contains examples of ancient monuments, save as convenient quarries, although a
visitors' ink graffiti. number of Arab historians took an interest in the pyramids,
58 THE STUDY OF THE EGYPT I AN TOMB THE STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN TOMB 59
a very fair book on his adventures. Apart from exploring figure working in the necropoleis ofThebes was the former (1799-1863), like Wilkinson independent researchers,
communal tombs, his discoveries brought to light some of horse-dealer, Giuseppe Passalacqua (1797-1865), who much of whose material remains unpublished. In contrast,
the most important examples of New Kingdom royal discovered a number of Middle Kingdom/Second during 1828, a large team sponsored by the French and
sepulchres, including the tombs of Ay, Ramesses I and Sety I Intermediate Period tombs. He ultimately sold his collection Tuscan governments had arrived in Egypt to undertake a
(WV23, KVr6 and 17). Belzoni was amongst the first people to the King ofPrussia, becoming curator of the new Berlin major survey. It was led by Jean-Fran<;:ois Champollion
to make facsimiles of a tomb (that of Sety I). He worked in Museum until his death. (1790-I832), decipherer ofhieroglyphs, and Ippolito
Lower Egypt too, most spectacularly clearing a way into the The superbly painted tomb-chapels at Thebes were the Rosellini (r8oo-43), and brought into the public domain far
Second Pyramid at Giza. To commemorate the event he subject of visits by a number of travellers and investigators, more of the decoration of Egyptian sepulchral monuments.
scrawled his name in lamp-black across one of the walls of many of whom took up residence in some of the tombs In 1848 Maxime du Camp (1822- 94), accompanied by the
the chamber, where it can still be seen today. themselves. Their copies are of crucial importance, as so author Gustave Flaubert (r821-8o) , made a photographic 60 This plate from Le psi us's Oenkmiiler volumes illustrates the
many scenes have since been destroyed by the vicissitudes record of many monuments. continuing importance of these old works.This is a funerary scene
A military appointee of Muhammed Ali, Prisse
The r83os saw the first systematic archaeological work of the Ramesside Queen Baketwernel, added to KV I 0 when it was
d'Avennes (1807-79), also took a great interest in Egyptian of time and nature, but particularly at the hand of
reused for her and another royallady.Today, the whole scene is lost.
monuments and copied (and photographed during his 1858 plunderers. Two copyists were the naval officers Charles at Giza, by Colonel Richard Howard Vyse (1784-1853) and
except fo r part of the queen's face.
expedition) several scenes from T heban tombs that have Irby (1789-1845) andJames Mangles (r786- r867), who in the engineer John Perring (1813-69) . During 1836-37
subsequently been destroyed or stolen. Another important r8r7 also visited other sites, at Deir el-Bersha making the they opened the pyramid of Menkaure and cleared a very
first record of the famous scene of a colossus being dragged interesting Late Period tomb (LG84), which was named last resting place of one Mentusebaef, who lived under
by workmen (see ill. 36). Of others present at Thebes, such after a colleague ofVyse, Colonel Patrick Camp bell Cleopatra VII and Augustus, and the other holding a group
59 Part of one of the scale copies of the tomb of Sety I prepared by as Frederic Cailliaud (q87-r869), Yanni Athanasi (I779-1857). Perring then carried out a survey of the of r8th Dynasty princesses re buried after robbery during the
Belzoni and his collaborators.This was perhaps the fi rst known
(q98-r854) and William Bankes (r787-1855), some pyramid sites to the north and south of Giza. Despite the reign ofPasebkhanut 1. 6 •
attempt to copy an entire Egyptian monument, and gives the lie to
restricted themselves to copying the depictions, but others pair's enthusiastic use of explosives, the information that Some order began to be imposed on the antiquarian
Belzoni's long-standing reputation as a mere plunderer (Bristol's City
Museum & Art Gallery). took the far more drastic step of removing areas of plaster they gathered was sound and Perring's survey is still free-for-all in 1858, when Auguste Mariette (r821-8r) was
from the walls, as a result of which many of the finest tombs fun damental. appointed the first head of the Egyptian Antiquities Service.
were destroyed, only a few pitiful fragments surviving in The middle years of the 19th century saw Egypt swept by He had previously found fame in 1851 through his
museum collections. 59 many in search of antiquities. The great Prussian expedition, (re?)discovery of the Serapeum at Saqqara. Under his
Unfortunately, such vandalism was to continue for under the leadership ofKarl Richard Lepsius (r810-84), direction, unofficial digging was suppressed and official
some time, and to this day tombs are still being denuded covered the whole of Egypt and Nubia in 1842-45. The excavations were begun around the country. Unfortunately,
of decoration to satisfY the demands of unscrupulous elephant folio volumes of the Denkmaler aus Agypten und supervision was poor and little thought was given to the
collectors. Nevertheless, by the early r82os progress was Athiopien (1849-59) published plans of monuments and preservation of monuments once they had been uncovered,
being made in the serious study of the Theban tombs, drawings of their decorations, while collections of thereby leading to their destruction and loss. 62
particularly through the agency of (Sir) John Gardner antiquities were shipped back to Berlin. This Prussian work Mariette's tomb-discoveries were vast, but unfortunately
Wilkinson (1797-I875). He spent over a dozen years in made available the widest and most accurate digest yet of only partly published, some records being lost in a flood in
Egypt, deriving from his researches the material for his information on the structure and decoration of Egyptian 1877· Saqqara was a particular focus; the tombs investigated
celebrated Manners and Customs ofthe Ancient Egyptians tombs and remains of value, in particular where the there ranged in date from the dawn of the 3rd Dynasty to
(1837), for many years the key textbook on the subject. monuments recorded have been damaged or destroyed. the Late Period. The former was represented by the
Much of its contents was derived from the decoration of sepulchre ofHesyre, its adornment including some
the private tomb-chapels, demonstrating their value to TOWARDS TRU E ARCHAEO LOGY exquisitely carved wooden panels (pp. 144-5) . At the other
Egyptology. In addition to collecting and interpreting scenes end ofEgyptian history was a tomb that contained the
of daily life from private tombs, Wilkinson located many Unlike the great state-sponsored expeditions, the Scotsman burials of two men named Psametik and, probably
'new' tombs in Thebes and eventually made the first Alexander Henry Rhind (1833-63) worked alone. He had intrusively, the 30th Dynasty queen Khedebneithirbinet Il.
archaeological map of the area. During his researches he come to Egypt for his health, but soon became interested in Altogether, some 200 sepulchres were examined at Saqqara
lived in one of the tombs on Sheikh Abd el-Qurna, TT83 , antiquities, with a scientific approach that was ahead of its alone. Elsewhere, large tracts of Abydos were investigated
the sepulchre of Ametju, to which he added extensive time. 60 Although he undertook some work in the Valley of and, beginning in 1858, work at Deir el-Bahari revealed a
mud-brick elements, a few of which still survive. the Kings in 1855, his principal activities were on the Sheikh number of crypts constructed under the pavements of the
Others who spent their time copying the monuments Abd el-Qurna hill. Two of his discoveries are of particular temple ofHatshepsut for priests ofMentu during the
were James Burton (q88-r862) and Robert Hay interest. Both were reuses of earlier sepulchres, one being the 25th/26th Dynasties.
64 THE STUDY OF THE EGYP TIAN T OMB T H E STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN TOMB 65
young Howard Carter, Newberr y continue d with the tombs
at El-Bersha, but rivalries with other members of his team
led to a tempora ry suspension of activities .
Copying re-started in 1898, when Norman de Garis
Davies (1865-1941) began work at Saqqara in the tomb of
Akhetho tep and Ptahhote p (D64). Davies and his wife Nina
(1881-1965), were amongst the finest epigraphers of all time
and over the next 40 years would produce wonderf ul records
of tombs througho ut the length of Egypt. Amongs t Davies'
greatest pieces of work was the recording of the private
tombs ofTell el-Amarn a (the publicati on of the royal tombs
was to wait until Geoffrey Martin's work in 1968 and
1980!2) . Later, working for the Metropo litan Museum of
Art, New York, the couple were to draw and paint large
numbers of the private tombs at Thebes. N ina's colour
facsimiles ofTheba n tomb scenes are still on display at the
Metropo litan Museum of Art and other institutio ns. After
66 The damaged coffin from KVSS as found: the identity of its the death of Norman de Garis Davies, Torgny Save-
occupant has long been a subject of debate (CM JE39627: Si::iderbergh (1914-98) continue d with the project of
18th Dynasty). recording the The ban tombs.
The preservation of the The ban tombs, so badly
anonymo us mummy that has been claimed to be both damaged since the time ofWilkin son, was greatly enhanced
Akhenat en and his eo-ruler, Smenkhkare. by the work of Arthur Weigall while Inspecto r-Genera l of
The final major tomb discovered in the Valley before Antiquit ies for Upper Egypt during 1905-14. He institute d a
1914 was that of the pharaoh Horemh eb (KV57). Badly program me of restoration and the fitting of security gates, a
robbed, it containe d the bones of four individuals, but these practice that had been started in 1903 when Howard Carter
remains now appear to be lost and whether any might have had held the same position. By 1908, 70 of the The ban
belonged to the king (whose mummy is missing from the tomb-chapels had been given iron gates. In 1913, along with
caches) is unknown . the philologist (Sir) Alan Gardiner (1879- 1963), Weigall
publishe d the first major listing of the The ban tombs, 66
THE GROWT H OF EP IGRAPH Y enumera ting 252 tombs. This cataloguing exercise continues
to this day, with 409 of the over 1,000 known now bearing
Alongside the explosion of excavation that accompa nied the official numbers .
Much ofWeigall's funding came from private sources, in of the tomb-chapel of Nakht at Thebes (TI52: 18th Dynasty).
end of the 19th century, there was a major growth in the 67 An example of one of Nina Davies' facsimile paintings: part of t he east wall
recordin g of standing monume nts, many having lain open particular from the chemist Sir Robert Mond (1867-1938),
who also financed the excavation and publicati on of were now in museum s and return them to the tombs. This However, new volumes appear regularly, especially under
for generations, vulnerab le to deteriora tion and destructi on.
monume nts in the area into the 1920s. As part of the scheme continues sporadically today. the auspices of the German Archaeological Institute in
The copying of individual scenes in tombs had been
documen tation process, Mond had designed a special Waiter Wreszinski (1880-1935) was an epigraph er who Cairo. The potential rewards of such work and the
common since the days of the Napoleo nic expeditio n and
carriage for the camera to enable it to move smoothly on one used photogra phy as the basis for his work. His five-volu me accompa nying cleaning and conservation of decorate d
excellent work had been done, particularly by the Prussians.
However, the idea of the copying of every part of a plane, allowing a whole wall to be photogra phed uniformly. Atlas zur Altagyptische Kulturgeschichte (published berween surfaces were shown in 2002. The removal of grime from
monume nt came to the fore only in the 1890s, when the He also experime nted with colour photography and tried to 1913 and 1936) contains copies of many tomb walls that are a doorway of the long-kno wn tomb of Sobknak hte at
match the colours of the facsimiles with the photogra phs, now lost. El-Kab allowed Vivian Davies to locate an autobiog raphical
Egypt Explorat ion Fund founded the Archaeological Survey
perhaps the earliest attempt at colour matching. Mond was The epigraphic tradition ofNewb erry and Davies text that reveals a whole new chapter in the struggles of
ofEgypt. 65Under the overall direction ofFranci s Ll. Griffith
(1862-1934), the early work was carried out at Beni Hasan by very keen on restoration as well as documen tation and had a continues to flourish, although the great majority of Egypt's the Egyptians against N ubian foes during the 17th
plan to make casts of the missing portions of tombs that known tombs are still inadequately publishe d, if at all. Dynasty. 67
Percy Newberr y (1869-1949) in 1890-94. Later assisted by a
Nagib Farag and Zaki Iskander (1916-79) opened the intact Karo sliwiec, to thew St ofDjoser's pyramid has
burial chamber of the 12th D ynasty princess Neferuptah at revealed a arge cemet oflate O ld Kingdom tombs.
74 THE STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN TOMB THE STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN TOMB 75
Part 11
ICO NOGR APHY destroy these images, or, more potently, the name of the
deceased, would result in annihilation or an unsuccessful
Egyptian tomb 'art' was not just for aesthetic pleasure; transition to the afterlife. Thus, by eradicating the name,
rather, like most Egyptian formal art, it served a specific tides, or image of someone would render them non-beings
purpose. Within the tomb its function was to create an ideal deprived of eternity. Examples of damnatio memoriae (e.g.
afterworld, delimited by maat, for the deceased to inhabit KVw, TT39, TT 42, TT 48, TT7r, WVz3) in tombs are a
for eternity. The images found in tombs were fundamentally powerful manifestation of this belief.
magical things, which, however, served the practical purpose The images in tombs follow the basic canon of Egyptian
of facilitating and guaranteeing the posthumous destiny of art in order to convey meaning in a certain way and have a
the deceased. This was done not only through explicit specific vocabulary that is suited to the function of these
depictions of the underworld and religious texts, but representations. Thus, as one might expect, the largest figure
even mo re through the depictions of offerings and their is that of the tomb-owner (or, in later periods, gods and
production of offerings and other 'daily life' activities. These kings), as he or she is the focus of the monument. Texts and
images served as 'insurance' for the tomb-owner in case the activities focus on the tomb-owner and actions tend to move
family or mortuary priests ceased to carry on the cult, or if towards him, especially if he is facing out to receive the cult.
the burial were disturbed. If the images survived, then all the The tomb-owner is always shown in a formal pose, standing
deceased's needs for the hereafter would still be magically or seated, with the head and legs in profile and a frontal
within his or her grasp. As these images oflife were projected torso. This is not always true for minor figures, which can be
for the afterlife, they did not always have to be a reflection of seen in more relaxed poses: three-quarters view, sleeping,
true reality, but rather, an ideal reality that fulfilled the fighting, etc. However, everyone was neatly organized into
tomb-owner's wishes for eternity. · registers, separated by lines, so that it is obvious that maatis
T he Egyptians believed that if things were represented, maintained in this world and the next.
written and spoken out loud, they actually had been created
and would be reified and exist in eternal worlds : those of the 74 (opposite) West wal l ofthe burial chamber ofthe workman
SennedJem at Dei r ei-Medina (TT I: 19th Dynasty) .The tomb-owner
dead and of the gods. Thus the images on tomb walls were
and h1s wife lynefert i are shown adoring the gods of the underworld.
actually active participants in the deceased's afterlife. Indeed,
the word for sculptor or carver, s'ankh, is translated from 75 (above) Part of a fishing scene in t he mastaba of Kagemeni at
Egyptian as 'the one who makes (it) living' . To damage and Saqqara (6t h Dynasty).
However, other images had additional interpretations. Egypt, as well as, in some instances, the cryptographic symbolize the afterlife due to the fact that they reflect this
One should note that the Egyptians tended to avoid writing used by the Egyptians. life. Perhaps their circularity might also be likened to the
depictions of negative or harmful things in tombs, unless Allusions to sex and regeneration are particularly rounded belly of a pregnant woman, the quintessential
they had a standard cosmic role to play in the world of the associated with New Kingdom tomb scenes, although also symbol of birth? The word for mirror, ankh, is the same as
dead and the divine. Indeed, in the late Old Kingdom and proposed for vignettes dating back as far as the Old the word for life.
throughout the Middle Kingdom (and later), there are Kingdom. Some scenes show the deceased and his wife Colour symbolism must also have played a part in
myriad examples of hieroglyphs being shown in a truncated seared side by side, or clasping one another around the Egyptian art, as it did in medieval and Renaissance art and
state so that they could not harm the body of the deceased: shoulder, waist or leg. These images of closeness can be even, to some extent, continues to do in contemporary art.
birds are shown without legs, lions are featured only in half, thought to represent intimacy and reproduction. Some Thus, the yellow background colour used in the Ramesside
serpents are severed in two and the use of inanimate scholars would even go so far as to say that they symbolize period sets the activity in the divine realm as yellow or gold
hieroglyphs are favoured over the animate. Hippopotami, the actual act oflove (e.g. TT96), 87 rather than public were indicative of the imperishable or divine, or perhaps of
manifestations of Seth, were often depicted being hunted manifestations of affection. Images of beds, the tomb-owner an existence blessed by the sun god. However, it is then
with harpoons; annoying insects, such as mosquitoes, which and spouse sitting on beds, or the preparation of a bed by slightly puzzling as to how the grey-blue background of
were rife in Egypt, never feature in Egyptian tombs. After servants, have also been interpreted as suggesting the sexual some r8th Dynasty tombs is to be viewed: perhaps as the
all, why suffer such inconveniences in a perfect afterlife? act, as well as referring to Isis and Osiris who conceived crepuscular moments prior to rebirth, or the blue that was
Insects such as grasshoppers, dragonflies and butterflies, Horus on a bed, albeit a funerary one. linked to the skin of Amun and the entirety of Nut, goddess
which were harmless or even positive for life are featured in This sexual undertone might be extended to images of the sky. Black and green symbolized fertility since they
tombs, but inconvenient creatures are never shown unless of head-rests, used as pillows in ancient Egypt. However, refer to the rich, black Nile silt and the green plants that it
they are being hunted, killed or consumed. another equally or more feasible interpretation can be produced following the Inundation, itself regarded as
Images that seem to depict daily-life activities can indeed 79 A young woman sniffi ng an open lotus in the 5th Dynasty tomb of attached to them: several spells in the corpus of funerary metaphorically linked to the first act of creation. These two
Nefer. Saqqara. She is also holding a hoopoe, the significance of wh ich literature refer to fears of heads falling off. An additional colours were particularly associated with Osiris . White
be interpreted in other ways. The calf that is saved from
is sti ll not clear in ancient Egyptian iconography. it is frequently shown fu nctio n of the head-rest amulet is to keep the head of the
being devoured by crocodiles in the water might be indicated purity, joy and celebration, while red was symbolic
as a pet, as wel l as in the wi ld. Some scholars believe that the bird is
interpreted as a metaphor for saving the spirit from the deceased in place, as to lose one's head meant to lose one's of power, the desert, blood and, together with yellow, the
not a hoopoe, but a lapwing, a symbol for the common people.
perils of death, especially if taken in conjunction with texts identity. Thus, these items might be of even more basic sun. In fact, white and red were both associated with
found in the various funerary books. Images of viticulture importance to the deceased than as images of fertility. different aspects of the sun, one destructive, the other
can be interpreted simply as images showing wine-making, resurrection brought to the land by the inundation, as well Other scholars associate anything to do with wigs and productive. No doubt, the idea that white was pure also led
a product that was appreciated by all in this life and the next. as the resurrective qualities inherent in plant life that make-up as erotic, as donning these items is suggestive of to bleached linen being used in mummification, as well as to
However, they can also be seen as images associated with reappears annually after withering and dying. preparation for mating.88 Some researchers also believe that the whitewashing of tombs and false-doors. 9o
Osiris, who took the part of Lord of Drunkenness at the Many images have been interpreted as having sexual and monkeys are suggestive of erotic or sexual events, perhaps Whether or not one can completely understand the
W'tzg Festival, a celebration attached to the grape harvest that regenerative imagery inherent in them, especially in the New due to the fact that monkeys are often seen mating in the colour symbolism or the iconography of Egyptian art, one
came just before the inundation at the end of]une. As such, Kingdom. Metaphors for sexuality and fertility are indeed a wild. 89 T he sun disk, an image of regeneration, can also be can at least appreciate its beauty and the window it provides
the viticulture scenes have the added meaning of rebirth and celebration oflife and point to a desire for its continuation linked to the round mirrors depicted in tombs, which also us into ancient Egyptian life.
88 TH E D ECORATI ON OF TH E TOMB
THE DEC O RA T ION OF T HE TOMB 89
The hunt, especially in the Old Kingdom, served tomb-owner on a papyrus skiff in the marshes, hurling hatched, the young do swim in the water, but they retreat examples are documented in Middle and New Kingdom
not just to kill animals, but also to trap them for later throwsticks at birds, once again establishing maat over the to their mother's mouth at the first sign of danger. Once the tomb-chapels. In the case of the latter, the scenes are
consumption or use. This can be seen as a metaphor for disorder of nature. These scenes, set in the verdant papyrus danger is past, the young fish emerge almost magically from generally related to the position of the tomb-owner.
capturing captives and bringing them back to Egypt for swamps where Horus was raised, also convey the idea of the mo uth of the mother. This habit fits in very well with
exploitation. The animals would have been fattened up regeneration. The papyrus and lotus plants also emphasize the ancient Egyptian idea of the sun being swallowed and Food Production and Preparation 102
and consumed (see below). this association (see below). This is further stressed by the being reborn on a daily basis.' 00 Tilapia are supposed to
fact that the throwsticks are also a visual pun: in Egyptian, protect and accompany the sun god on his daily voyage and Scenes of food production and preparation continued to be
Fishing and Fowling in the Marshes by the Tomb-Owner 'to throw' such a stick is qema, which recalls a word with a are mentioned in Spell 15 of the Book of the Dead; their included in tombs, with the odd gap, throughout Egyptian
The scene of the tomb-owner engaged in fishing and similar sound meaning to 'create' or 'beget' .99 Actual presence summons up the image of the rebirth of the history. Food was of fundamental importance as it provided
fowling in the marshes appears throughout Egyptian history, throwsticks have been found in tombs: Tutankhamun had deceased. The Egyptian word for this fish, in, relates to a sustenance for the deceased and also reflected wealth and
starting in the 4th Dynasty and continuing into the several. Ducks and geese that sometimes appear balanced word for offerings, inw. Lates nilotica, or Nile Perch, is the prosperity. The food in a tomb was especially potent as it,
Graeco-Roman Period, with occasional hiatuses. These on the prow of the boat (most common in the 18th Dynasty) other fish that shares the harpoon in fishing scenes. These like the tomb-owner, was metamorphosed into an eternal
activities extend the control of maatover water, land and air, have variously been interpreted as hunting-decoys, or fish can grow to huge sizes, often well over a m etre (3 feet) in verity. All manner of food was shown being acquired, grown,
as well as hinting at eternal regeneration, as these were symbols of the god Amun, alluding to eroticism and fertility. length and are noted for being fierce fighters. There is also a prepared and served: bread, beer, wine, meat, fish, poultry
activities in which Osiris engaged when he became overlord The fish-spearing scene shows the tomb-owner in a fu rther pun found in the word for spearing fish, seti. This is a and fresh fruits and vegetables.
of the underworld and had the use of his senses and limbs papyrus skiff with water conveniently rising up so that he homonym for 'to impregnate', '0 ' and once again conjures up
does not have to bend down and can balance the fowling images of fertility and rebirth in the most literal sense, while Agriculture
restored to him (see Coffin Texts 429 , 473 and especially
475). These scenes are symmetrical and are generally shown composition. Although a plethora of fish are shown in the all uding to the birth ofHorus. Entire agricultural scenes or portions of them appear in
together on one wall, or balanced on facing walls. From the water, the scene proper focuses on two fish: Tilapia and Egyptian tombs from the 4th Dynasty onwards, with a
Lates. Tilapia, or bulti, are mouth-brooders.: they keep the Fi shing and Fowling concentration in 5th and 6th Dynasties and again in the nth
mid-5th Dynasty onwards, they sometimes appear in the
exterior portico of the entrance. Fowling scenes show the eggs, and later their young, in their mouths for safety. Once People other than the tomb-owner are also shown catching and 18th. The scenes can have slightly different meanings in
fish and birds in different ways (traps, nets) in the course of different contexts: if they relate to the deceased's work, as
89 From the Old Kingdom onwards parallel scenes of the tomb-owner fishing and fowling are found in tombs. These indicate the acquisition of food acquisition, or for pleasure. These scenes continue to seen in his titles, they may be at least partly autobiographical
eternal life and the establishment of order over t he chaotic natural world: tomb ofSabni at Qubbet ei-Hawa (QH26: 6th Dynasty). adorn chapel walls until the 19th Dynasty and then again, in their connotation; otherwise, they are purely intended to
although less intensively, from the end of the 25th Dynasty sustain the deceased in the afterlife and to underline the
onwards. Birds are captured using clap nets and traps and rebirth motif inherent in the plant world. For example,
killed with sling-shots. Throw sticks, with their ritual Khaemhat (TT 57), an Overseer of the Granaries, has two
connotation, are used only by the tomb-owner. Fish are scenes of agricultural activities in his tomb, which reinforce
caught in nets that are either dragged between two boats his identity for eternity.
(a process that is still used very commonly on the Nile in Agricultural scenes can be broken into smaller groups:
Sudan), by linen nets laid down in the river, by cunningly the growing, harvesting and processing of grain, flax, fruit
constructed fish traps made of reeds and through angling. and vegetables and viticulture. Either entire cycles (sowing
Spearing of fish is restricted to the tomb-owner. Vignettes through harvesting) or portions of cycles (perhaps with the
of mending nets are also a part of this scene type. parts representing the whole) are depicted on tomb walls (pi.
T hese scenes not only serve to procure food for the V). The process of grain cultivation in all its stages- hoeing
tomb-owner in the afterworld, but also serve to show the (5th Dynasty onwards), ploughing, sowing, harvesting,
cycle oflife and the maintenance of maat by the Egyptians. processing the harvest (threshing and winnowing) and its
The trapping of birds and fish can be seen as the equivalent transport to the granary- is one of the most popular cycles
of trapping enemies and is also found in temples (e.g. Edfu). and appears even during time periods when there are few
The fish were generally immediately processed for daily life scenes in tombs. The rendering of the accounts also
consumption or storage (see below), while the fowl were makes up part of the final stages of this scene-type. Sowing
frequently kept in pen or poultry yards for fattening up and ·vignettes are of particular interest because pigs (e.g. tomb of
breeding. Images of poultry yards date from the 5th Dynasty Paheri [EK3] and Nebamun [TT z4]) as well as ovicaprids
onwards, though scenes of poultry-rearing in yards occur (sheep and goats) were used for this activity. Magically, these
rarely after the end of the Old Kingdom; a very few representations would constantly provide sustenance for the
90 Scene showing the use of a shaduffor lifting w at er, in t he tomb of lpuy (TT2 17: 19th Dynasty).
tomb-owner, as well as symbolizing the cycle of birth, death and lettuce. The scenes depict plots of land divided into
and rebirth that the tomb-owne r hoped to go through in small squares, each containing a plant, that were easy to
order to achieve an eternal existence. T he vignette of Spell irrigate. Men bring water in jars from a nearby pool and
no of the Book of the Dead, found (e.g.) in the burial pour it into the small divisions. In some examples, mainly
chamber ofTTr invokes this agricultural existence, with from the New Kingdom, a shadufor water-lifting device is
the dead person carrying out the cycle. pictured. Temple gardens are sometimes shown in Egyptian
tombs of the New Kingdom, but these only appear in
Gardens and Plants chapels belonging to people whose work was associated
By their very nature, plants were associated with rebirth and with these areas and are primarily found in the Theban
resurrection . Two rypes of gardens are shown in Egyptian necropolis.
tombs, vegetable gardens and gardens ofleisure. Vegetable Images of vegetable gardens appear throughout Egyptian
gardens show the cultivation of food plants, such as onions history. T he most commonly shown plant is the Egyptian 9 1 Garden and pool as depicted in t he tomb of Nebamun (TTE2, BM EA37983: 18th D ynasty).
mandrakes were also associated with both life and death vignettes of scaring birds (also found in grain-growing
and appear in funerary as well as daily-life contexts. scenes). Other identifiable fruit trees pictured are date and
Palm trees were associated with Re and Min, the dom palms.
bifurcated dom-palm with Thoth, tamarisks with Osiris and
Papyrus Harvest
the sycamore fig with Hathor. A particular tree, known in
ancient Egyptian as the ished-tree, is also pictured in tombs. Harvesting papyrus is a part of the sequence of marsh scenes
T he gods wrote the deceased's name on its leaves in order to that include fishing and fowling. Papyrus gatherers first
ensure his or her eternal life. Traditionally this image was appear in the 4th Dynasty and continue until the New
used in a royal context in temples, though by the 19th Kingdom. Papyrus-harvesting scenes show the workers at the
D ynasty it also appears in private tombs (e.g. TTI) . Trees edge of a papyrus thicket pulling or cutting out long stems
also alluded to the sacred groves associated with ancient of papyrus, which are bound into bundles and then carried
funerary rituals, as well as to the tomb of Osiris, which on their backs. The papyrus is transformed into paper,
was supposed to be marked by a grove. Perhaps this is why baskets, boats (pl. VII), ropes, mats and other woven objects.
groves were planted around the royal mortuary temples of Portions of the papyrus can also be eaten. Many of the
the New Kingdom. people shown who are involved with these marsh activities
The earliest depiction of a pond actually appears in the have receding hairlines; this might be to show age, or,
context of a poultry yard in an O ld Kingdom tomb. more likely is a side effect of bilharzia or schistosomiasis,
However, that is an exception as ponds are more usually a a parasitic disease caught from water snails that results in
feature of I8th Dynasty and later tombs. T h e m ajority of distended bellies, enlarged genitalia, hair loss, discharge of
ponds shown in gardens are rectangular, but many also take blood in the urine and, eventually, death. Fishermen, papyrus
a 'T ' shape, reminiscent of the shape of the New Kingdom workers and some agricultural workers who spent time in
rock-cut Theban tomb-chapels. Perhaps this shape had a slow-moving water would all have been prey to this disease
special significance, incorporating the Nile and its Delta? and are therefore pictured showing some of its effects.
98 (right) The monkey under the chair of Paheri and his wife not only
indicates its owner's wealth and status (the monkey is imported from
sub-Saharan Africa), but also suggests sexual activity (EK3) .
96 Grapes being harvest ed and the n trampl ed and the JUi ce being coll ected du ring the w ine-making process;Tuna e i-Gebel, to mb of Petosiris.
(Dynasty of Macedo n).
likely to eat the young and probably give no or little thought
Animals to the afterbirth.
down stress the idea of plenty. Occasionally, clusters of
grapes are used in alternation with pendant lotus blossoms
All sorts of animals are shown in tombs in different contexts. Pet s
in friezes (TT249). Faience grape clusters were also
suspended within the garden kiosks at Tell el-Amarna. They appear as part of the m arsh scenes, in the desert hunts, Pets are shown under the chair of the tomb-owner, as well as
One scholar has suggested an alternative allegorical in scenes of agriculture, livestock and pasturage, as offerings being walked by a servant, who is frequently a dwarf. Dogs,
interpretation of the wine-making scene: the wine god and as pets. monkeys and birds (particularly hoopoes) are shown as pets
Shesmu protecting the justified dead. In order to eradicate from the Old Kingdom onwards. From the Middle
Hunted and Trapped Creatures Kingdom onwards they are joined by cats and water-fowl,
their enemies and those of the sun god, he used his wine
press to squeeze the head of his murdered enemies. Thus, Scenes of hunting, fishing and trapping often contain the fo rmer being useful for catching vermin, as well as
trampling on grapes and putting them through a press wonderful vignettes of animals. These representations alluding to several divinities (Re, Hathor, Sekhmet, Bastet,
might be equated with the victorious rebirth of the sun god illustrate the Egyptians' intimate and detailed understanding Mut), and the latter being associated with Amun, potentially
and the successful arrival into the afterlife by the deceased. 106 of the natural world, as, for the most part, accurate animal with erotic overtones (seep. 90). Gazelles (e.g. TT73 and
behaviour patterns are shown. Hunt scenes show hedgehogs TT78), geese (e.g. TT18, 100, 112, 155) and monkeys (e.g. are depicted in herds, in poultry yards, sometimes being
Apiculture emerging from burrows, antelope and gazelle mothers EK3 and LSz7) appear from the New Kingdom onwards, used to pull a plough , trample in the newly sown grain
Although honey was the most highly prized sweetener, scenes fleeing with their offspring, lions fighting with the hunting altho ugh there is a decrease in representations of pets during (ovicaprids and pigs), threshing, mating (cattle and
of bee-keeping and honey production appear infrequently in dogs, otters awaiting fish, birds protecting their nests, scenes the later Ramesside period, when fewer secular or secular- ovicaprids), giving birth (with dogs waiting to eat the
Egyptian art. The first such scene appears in the 5th Dynasty of copulating animals and the resulting births. The mating seeming scenes featured in tombs. In some instances pets are afterbirth), cows being milked and herds of cows fording the
sun temple ofNiuserre at Abu Ghurob. One of the most scenes emphasize the aspects of tomb decoration connected nam ed so that they can be clearly identified in the afterlife . river. The fording scenes are particularly interesting as they
famous scenes dates to the New Kingdom tomb ofRekhmire with fertility and ensure the continuation of the natural This is especially true in the case of dogs, most famously also show images of crocodiles lurking below the surface,
(TTroo), which was copied in tombs of the 25th and z6th world. Occasional vignettes show animals giving birth with Inyotefii 's hunting hounds from his tomb. trying to seize the cattle. The cattle are cleverly m anoeuvred
Dynasties (e.g. TT279 and TT 414) . Some scholars regard jackals or dogs hovering nearby. It is more probable that the by a herdsman, who takes a calf across in a boat, thus forcing
carnivores are waiting to eat the afterbirth, rather than Livestock and Offering Animals its mother and the rest of the herd to follow.
bees as being symbolic of kingship, although the insect that
appears in the nesu-bity title ( :),~) was more probably the consume the newly born creatures. Hippopotamus birth Scenes oflivestock (poultry, cattle, sheep and goats) prior to Often such scenes or other riverine scenes also feature
wasp that is often found hovering near papyrus plants. scenes show crocodiles lurking nearby- these might be mo re their being offered show animals in several situations. They spells to repel the crocodiles that lurk beneath the water's
VI (opposite) In the O ld and N ew Kingdoms offering tables may be shown covered with t all loaves of bread. In the First Int ermediate Period and
Middle Kingdom, however, t he 'loaves' retained their shape but were sometimes painted green .This may have been as a result of artists mistaking
t he bread for reeds, based on similarity in shape, or was perhaps due t o a change in religious bel ief South wall of the t omb of Khety at Beni
Hasan (BH-XVII: 12th Dynast y).
VII(above) Detail from the wall seen in fu ll in ill. 76, showing of the construction of a papyrus canoe in t he tomb-chapel of Ptahhotep ii (Saqqara
064: late 5th D ynasty).The register below includes the trapping of birds in a clap-net.
I
!I
BM EA37986:
IX (above) Part of the lower registers of a banquet scene from the t omb-chapel of Nebamun on Ora Abu'I-Naga (TTE2,
18th D ynasty).
XI The ceiling of the outer corridor of the tomb of Sipt ah (KV47: 19t h D ynasty) was, as in a number of Ramesside royal t o mbs, adorned with
vultures, t heir wings o utspread in prot ection.
I 00 A scene of jew elr y production, depicting t he measunng and melting of the gold before making t he broadcollars and other adornments for
the tomb-owner. D warfs w ere frequently depicted as jewellers, perhaps as their diminut ive size made their fingers part icular ly dextrous (Saqqara,
tomb of Mereruka: 6th Dynasty).
110 THE D ECO RAT IO N OF T H E T OMB THE DE CO RAT IO N O F THE T OMB Ill
Senet boards have 30 squares, representing the different Carrying Chairs" 3
regions in the realm of the dead, while the throws ticks
(precursors of dice) are compared to the jackals that pull the The tomb-owner is often shown being transporte d to
sun god's barque. References to this game appear frequently inspect the tomb in a carrying chair or palanquin . The idea
in the Book of the Dead (e.g. Chapter q). 112 In Thebes, from is that the owner is going to inspect his tomb, so the notion
the 21st Dynasty onwards, an offering table is substitute d for of repeated visits is encapsula ted on the wall through this
the senet game. Other board games, such as the snake game image. These vignettes start in the 4th D ynasty and
(mehen), are also depicted in tombs, especially during the continue until the end of the Old Kingdom. A rare example
Old Kingdom and then in the 26th D ynasty. Snakes are of a carrying chair placed on a donkey appears on the door-
frequendy depicted as enemies, as well as friends of the jamb of the 5th Dynasty double tomb ofNiankh khnum and
deceased during his journey to the afterlife. Khnumho tep at Saqqara.
More physical amusements are also shown, such as
acrobatics , ball games (generally in the Middle Kingdom), Bed-Making and Beds
leap-frog, stick fights, shooting arrows (mainly New
Kingdom, e.g. TTw9 and 143), or rug-of-war. A game akin Scenes of bed-makin g and beds in tombs appear
to an elaborate fo rm ofleap-frog called khuzza !awizza in intermitte ntly in tombs from the 4th Dynasty onwards,114
Arabic and still played today is also shown in tombs of but remain rare in Egyptian art. T hese are not only records
the O ld Kingdom . Sometimes boxing would be shown as of daily rituals, but are also loaded with significance
well, occasionally associated with the celebration of a royal implying rebirth. Beds are places where one sleeps, and, one
festival, such as the sed-festival, as can be seen in the tomb hopes, reawakens. In the mythological realm, Osiris was laid
of Kheruef (TT192) and wresding, which is found at Beni on a bed that doubled as his bier prior to his resurrection.
Hasan. It was also where Isis came to him to conceive Horus, thus
A specific vignette, one showing duelling boatmen in underlyin g the sexual and procreative elements in its
papyrus skiffs, might also be considered part of the 'game' symbolism . This might be why couches such as the ones
group of scenes, although these men were probably found in Tutankha m un's tomb were included as part of the
responsible for transporti ng provisions for the deceased as funerary equipment. Also, coffins are sometimes shaped as
well. T his scene is common from the 4th Dynasty onwards, though lying on beds and in the later periods of Egyptian
through the Middle Kingdom and perhaps into the very history, mummies were frequently laid on beds and buried.
early New Kingdom and is one of the liveliest scenes in the Beds are shown being prepared in tombs of all periods, albeit
tomb. Perhaps these scenes of struggle and victory related to not commonly. Frequentl y mirrors, kohl pots and unguents
the ultimate victory of maat, as well as the desire for the are placed under the bed (see also toilette, below). All these
deceased to enjoy and be entertaine d in the afterlife. are elements of beautifica tion and erotica, which might be
105 Ipi carried in a palanqu in, accompanied by attendants and carriers of sunshades; from South Saqqara (C M CG 1536-7: 6t h Dynasty) .
................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
tied into the idea of resurrection, as well as erotic moments appear at the end of the 4th D ynasty.115 Statues are often
on earth, as is attested by several love poems. shown being taken into a tomb, with a ritual of incensing
taking place before them. This ritual serves to animate the
Statuary statue of the deceased and is similar to that used for statues
of divinities. In the Old Kingdom they are shown being
Images showing statues of the deceased occur frequently in transported on sleds and appear mainly on door-jambs
tombs, either on door-jambs or in the tomb proper. T hey and near doorways, i.e. points of transition and
are shown being made, dragged and censed. T hese images transformation.n 6
probably depict the statues that were placed in the tomb, Different aspects of the individual can be embodied by
either in the serdab (mainly in the Old Kingdom), or in the the statues: some are shown as young, wearing short kilts
tomb proper as a focus of cult practice or as insurance for and elaborate wigs, while others depict individuals in their I06 Tax defaulters are be at en in t he upper register of this wall in the 18t h Dynasty to mb of the O ve rseer of t he Fie lds Menena (TI69), whi le
the ka should the mummy be damaged. T he images start to more mature years, shown as plump and carrying many winnowing cont inues below.
architect Ineni (TTSr) records how he constructed a tomb duties in life, overseeing various events, relaxing, seated in
(the first in the Valley of the Kings) for his monarch, gardens or houses, participating in religious festivals, state, would look his best throughout eternity. Perfumes and of her manifestations is goddess of beauty, as well as being
T hutmose I. Amenemheb (TT85) records in text, but hunting, attending banquets and receiving offerings. A oils also have sacred fun ctions in mummification and cult 'Mistress of the Sycamore', providing sustenance to the
without illustrations, how he sliced off the trunk of a curious scene-type shows the toilette of the deceased. This rituals, as well practical applications: they have a pleasant deceased and a personification of the western mountains of
marauding elephant that was attacking Thutmose Ill. occurs infrequently in the O ld Kingdom and then slightly smell, and, in some cases, have insect-repellent properties T hebes. Some mirror handles bear her likeness, while others
O utstanding personal events commemorated include more frequently in subsequent periods, especially in the (see below under 'Banquet Scenes'). There is also a spell in take the form of papyrus plants, symbolic of the resurrective
D jehutyhotep ii's transportation of a colossal alabaster statue m h Dynasty. The scene appears in tombs of both men and the Coffin Texts (CT282) that states how the deceased can powers of Osiris and also allude to Hathor's residence in the
(Tomb 2 at El-Bersha). O n a different tack, Hapidjefa ii, in women, though it is more commonly found in female use seem to drive off the harmful serpent Rerek. marshes where she safeguarded the young Horus.
his tomb at Asyut (Tomb 2), records ten contracts setting chapels of the Middle Kingdom. Mirrors, which become common in representations
out the wages received for his various offices. Ankhmahor's The toilet scenes show hairdressing, anointing with oils from the First Intermediate Period onwards and are placed Families
Saqqara tomb contains a curious scene of circumcision, as and unguents, as well as applying make-up. Make-up under chairs and sometimes appear as funerary goods, also
well as other surgical procedures, none of which are directly exaggerates ones image, creating a new, improved version, have a symbolic meaning. T heir circular shape alludes to the Images showing the deceased and his wife (generally on a
linked to his principal titles of priest and Vizier. Thus, very and also has religious overtones. For example, kohl or galena solar disk and the fact that they provide a reflection suggests smaller scale) start in the O ld Kingdom and appear
personal narratives not only elucidate the culture and history were symbolic of the divine eye that judges, as well as being the afterworld, which is a mirror image of this one. The throughout the course of Egyptian history. Children are also
of ancient Egypt, but also bring the personal history of the associated with several divinities." 8 The make-up in the word for 'mirror', ankh, has the same sound as the word for frequently shown, accompanying their parents, attending
deceased to life. toilette scenes ensured that the deceased, in an idealized 'life' . Mirrors are associated with the goddess Hathor, as one banquets, offering to their deceased parents, as well as acting
I
the judgmen t of the deceased. The deities shown include the
stock funerary gods: Osiris, Isis, Neith, Nephthy s, Selqet,
cult. and sometime s
an individual had
-
Door
and raw), drink, cloth, incense, perfumes, oils, flowers,
bouquets , furniture, jewelry and other objects were some
more t han one
of the most, if not the most, importan t images inscribed in
the Four Sons ofHorus , Hathor, Maat and Thoth. Certain false-doo r in the
tombs. This scene type is most common in the Old and
gods, includin g Amun, are not shown in tombs, but hymns t omb. Occasionally
and offerings are addressed to them, so that their presence is some were extern al
for ease of offering
j Offering table
\ Middle Kingdoms, as well as the Saite Period. It is present,
but less promine nt, in New Kingdom funerary monuments.
implicit in the tomb-ch apel.
O ffering scenes can be separated into different groups: I I 2 Est at es bring1ng their produce fo r the use of the tomb-own er in
Harvest deities are also shown in tombs of the New
often repeated in tombs, was a key scene througho ut products of marshlands, products of fields and farms, the 6th D ynasty tomb of Merer uka at Saqqara.
Kingdom . No doubt they stressed the idea of fertility and
Egyptian history, although it enjoyed the most promine nce Opening -of-the-M outh offerings, and offerings and
plenty in this world and the next. The most frequently
in the Old Kingdom when other ritual or religious scenes libations made directly in front of the deceased or his objects might have had additiona l significan ce, such as linen
depicted goddess was Renutet in her serpent form (e.g.
were rarely depicted . Offering scenes and false-doors appear statues. The most significant offerings are those made by offerings which would provide clothing for eternity and also
TTrn, 143, 172, 217, 256, 261, 284), who was often shown
in both sub- and superstructures. priests who were responsible for the continue d celebrati on suggest the idea of mummy bandages and the practice of
close to scenes of viticultu re as well as grain producti on and
process m g. Offering lists appear at the start of the Old Kingdom , of the mortuary cult, especially the sem priest, a role that was wrappin g sacred or precious objects in linen. Food would
but a standard ized form is first found in the 5th D ynasty and traditionally assigned to the eldest son. naturally provide sustenan ce, as well as underline the fact
consists of over 90 items, each shown together with its name T his scene type tends to occupy several registers, bur that the chaos of nature had been h arnessed to the rule of
O ffering Ritual an d t he False-Do or
within individu al cells of a grid. Many of the items listed are is most frequentl y placed in the lower register, with a order and productivity imposed upon it by man's will.
foodstuffs, bur include material required by the cult of the preference for the west wall. Often, with multi-ch ambered Bouquets provide allegorical offerings in the flowers that
The scene of offering is the most sacred image in the Old
deceased, includin g incense and the seven sacred oils. 12 4 tombs, these rows of offering bringers form a link between they contain, as well as make a pun: the word for 'bouquet',
Kingdom non-royal decorative repertoire and is a standard
feature in tomb decoratio n througho ut Egyptian history. The false-door was, from the 4th Dynasty, the focal rooms. The offerings are always taken in the direction of the mes, shares the same root as the word for 'birth'.
point of the cult, developing from the slab stelae of earlier deceased. They are brought by a variety of individuals, Althoug h most of the scenes of offerings show the
In its iconic form, it consists of a table of offerings being
rimes. It was generally located in the superstru cture, as including offering bearers, friends, family members and deceased as the recipient , there are a few occurren ces wh ere
presente d to the deceased and appears on the false-door, as
directly above the burial chamber as possible, so that the human figures represent ing personified estates. By the the deceased makes offerings. Generally these are made to
well as on the walls of the tomb proper. This ensures that the
deceased 's ka could -access the offerings directly. It comprised Middle Kingdom the latter abstract personifications were kings, deities or ancestors (semi-deified, due to their
deceased will be well provided for in the afterlife. T he ritual
several discrete elements mirrorin g the elements of a real replaced by figures of real servants.us Most of the items being deceased status). However, there are rare depiction s of the
accompa nying this scene is one that is supposed to have
been carried out on a daily basis - indeed, perhaps more door, including jambs, lintels and bolts, and was generally brought to the deceased feature in the offering list inscribed tomb-ow ner offering to the architects and artists who
ornamen ted with torus mouldin gs and a cavetto cornice. near the false-door or tomb focus. Occasionally some construc ted and decorate d the tomb, as well as to a sculptor
than once a day. This is similar to temple rituals, where the
image of the divinity would be given offerings, after which The door was almost always carved in sunk relief, a unusual offerings, such as the caged hedgehogs in the tomb who produced the statues that were placed in the tomb
technique most frequent ly employe d in carving exterior ofMerer uka at Saqqara, are presented to the deceased . (TT82). Although it is relatively rare to find named
the offerings would revert to the priest. Presuma bly this was
spaces so that the images would be visible even in bright, The offerings magically ensured the permane nt individu als other than family members in tombs, those who
also the case for the actual offerings given to both royal and
direct sunlight. This charmin g conceit emphasized how provisioning of the deceased in the afterlife. In some are named are frequen tly priests or artisans who were
non-roya l individu als. As insurance, if offerings were not
provided on a daily basis, the images in the chapel would the door was exterior to the afrerwor ld. The door was instances a scroll, inscribed with offerings or lists of goods, is presumably quite well known and were responsible for
extensively inscribed with the name and rides of the shown being presented to the deceased. Furtherm ore, some producin g some of the grave goods (e.g. A2 at Meir).
magically provide the necessary sustenance. This scene,
tomb itself. T hese elements change somewha t over time; a tombs have particularly elaborate friezes: Anubis couchant
synopsis of their types and occurrences is given below. (e.g. TTr4, 58, 149, r66), snakes (e.g. TT99, 284 and 354),
djed pillars and tytamulets (TT65), and combinati ons of all
Friezes these motifs. C learly Egyptians in the Ramesside period saw
The most common element used as a frieze is the kheker, an increase in the need for explicit religious protection for
resembling tassels of a carpet and used as a decoration on the the tomb, as manifeste d in the frieze.
highest part of a wall. Particularly common from the Middle
Ceiling Decoratio n
Kingdom onwards, it is actually known from the 3rd D ynasty
complex of King Djoser. T he term khekeris derived from the The soffits of tombs were also enhanced. The few that have
word for ornament in Egyptian and is just that: a decorative been found from Old Kingdom mastabas were carved and
motif that is used as a frieze to fill up awkward wall spaces. Its
origins, however, are surprisingly practical. It is thought to
I 14 (right) Images of t he Voyage to Abydos by boat were common in
have its genesis in the knotted tops of reeds that were used for tombs of all periods.When Egyptian boats t ravelled no rthwards they
constructi on during Egypt's earliest history, including the are shown w ith their sails furled as t hey used the current to move;
temples associated with the Buto Burial, as well as funerary when they are going south t heir sails are unfurled so t hat they could
constructi ons, and to have evolved into a purely decorative take advantage of the north wi nd (TT I00, Rekhmire: 18t h Dynasty).
Engaged Statuary
:I
11 11
tiAIN Statues of the tomb-owner were part of the standard tomb
equipment since these served as focal points for the cult, as
jl 11 11 1
.""'..........,
IJ
well as insurance for the ka, sh ould any mishap befall the
actual corpse. An additional statue type was also introduced
a b c d e f into tombs, possibly from the 4th D ynasty onwards (LG9o):
images that were carved from the rock that formed the
tomb. This genre of statuary naturally appears only in rock-
~
cut tombs from all periods thereafter throughout Egypt,
although they are more commonly found in certain
IDCJD[ cemeteries, especially in Upper Egypt where the rock is
most suitable for such images. The presence of such figures
11 1111 1111 \Ill 11 did not preclude the additional inclusion of free-s tanding
statuary.
g h k m
Frequently not just one, but several im ages were cut
I 16 Detail of the ceiling of the tomb-chapel of Nakht (TI52: 18th from the living rock. T hese included images of the deceased
Dynasty).
and his/ her ka; several images of the deceased, perhaps
showing him m anifest in his different positions; statues of
painted to look like the roofs of houses that were made of the whole family; statues of the deceased and his wife. T he
palm logs (e.g. D64 at Saqqara). Middle Kingdom tombs tomb ofKakerenpta h (Giza G 7721) contained as many as 29
that are better p reserved show brightly coloured textile statues and only one wall adorned with two-dimensio nal
patterns on the ceiling; different designs sometimes appear decoration .
in different parts of the chapel. These might also have been In the Old Kingdom most of these im ages are standing,
- --- -- ---- - -- - -
p q r present in Old Kingdom sepulchres. This mode of although there are a few variants showing seated figures.
n 0
decoration continues into the New Kingdom, with other A handful of unusual images appear during this time,
motifs also being present. primarily in the Memphite necropoleis. G iza has the largest
T he tomb-chapels ofNakht (TT 52) and Userhat (TT 56) number of such engaged statuary. The 5th/ 6th D ynasty
11
are inspired by the ceilings of private houses as they are tomb ofldu (G 7102) shows the deceased, fram ed by his
painted to show imitations of wooden beams and mats. false-door, emerging from the ground (the area of his burial
This also underlines the identification of the tomb as a chamber), with his arms opened in a position to accept
house for eternity. More variations date from the time of offerings (ill. r86). He is shown as a plump mature man,
Amenhotep Ill onwards. No doubt this change mirrors royal rather than as a youth striding forward, as is the case with
taste, as can be seen in the painted ceilings of Amenhotep the statue in the false-door of Mereruka (pi. X). T h e image is
s t u V III's palace at Malqata and the later changes that are so reminiscent of the 'Reserve Heads' found in the M emphite
apparent at Tell el-Amarna. Birds, butterflies and plants cemeteries and the truncated statue of An khhaf from Giza.
appear (TT6, 30, 31, 49, 65, 159), as do ox-heads supporting Squatting statues appear in the tomb of Ankhmare
1 15 Friezes developed overtime, with simple coloured borders appearing throughout Egyptian history:
11 11 I I 11 n 11 11 11 the sun disk and separated by spirals, akin to the motif (G 7837+7843).129 Certain false-doors from the Abu Sir/
a. Ptahhotep i (Saqqara D62: late 5th Dynasty); b. Mereruka (Saqqara: early 6th Dyri~sty); c. lb1(De1r ei-
found at the palace of Amenhotep Ill at M alqata. Saqqara area show fully frontal standing im ages of the
Gebrawi 8: 6th Dynasty); d. Baqet i (Beni Hasan BH-XXIX: I Ith Dynasty); e. Baqet Jll (Ben1Hasan BH-XV:
11th Dynasty);f lnyotefiqer (TI60:t. Senwosret I); g. Netjernakhte (Beni Hasan BH-XXIII: 12th Dynasty); h. Unfortunately few preserved ceilings have been found from deceased em erging from the door portion of the false-door
Khnumhotep iii (Beni Hasan BH-111: 12th Dynasty); i- j. Ukhhotep (Meir C I:t. Senwosret 11); k. Djehutynakhte other N ew Kingdom cemcteries, so it is difficult to (e.g. that ofNetjernefer, now in Cairo).' 30 Engaged statues in
vi (De1r ei-Bersha 1: early 12th Dynasty); I. Puiemre (TI39:t.Thutmose Ill); m. Qenamun (TI93:t. determine if this tradition varied in other locations. the rock-cut tombs at El-Hamamiya h ave offering basins cut
Amenhotep 11); n. Djeserkeresonbe (TI38:t.Thutmose IV); o.Amenhotep-sise (TI75: t.Thutmose IV); p-~
into the chapel floor near the statues so that the offering
Nebamun (TI90: t.Thutmose IV/Amenhotep Ill); s. Nebamun & lpuky (TI 181 :t.Amenhotep 111/IV);t. Huy
(TI40: t.Tutankhamen); u. Userhat (TISI: t. Sety I); v-w. Nefersekheru (TI296: 19th Dynasty). focus was constructed together with the rest of the chapel. 'J'
C learly the Old Kingdom was a time for experimentati on.
w
I
I· 126 THE DECORAT IO N OF THE TOMB
T HE DECORAT I O N O F T H E TOM B 127
Engaged statuary is common ly found in the Middle to appear on the heads of statues only from the 19th Dynasty Engaged statues of the deceased and various deities are
Kingdom rock-cut tombs of Middle Egypt. These, however, onwardss, although there might be a few random especially popular in tombs of the Graeco-Roman Period.
tend to be seated rather than standing. For the most part occurrences prior to that time, e.g. TT49). There the deceased is generally shown in a conventional
they are located in the small cult room at the back of the In the Ramesside Period statues of (generally) seated standing position, as well as reclining. This tradition is
tomb, deep in the cliff. gods also appear (e.g. TTw, 23, 32, w6, 263, 296), complem ented by the Hellenistic tradition of funerary busts.
New Kingdom tombs containe d this genre of statuary, frequently taking the central position, with engaged
although in Thebes it was more common in the Ramesside statues of the deceased and his family carved on walls Fu nerary Books' 32
Period than the earlier part of that era, which favoured free- that were at right angles to the central axis. Usually the
standing statues, sometim es placed in especially construc ted deity featured is Osiris, often flanked by two goddesses. Pyram id Texts
niches, over the engaged variety (e.g. TT71, which shows the This god even appears on the tomb fa<;:ade in the Ramesside The Pyramid Texts represen t the oldest known Egyptian
tomb-ow ner and his royal ward and in TTwo) . One of the Pseriod (e.g. TT26, TT35, TT41, TT158, TTq8, TT263, corpus of religious texts. They do not form a continuo us
reasons for this might be the relationship between the etc.). A few tombs, such as TT356 and TT296, also narrative, but comprise over 700 individu al elements.
location of the earlier tombs and the quality of the rock. contain images ofOsiris , that mirror the images found While all relate to the posthum ous destiny of the dead king,
Certainly this statue type was very common at el-Amarna. in the burial chamber s ofRames ses II (KV7) and his sons they contain many divergent or even blatantly contradi ctory
The statues appear not only in the tomb-ch apel proper, but (KV5) in the Valley of the Kings and are also found in the concepts , many of which were clearly of considerable
in its court (e.g. TT56, 66, 82, 123). They tend to be located Saite TT33 and 34- A few tombs even have Osiride pillars antiquity even at the time they were first inscribed, on the I 18 Detail of t he Pyram id Texts in t he substructu re of t he pyramid of
in niches cut into the deeper and more sacred part of the (TT157, 156). walls of the pyramid ofUnas at Saqqara. Many spells speak Unas at Saqqara (5th Dynasty).
tomb, facing the entrance , as they are the focus of the cult. One particularly Ramesside image, found in tombs of of the king joining the gods in the sky and journeyi ng with
Texts of the hetep-di-nesu formula jostle with Opening -of- that era both at Thebes (TT387) and at the tomb of the sun god across the sky. that bridge the gap between the royal-focused Pyramid
the-Mou th texts, as the latter might have been carried out Netjerwymose at Saqqara (Bubasteion I.16) show the In the burial chamber s of the pyramid s of the late Old Texts and later compilations, such as the Book of the Dead.
on these engaged images during key religious festivals. Hathor cow protectin g the image ofRames ses II. T his Kingdom the spells are organized for the convenie nce of the They are usually found on the interiors of coffins, but also
Subtle stylistic changes, as well as changes in dress and focused part of the tomb's cultic activity on the king, rather dead king. Those around the sarcophagus chamber protect occur on canopic chests, papyri and other items of funerary
adornme nt help in dating these statues (e.g. fat cones tend than the tomb-owner. the body of the king, while the north wall of the sarcophagus equipme nt.
chamber is inscribed with the Offering Ritual with libation, The Coffin Texts by no means form a consisten t set of
I 17 Anonymo us females stand as rock-cut statues in the O ld K1ngdom tomb
of Meresankh Ill at Giza. censing, Opening -of-the-M outh, provisions for a meal and formulae, spells, prayers and other elements, varying in
his toilet, all things necessary for the king's renewed content from site to site and even between coffins within
existence. The antecham ber and corridor spells are written the same burial. For example, coffins from Deir el-Bersha
so that the king's spirit can use these to aid his passage to the feature a composi tion known as the Book ofTwo Ways,
next world: the king emerges from the underwo rld (duat) which includes what is in essence an annotated plan of the
and gains access to the gateway of Nun, with the texts underwo rld. The idea of providin g the deceased with
relating to his travelling through the pre-dawn sky. Thus the intelligence needed to successfully attain the next world runs
king goes from the sarcophagus chamber, equivalent to the through many parts of the Coffin Texts, a feature that
Duat, located in the west, eastwards to the akhetor horizon continue s on into many later funerary compilations.
between dawn and night and out through the north, where
his soul was guided by the north star to the heavens, where Book of the Dead
he became an akh. '33 More correctly called the 'Book of Coming Forth by Day',
Subsequ ent to the Old Kingdom , the Pyramid Texts are this composi tion is first found during the Second
fo und in private contexts as well and feed into many of the Intermed iate Period and starts to become common in the
subseque nt funerary texts. They undergo somethin g of a 18th Dynasty, particularly under Thutmos e III. Initially
resurrection during the Saite Period, when they appear in restricted to private contexts, certain parts are found in royal
fairly pure form in many tombs. tombs from the time ofMeren ptah. As with the Pyramid
Texts, it does not form single narrative, but has spells which
C offin Texts
allow the deceased to prevail through the various ordeals that
Although not generally inscribed on the walls of tombs, the face him or her on the way to face the judgmen t of Osiris and
Coffin Texts form an importan t corpus of mortuary material undergo the various transformations required by the spirit.
The centuries surrounding the unification of Egypt at the two compartments by a wall. Amongst these is the first-
beginning of the Ist Dynasty saw the transition from simple known decorated tomb in Egypt, Hierakonpolis 100. '34 The
graves in the sand to elaborate stone-built monuments with mud-brick walls of the tomb were covered with a layer of
substructures cut in the living rock. They thus laid the mud plaster and then by a coat of yellow ochre. Only one
foundations for the outstanding achievements of the wall was wholly covered with decoration, although hints of
succeeding Old Kingdom. decorated areas survive on the other walls. A dado separated
the decorated from the undecorated zone. T he scenes
PREDYNASTIC PERI OD depicted therein contain elements of what later became part
of the Egyptian iconographic canon, such as hunting,
The burial places of the Predynastic Period are generally very smiting enemies and a series of bound prisoners. The overall
simple and marked by little more than low mounds of sand theme depicted is one of combat and victory, perhaps
or gravel above the burial pit. The latter comprised a images that fo reshadow the victory of maat over chaos. T he
scooped hole in the desert gravel, in which the flexed corpse majority of the scenes show hunting through various means,
was laid on its side, surrounded by various possessions. combat between humans and scenes of boats. The battle
Graves of the Badarian and Naqada I Periods are generally depictions might reflect actual historical struggles or perhaps
oval or circular, with the body placed in a foetal pose, often were merely stereotypical images of martial prowess. Such
wrapped in goat skins or mats and facing east, with the head scenes of overt hostility between individuals were not the
to the south . Funerary equipment is largely restricted to norm in Egyptian funerary art.
pottery vessels, together with some examples of ivory and Hierakonpolis appears to have been the focus for the
bone combs, slate palettes and perhaps pottery figurines. grouping of southern Egyptian polities that seem to have
By Naqada 11, the design of the grave becomes more begun to coalesce around 3300 BC. Later chieftains moved
rectangular, with the locations of the more plentiful and their cemetery of brick-lined tombs z km (I Y. miles) to the
varied funerary equipment more standardized. However, the
orientation of the body is generally reversed to face west, in
122 (opposite) Osiris as shown on a wall of the burial chamber of
historic times the location of the home of the dead. The
SennedJem at Deir ei-Medina (TI I : 19th Dynasty. reign of Sety 1).
head remained at the south end. T he graves are sometimes
elaborated with wooden linings and roofs, while some very 12 1 (above) D rawing of part of the main decorat ed wall of
high-status examples are lined with brick and divided into tomb I 00 at H ierako npolis (Cairo Museum).
124-5 View and plan of the Umm e i-Qaab cemetery at Abydos, the
burial place of Egypt 's earliest kings.
those oflesser folk. One of the most impressive of the place. However, it appears that a low mound was
136 PRED YNAS T IC AND EARLY D YNAS T IC PERIODS PR EDYNAS T IC AN D EARLY DY NASTI C PE RI ODS 137
Private Tombs: Private tombs also grow in size and elaboration there a major step forward in the architecture of the royal in fact illusory, as the ancient approach to the cemetery was
during the 1st Dynasty. The smaller tombs continue Naqada tomb, but the number of high-status tombs known increases alo ng a wadi from the northwest. From this direction, the
Ill norms, with wood and brick linings and wooden roofs greatly, with a new cemetery established at Abu Rowash enclosures lie en route to the royal tombs.
and sometimes one or more subsidiary chambers behind (Cemetery M), '44 and others atAbu Sir and Helwan. The While the Gisr el-Mudir is stone-built, the other example
partition walls. An alternative approach, also beginning latter necropolis included a vast number of tombs of the (known as the 'L-shaped Enclosure') is composed of desert
in Naqada Ill, comprises a shaft culminating in a chamber middle and upper levels of Early Dynastic Period society. gravel scraped up to form embankments. It is likely to be the
cut into the side. The opening of the chamber was closed A number of the tombs have tunnelled substructures, while earlier of the two, on the basis of both its constructio n and
with wattle, brick or stone and this tomb type marks stone-lining is a feature of three tombs of the 1st Dynasty its position. This would seem to have placed any
the beginning of a long series of such shaft graves in at Helwan.'45T his marks important progress in the southeastern entrance in line with a rock-cutting that runs
I 30 (left) Stela from the
locations where the local geology permitted structures architectural developmen t of private tombs, albeit east-west and defines a platform upon and within which the lost tomb of King Reneb
of this form. representing less than 0.05 per cent of the burial places tom bs ofHotepsek hemwy and Ninetjer were built. (MMA 60.144: 2nd
The substructures of the sepulchres of the great officials at the site. Although Saqqara had now been established as the royal Dynasty).
were also originally open brick-lined and wood-roofe d cemetery for over a century, the sixth king of the dynasty,
I3 I (below) T he Shunet
cuttings; funerary equipment was stored in the sub- and 2ND DY NASTY Peribsen, abruptly abandoned it in favour of the ancient
ei-Zebib, t he funerary
superstructures. However, changes appear with the ending necropolis ofUmm el-Qaab at Abydos. Like the earlier enclosure of King
Superstruct ures tombs there, the superstruct ure of his tomb is totally
of the practice of placing store-rooms in the superstruct ure Khasekhemw y at Abydos
and the addition of an access stairway on the east side of the Royal Tombs: At the beginning of the 2nd Dynasty, the royal obliterated, only the pair of stelae that had Banked the (2nd D ynasty).
tomb. Where the stone was suitable, as at Saqqara, some or cemetery moved from the ancestral Umm el-Qaab to
all of the substructur e might be tunnelled, rather than cut as Saqqara, albeit to a location remote from the noble cemetery
an open pit. Further refinements included the addition of a that had begun early in the 1st Dynasty. The superstruct ure
portcullis-block in the descending passage and on occasion a of the Saqqara tomb ofHotepsek hemwy, founder of the
degree of decoration, for example the tides of the deceased 2nd D ynasty, had been wholly demolished when the 5th
on the lintel of the burial chamber in tomb S3506 of the Dynasty funerary complex of King Unas was erected on the
middle of the dynasty. 14l site. However, enough has been traced of that of N inetjer,
The reign of Den marks an important point in the lying 150 m (500 ft) due east, to show that it had two distinct
developme nt of Egyptian funerary practices. Not only was parts. The northern part seems to have been an open,
d ay-paved, court some 20 m (65ft) deep, lying above the
outer passages and chambers of the tomb. This was bordered
129 To mb 3504 at Saqqara, probably belo nging to SekhemkasedJ,
showing t he store rooms in t he super structure, and the wood-roofed
to the south by a rock 'step', which may mark the place
subst ructure (reign of Djet) . behind which rose the main part of the superstruct ure.146 It
is possible that a complete 2nd Dynasty royal superstructu re
survives a little to the north, where a huge (c. 400 x room
[1300 x 330 ft]) tripartite cased-rubbl e structure covers what
may be the tomb of a king of the dynasty. This building was
later incorporate d into the 3rd Dynasty Step Pyramid
complex.'47
The great rectangular enclosures that formed a key part
of the Abydene royal tombs may also be present at Saqqara,
albeit in a translated form. Two extremely large enclosures
lie to the west, in the desert behind the znd Dynasty royal
sepulchres. T he larger, known as the Gisr el-Mudir, covers
some 25 hectares (6o acres). Although they have not yet been
fully excavated, they have revealed material that suggests
that they are of the 2nd Dynasty.'48 Although apparently
behind, rather than in front of their associated tombs, this is
138 PR EDYNA ST IC A N D EARLY DYN ASTI C P ERIODS PREDYNA ST IC A N D EAR LY DY N A ST IC PER IOD S 139
offering place survive. However, the second eleme nt of
the enclosure's subseq uent use as an ibis cemetery. The traces
s
king's tomb, the monum ental enclosure, can be traced close of one of these were for a time misint erprete d as the remain
alongside the 1st Dynas ty monum ents. The reason s behind of a brick-s heathe d mound .'"
s
Peribsen's move are obscure, but may be linked to tension
north and I 34 (left) Plan of the
ing his demise . Private Tombs: The idea of cult install ations at both
that led to civil war in the years follow took tomb of Hotepsekhemwy
The final king of the 2nd Dynasty, Khase khemw y, was south ends of the supers tructur e seen in Merka's tomb
a, at Saqqara (2nd Dynasty).
also interre d at Abydos: his monum ents are the bigges
t of on a standa rdized form in 2nd Dynasty tombs at Saqqar
each end of the eastern fa'rade . A
their respective types there. His funera ry enclos ure, known with a panell ed niche at 135 (below) Plan ofthe
today as the Shune t el-Zeb ib, is by far the best preserved
of good examp le, from the reign ofNin etjer, is the tomb of tomb of Peribsen at Umm
ed
its genre at Abydos. Its panelled walls still stand nearly
II m Ruabe n (S2302).1s0 Interestingly, the mastab a was enlarg ei-Qaab,Abydos (2nd
Dynasty).
(35 ft) above the desert surface and enclose an area of some during constr uction , the original niches being hidden
4,500 sq. m (48,oo o sq. ft). A small buildi ng, probab ly
a behind new brickw ork and fresh ones created on the new
ast quadra nt of front/fa'rade. Aroun d the end of the dynasty, these niches portcullises, lowere d on ropes from above throug h the
chapel, has long been known in the southe
in the began to develop into a crucifo rm shape, a typical feature supers tructur e. A substr ucture of the sam e type, but m uch
the enclosure, corres pondin g to a simila r structu re J
the of the succeeding 3rd D ynasty. The first databl e examp
le less regular and deeper, lay under the tom b ofNin etjer.'5
enclosure of Peribsen. Unlike earlier examp les, most of
I I
exterio r wall still survives, as do traces
togeth er with a series of basins of uncert
of buildin
ain use,
gs within
which
, is S3043, which contai ned a sealing ofKha sekhem wy,
king of the 2nd D ynasty. Panelled mastabas, albeit on a
last A sim ilar, but smaller, tomb was later adap ted as
substru cture of the late 18th D ynasty tomb ofMeryneith
the
I I I I
the much smalle r scale, are also found above tombs of this (H 9, p. 232);154like N inetjer's it had becom e a comm unal
might be intrusive 26th Dynas ty features associ ated with l
dynasty at Helwa n.1'1 catacom b in the Late Period. Unfor tunately, the origina
owner remains uncert ain, while anothe r rem arkabl e
The offerin g niches were increasingly equipp ed with
stelae showin g the tomb- owner in front of a table with complex of galleries, whose supers tructu re now lies under
offerings, the stela becom ing generally wider than it was the wester n side of the Step Pyram id com plex, has never
high and mount ed roughly at the eye-level of the viewer
. been properly cleared. However, they may represent the
Such 'slab-s telae' remain the basic eleme nts of tom b-chap el tom bs of the other 2nd D ynasty kings known from
decoration into the 4th Dynasty, when they becom e inscrib ed material to have been buried at Saqqara: Reneb
and Sened.
incorp orated into more elaborate false-door stelae.
T he Abydos burial place of Peribse n is wholly unlike
Substr ucture s these tunnel led tom bs and follows the basic pattern of rst single- roome d tombs were also built, althou gh generally
the
T he substru ctures of 2nd Dynas ty tombs are generally Dynasty royal tombs , built of brick and sunk in a pit in with a stair-entrance and a double-n iched supers tructur
e.
I 32 (right) Plan of the Shun et wholly differe nt from those of 1st Dynas ty tombs , featuri
ng desert surface . Similarly constr ucted is the underg round Such structu res are also fo und in such so uthern Egypti an
nt
ei-Zebib, Abydos . compl ex tunnel led constr uction , rather than the extens ive tomb ofKhasekhem wy, although its form is wholly differe cem eteries as N aga el-Deir. In these, however, corbelled
~ i'l
and is by far of
open trench ing seen earlier. One of the best examples is from that of earlier Abydene royal sepulc hres roofing is someti mes found in the substr ucture in place
I 33 (below) The 2nd Dynasty
Ruabe n's S2302, whose burial compl ex is approached by
a the largest, being no less than 68 m (225ft) long, by 12 m woode n roofs, needed where a fully-t unnell ed burial
tomb of Ruaben (52302: reign (40 ft) broad. Yet these dimen sions are insigni ficant compl ex was not possible.
of Ninetje r). stairway and has no fewer than 18 chamb ers. It has been
suggested that som e of these were intend ed to replicate compared to those of the tomb of Hotep sekhemwy, whose The H elwan necrop olis contin ued in use through the
elements of a house, includ ing a latrine .''' The body appear
s substru cture occupies an area of 123 x 49 m (400 x r6o ft). 2nd and 3rd D ynasties and includ ed the burials of a numbe
r
to have been placed in the room at the right-h and side of the On the other hand, the rows of store chamb ers that are of royal children . Designs range from simple stairway tombs
last vestibule of the tomb, the whole sepulc hre being such a feature of both sepulc hres clearly suggest a to more elabor ate structu res, including a handfu l of stone-
s
protec ted by two portcullises.
commo nality of concep t. lined mon uments. Certai n tom bs confor med to a curiou
Such elabor ate substru ctures are also found in the royal Most Saqqa ra private tombs of the 2nd D ynasty ten ded design in which a narrow shaft, parallel to the m ain one, led
albeit
tombs of the new dynasty. Comp ared with the fairly simple to follow the patterns seen in the sepulc hre ofRua ben, down throug h the ceiling of the burial cham ber, at which
PER IODS 14 1
PREDY NAS T I C AND EARLY D YNA ST IC
C PE RI ODS
140 PR ED Y N A ST IC AN D EA R LY D Y N ASTI
Chapt er 7 The Old Kingdom
137 (above) Reconstru ct ion of the Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara, of the enclosure and was topped with what became the
revealing the earliest phases of the central monumen t lowest of the six steps of a pyramid . The reasons behind
this transform ation remain unknown , but the result
138 (below) The ent rance colonnade of the Step Pyramid complex,
opening from the left-hand end of the eastern e nclosure wall in t he formed the first link in a chain of pyramids that, large
same way that the chapel of a mastaba o pened fro m the and small, would be built along the Nile for the n ext
corresponding end ofthe mastaba's eastern fa~ade . three millennia.
embrace a wide range of forms, with their purposes the Against the inner face of the southern enclosure wall
The Old Kingdom marked the consolid ation of the
subject of much debate. Many of their columns and lies a long, narrow, limestone mastaba, decorate d with the
Egyptian state following civil war towards the end of the 2nd
architectural details were clearly modelled directly from niched palace fa<;:ade motif and surmoun ted by a row of
Dynasty. It was also the pivotal epoch for the evolution of
wood and other plant prototypes. It seems clear that these uraei on the east side, perhaps to greet the rising sun. Known
the Egyptian tomb. During this time, all the classic forms of
structures are linked with the rituals of kingship , including as the 'South Tomb', this structure is the prototyp e for a
Egyptian sepulchre came into existence, as did their modes
the heb-sedjubilee and might be a skeuomo rph of buildings long series of such miniature sepulchres, in this case with a
of decoratio n, producin g monuments that continue to
associated with this ritual that existed at the capital city central chamber too sm all to hold a body. Later topped by
define the popular perceptio n of ancient Egypt.
of Memphi s. The heb-sedwas a ritual associated with the small pyramids , these subsidiary tombs always lie to the
renewal of kingship, indicating that the king would south of the main pyramid or its temple and are of obscure
3RD DYNAS TY
continuo usly renew his rulership and dominio n over Egypt significance. None of the suggestions for their use are
Superstr uctures througho ut eternity. convincing; for example, the proposal that they were
Little decoratio n survives from these buildings. T he few intended for the royal viscera is disproved by the large
Royal Tombs: The great innovati on of the 3rd Dynasty was the
carved motifs adorning the buildings include kheker friezes number of pyramids that have both a subsidiary pyramid
construc tion of the very first pyramid: Djoser's Step
and djed pillars, symbolic of Osiris and the union of the and also a canopic chest in the main burial chamber. A
Pyramid at Saqqara, the earliest monume ntal stone building
dead king with that god. In addition , a number of items of cenotaph alluding to the king as ruler of the south as well as
in the world.•56 It took the mud-bri ck panelled enclosure of
statuary were placed with in the complex, most of them the north of the country has also been suggested, bur with
the Shunet el-Zebib and transform ed it into stone. Likewise
carved from the block against which they appeared to stand. no accompa nying evidence.
transform ed were the tempora ry buildings that may have
It is not known if any of the buildings within the complex The patterns established by Djoser were followed during
been placed within the Shunet,' 57 to judge from the way in
were painted, as no vestiges of paint remain. the immedia tely subsequent reigns.'58 However, while
which many of the Step Pyramid's buildings imitate organic
Aside from the sheer scale of the Step Pyramid complex stepped pyramids continue d in use until the early years of
materials. The royal burial apartmen ts and the mound above
-at 15 hectares (35 acres), it covers 360 per cent of the Shunet the next dynasty, the great rectangu lar enclosures are no
them were moved into the centre of the enclosure, thus
el-Zebib's area, although only 6o per cent of that of the Gisr longer certainly attested beyond the middle of the 3rd, the
combini ng the elements previously found separated in royal
el-Mudir - and the massive embrace of stone technology, latest certain example being Sekhemk het's, which covers
tombs, both at Abydos and Saqqara. The mound was
the most radical innovatio n oflmhotep, Djoser's architect, IO hectares (25 acres). Sekhemk het's likely predecessor,
regularized into a square stone structure.
concerned the burial place itself. It was placed in the middle Sanakhte, may h ave reverted to brick for a little-kno wn
T he size of the stone blocks employe d in the Step
enclosure at Abu Rowash, known as El-Deir. It measures
Pyramid complex clearly recalls those of mud-bri cks,
136 (above) Doorjambs from the rock-cut tomb of Debhen at Giza 330 x 170 m (ro8o x 560 ft), with a 20 m (65 ft)-square
marking its place close to the beginnin g of the history of
(LG90: late 4th Dynasty). central massif of the same material. '59
stone masonry. T he buildings included within the enclosure
TH E O LD KI NGDOM 143
142 T H E OLD KINGD O M
I 39 T he huge mastaba K I at Be it Khallaf, dating to the reign of Djoser
The size of the blocks used to build pyramid complexes hitherto-unknow n features. Originally, its cult installation
increases over time, although the last ruler of the dynasty, comprised two panelled niches in the northern part of the
Huni, seems to have switched back to mud-brick for his east face. However, these were replaced by a new, wholly
sepulchre. He has been tentatively identified as the owner of panelled, fac,:ade, enclosed by a wooden roof and a curtain
the Brick Pyramid at Abu Rowash, a monument intended to wall opposite it, thus forming a narrow corridor and entered
be some 215 m (700 ft) square- as big as the much better-
known Second Pyramid at G iza. However, it may never have
140 Plan and sectio n of the tomb of Hesyre (52405: reign of Djoser);
been completed: the last remnants of brick were removed in t he final fo rm of the t o mb was the result of a series of enlargements
the 19th century, leaving nothing more than the rock core.'60 t hat seems t o have been common w ith tombs of the ear ly O ld
Kingdom.
153 (below) Plan and section of the mastaba of Rahotep and Neferet to the monarch, while also introducing daily-life scenes into tombs seen from Early Dynastic rimes down to the reign of
at Meidum (6).The tomb was enlarged a number oftimes, the the repertoire. The tombs were decorated with paint as well Khufu's father. N ow, rather than the pyramid standing in
penultimate one blocking off the original stone-lined funerary chapels as raised and sunk relief. The tomb ofNefermaat and his splendid isolation, the members of the court huddled
at e ither end of the fa~ade. ln its final form, the tomb had a southern
wife ltet also displays a unique decorative technique, around its base, in many ways emphasizing even further the
chapel against the face of t he mastaba and a northern one within the
out ermost layer of the mastaba.The substructures we re reached via comprising blocks of pigment let into the surface of the gulf between the ruler and ruled.•n
shafts in the top of the superstructure. Rahot ep had a corbelled burial stone. The tomb-owner seems to claim credit for this The tombs in these cemeteries had all been laid out and
chamber, w ith reliev1ng chambers const ructed above (4th Dynasty). innovation, which was nor, indeed, used in any other tomb. their cores built as part of a single project. Known as
At Dahshur, private cemeteries were established at 'nucleus cemeteries', their cores were allocated to and
considerable distances from the royal pyramids, comprising finished by, their ultimate owners. As originally built, these
a mixture of brick and stone mastabas, the latter being cores were solid, initially composed of rubble, but soon
l=o ~
amongst the earliest of their kind. The time-hallowed
arrangement of offering places at either end of the eastern
fas;ade continued, the surviving examples being of a simple
niche plan.'76 In contrast, at Saqqara, stone cruciform
succeeded by large blocks of stone. The tombs in the nucleus
cemeteries had been envisaged as accommodating single
burials only. However, some mastabas had been extended to
embrace a second shaft for the deceased's spouse and, in the
$t ~ chapels, embedded in a brick mastaba, had become standard Eastern Cemetery at Giza, pairs of individual masrabas were
early in the 4th Dynasty (e.g. M erjen [LS6], Akhethorep joined together by a single casing and appropriate cult
I :..:.I [Ar=S3076], Akhetaa, Pahernefer and S3078).
........ i
structures created for couples. The original cores had no
East ofK.hufu's pyramid at G iza was a m assive cemetery internal or exterior provision for offering places, other than
intended for lesser members of his family. O ther cemeteries a small 'slab stela' towards the southern end of the east side.
were placed west and south of the pyramid and mark an As a minimum, a m ud-brick chapel would have been built
important shift from the wide separation of royal and other to protect this modest interface between the worlds. Some
159 The serdab- a closed room containing statues - of Akhethotep held fo ur images, including one of the tomb-owner and one of his wife
(Saqqara: 6th Dynasty).
165 (right) Granite sarcophagus in the burial chamber of tom b 17, the
earliest of 1ts kind.
~
,----,
the technique. 18 2 None were designed to hold a stone
sarcophagus, although the Red Pyramid, Seneferu's apparent
[J • a
~====
final resting place, may have had one constructed in the
1:=~n~
masonry flooring of its burial chamber.
Meidum tombs M6 (ill. 158) and r6 each had two burial
shafts, driven through the superstructure into the bedrock,
without any apparent stairway approaches. The shafts of
u z ! 11
b
160 TH E O L D KINGD O M
t he centre.ln t he
XII (previous page) Aerial photograph of the Saqqara necropolis, with the causeway of the pyramid of Unas running down
of temple-tombs, with sepulchres of the reign of Ramesses 11, in particular
foreground is the northern extremity of the New Kingdom necropolis
the opposite side of the causeway are many tombs of the late O ld Kingdom, w1th the substructures of
that of t he Vizier Neferrenpet (STO). On
of the 2nd Dynasty occupying the area between the boat-pit in the m1ddle distance and the Unas pyramid. Beyond is the Step
two royal tombs
Pyramid complex of Djoser and in the distance the pyramids of Abu S1r.
at Saqqara,
XIV (opposite) Detail of one of the panels of faience t iles that decorated t he substructure of the South Tomb at the Step Pyramid
3rd Dynasty. These were int ended to imitate mat-work hangings.
Sanctuary
Subsidiary
pyramid
170 (above and left)
Valley temple
172 (above) View up the causeway of Unas towards his pyramid (end
ofthe 5th Dynasty).
Queen Wedjebten
173 (left) Block in lsesi's mortuary temple at Saqqara, showing the
king, to whom a divinity symbolically proffers life in t he form of an
ankh.The king's eye was formerly inlaid (5th Dynasty) .
Unas' causeway, also appears on that of Sahure. An The causeway was covered with a variety of scenes and
interesting feature of these temples is that the images of texts. For the most part, these related to the prowess and
the king are frequently shown attended by his ka, perhaps greatness of the king as protector of the land and provider
symbolic of all the royal kas. through conquest. These were standard kingly acts and
Pepy II's valley building yielded fragments of reliefs images of the king carrying them out successfully appear
that show the king hunting in the marshes and being on objects from the end of the Predynastic Period onwards.
attended by divinities and officials. Fragments of similar The decoration on the lower portion of the causeway
'' scenes have been found in other temples, as well as showed the king as a sphinx and a griffin trampling the
', }
~(>/(
additional scenes showing the recording of booty or tribute.
<~'> ~·:
enemies of Egypt, while the upper portions were divided
\ Niuserre's valley building might have also shown scenes of into sections showing bound prisoners, counting of booty,
--- -- ------- -------- ---------- - ----------------------- ---~--;_ - the seasons in this area. tribute being brought and images of the king being
176 The king hunting a hippopotamus. symbo lic ofSeth, was a key 178 A group of 5th Dynasty mastabas at Giza: from the left G60 I0 (Neferbauptah) ; G6020 (lymery); and G6030 (lti).
scene in mortuary temples as it emphasized the king and moot's
dominion over Seth and chaos; Saqqara, mortuary tem ple of Pepy 11.
~· . ,
...:--
..; .. :
[
6th Dynasty) . (6th Dynasty).
"}~
..~~
I 84 (left) Mastaba of the Vizier
Mereruka at Saqqara (early 6th
Dynasty) .
been the sole focus. An interesting compromise is seen in a of these cemeteries remains uncertain, as only that ofPepy II
...
...0
block from a 5th Dynasty tomb' 87 that shows some sort of
ritual or perhaps even dance, being performed, with one
has been properly investigated.' 88 Nevertheless, many
dignitaries were buried in other parts of the necropoleis, for
of the participants wearing a lion mask. This might be a example in the ancient cemeteries lying north and west of
relatively early depiction of invocations to the household the Step Pyramid. After a reversion to mastabas for the
protector-god Bes and the inclusion of the divine in a non- burials of the queens ofUnas, small, steeply angled,
183 (above) Roc k-cut tomb-chapels of the Old Kingdom: royal tomb. There is also an increase in (auto)biographical pyramids are found housing the sepulchres of the wives
a. Debhen (Giza LG90: 4th Dynasty), one of the earl iest rock-cut
texts and scenes during this time, bringing the focus more ofTeti (converted from mastabas), Pepy I and Pepy II.
tombs; b. Nefer (Saqqara: mid -/late 5th Dynasty); c. Mekhu an d Sabn i
(QH 25 & 26: late 6th Dynasty), th is comprises the union of the firmly on the tomb-owner's exploits in life and his expected A major motif of the 6th Dynasty is the increase in tomb
separate tomb-chapels of a father and son; d. Nikaankh (Tihna I 3: position in death. Examples of these are found in Harkhuf's building outside the area of the principal royal residence. As
early 5th Dynasty), the tomb lies on the east bank, and this rather tomb at Aswan and Rawer's stela from Giza (CM JE66682). the Old Kingdom progressed, there was a steady devolution
strange arrangement has been adopted to allow the false -doors Private cemeteries accompany most of the royal of the authority of the court, in favour of the provinces, or
to fac e west; e . Khenuka (Tihna 14: 5th/6th Dynasty), in this case,
pyramids, that around Teti's pyramid being particularly names. The Great Chieftains (or nomarchs) of the names
a conventional tomb is employed, but w ith the false-doors placed
either side of the doorway into the main chamber, to allow them to
extensive. The majority of the kings moved to Saqqara- constructed increasingly imposing tomb-chapels at their
face the right way Sourh and many officials followed; however, the full extent local centres.
I 87 (above )The rock-cut chapel of Nefer at Saqqara, with multiple false-doors for members of his family (5th Dynasty). 189 (above) The double mastaba of queens Ne bet and Khenut, wives 19 I (right) Rock-cut
of Unas (Saqqara: late 5th Dynasty). tomb-chapels of the later O ld
1 88 (below) The upper part of the false-door of Kaha, the father of Nefer, in his son's tomb. Kingdom: a. lnti (Deshasha I:
190 (below) A ru ined rock-cut tomb at Zaw1yet Sultan,with a 5t h/6th Dynasty); b.Tjauti (Qasr
transverse chamber, at the back of which a pair of engaged statues w'ei-Sayed 2: 6th Dynasty);
flank the doorway into the innermost chamber (6th Dynasty). c. Pepyankh t he Elder (Q useir
ei-Amarna I: mid-6th Dynasty),
in this east bank tomb, the
false-door is in the side room,
oriented towards the west;
d. Meru (Sheikh Said 5: 6th
Dynasty); e. Unknown owner
(Sheikh Said 37: 6th Dynasty).
dl~
19 5 Plan and section of t he t omb of Mereri at Dendara (early F.rst
Interm ediate Penod).
beginning of the 5th Dynasry (see above, pp. 155-6, 176). mastaba. The 30-m (roo-ft) square mastaba comprised a cemetery at Aswan. extensive paintings of offerings in the burial chamber of
A cemetery of considerable size'9° is located at Sheikh thick outer retaining wall, the interior being filled with sand, Away from the Nile Valley, the latter part of the Old Mereruka. The principal Old Kingdom examples are
Said.'9' Most of the chapels comprise a transverse chamber save for walls enclosing the upper parts of the three burial Kingdom saw considerable activity in the Western Desert summarized on pp. 183-5, together with a number of other
and a smaller one beyond. The latter feature is, however, shafts and a serdab in the south eastern corner. oases. Amongst the most impressive surviving monuments tombs that may either belong to the 6th Dynasty or the First
missing from many of the nearby sepulchres at Quseir Dendara's cemeteries contain a range of mastabas from there are the 6th Dynasty governors' tombs at Balat in the Intermediate Period.
el-Amarna'9 2 and Deir el-Gebrawi.'9l Yet more rock-cut the 6th Dynasty and later. 200 Made of brick with rubble D akhla Oasis and their associated necropoleis. 20J The latter At first scholars assumed that decorated burial chambers
I
i
I
I
I tombs of the period are to be found in cemeteries A, D filling, many have panelled eastern fa<;:ades, generally with tombs feature a mud-brick enclosure with a stela at the back, were restricted to certain groups of officials, such as viziers.
I ' I and Eat Meir'94 and other such sites as El-Hamamiya,'95 very wide, but shallow, chapels directly behind them. In pro tected within a brick structure, sometimes of mastaba However, the list of people at Saqqara-South who have such
! '
rock-cut tombs, good examples being found in the Qubbet Saqqara 6th Dyn Raemni Offerings
el-Hawa necropolis at Aswan. Of course simple shafts also
Meir D2 6th Dyn Pepyankh-heryib Offering lists, granaries, house-fa~ades and offerings
continue to appear, particularly in less elaborate sepulchres.
I 82 T H E 0 L D K I N G D 0 M
THE OLD KINGDOM 183
Site Tomb Date Owner Compositions Site Tomb Date Owne r Compositions
5aqqara 6th Dyn Id ut Offering list 5aqqara 6th Dyn Khentika-lkhekhi Burial chamber I & 11: offerings, offering list & text
5aqqara 6th Dyn Maru Bebi Walls: offering list, granaries, funerary equipment & texts 5aqqara 6th Dyn Ankhmahor 5esi Offering list, offerings & funerary equipment
5aqqara L510 6th Dyn Kagemeni Offerings, magazines & offering texts 5aqqara 6th Dyn Mereruka Doorway & thickness: I0 lines of text; walls: offerings, offering lists
& offering texts
I I 5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn Penu Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles; walls: offering
texts, offering list, granaries & offerings 5aqqara 6th Dyn lshethi Tjetji Painted offering list, offerings, granaries & palace fa~ade
5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn 5enti Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles; walls: offering 5aqqara 6th Dyn 5esheshet ldut Offerings, offering lists & chests with feathers on top
texts, offering list & offerings
5aqqara 6th Dyn Niankhba Offerings & funeral equipment painted on walls
5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn Nekhut Doorway: titles painted on lintel
5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn lhy Offering texts, offering list & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn Nebpupepy 5eni Doorway: jambs with titles & thickness with offerings
5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Neferkhu Offering texts & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. MIV 6th Dyn Washiptah Lintel: offering list
5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Mereri E. Wall: 3 registers with offerings, granaries & bound ox; 5. wall :
5aqqara-5. MIV 6th Dyn Heneni Lintel , jamb & walls: offering texts 6 chests; N . wall : remains of offering list
5aqqara- 5. MIX 6th Dyn 5hey Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Nebu Offering text & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. MX 6th Dyn Ptahankhu Walls: offering texts, granaries & offerings 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn larti Offering text & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. MXI 6th Dyn Me hi Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles; walls : offering texts, 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn lti Khnetkaus Doorway: offering text & names & titles on lintel & jambs; walls:
offering list, granaries & offerings offerings, texts & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. MXI 6th Dyn 5hemait Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts; walls: offering texts, 5aqqara- 5. 6th Dyn Pepi Doorway: offering texts on lintel & titles on jambs; walls: offering texts,
offering lists, granaries & offerings offering list, granaries & offerings
5aqqara- 5. MXIII 6th Dyn lmameryre W .Wall: offering text & offerings; niche with palace fa~ade decoration 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Khubawy Walls : offering texts, granaries & offerings
& titles
5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Nemtidjeref Walls: offerings
5aqqara- 5. MXIII 6th Dyn Nihebsed Doorway: lintel with offering texts; walls: offering list, names, offerings
& titles 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Remeni Walls: offerings
5aqqara-5. MXIV 6th Dyn Khabaukhnum Biu Walls: offering list & offerings 5aqqara- 5. MVI 6th Dyn/FIP Nesmerut Nesti Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts; walls: offerings
5aqqara-5. MXV 6th Dyn Teti Walls: offering list & offerings 5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn/FIP 5eni Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles; walls: offering
texts, offering list, granaries & offerings
5aqqara-5. MXVI 6th Dyn A nu Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles
5aqqara-5. MVIII 6th Dyn/FIP 5etibti Bebi Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering text
5aqqara-5. MXVII 6th Dyn 5obkhotep Doorway: remains of text on lintel ; walls: offering texts, offering list
& offerings 5aqqara-5. MXII 6th Dyn/FIP 5ebaku (ii) Doorway: remains of name on jambs & lower part of offering list
5aqqara- 5. NVII 6th Dyn Degem Merypepy Walls: offering texts, offering list, granaries & offerings 5aqqara- 5. MXII 6th Dyn/ FIP Wad jet Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts; walls: texts
5aqqara-5. NVIII 6th Dyn Raherka Lintel: offering text; jamb: titles ; walls: offering text, granaries 5aqqara- 5. MXII 6th Dyn/FIP 5ebaku (i) Doorway: names on jambs; walls: offering lists & granaries
& offerings
5aqqara-5. NXI 6th Dyn/ FIP Neferkarenakhte Offering lists, granaries & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. NIV 6th Dyn Biu (usurped from Doorway: offering text on lintel & titles on jambs; walls: offering texts, Khetuihotep
Akhi) offering list, granaries & offerings
5aqqara-5. 0.11 6th Dyn/FIP Khnemu Walls: fragment of offering list, texts of granaries, names & titles
5aqqara NV 6th Dyn 5henay Fragment of decoration showing offerings
5aqqara-5 . 6th Dyn/FIP lri Doorway: remains of name of deceased ;w alls: offerings, offering texts
5aqqara- 5. NX 6th Dyn Ankhnebef Doorway: offering text; lintel & jamb: titles; walls: offering text, offering and texts of offerings & granaries
list, texts of granaries & names of offerings
5aqqara- 5. FIP Deshri Walls & ceiling blocks with offering texts, granaries, offerings
5aqqara-5. 0.1 6th Dyn Nipepy Ni Doorway: conventional text of building tomb, threat on lintel & jambs; & offering list
walls & niche: offering texts , offering list, granaries & offerings
g
The end of the Old Kingdom was followed by a rapid
collapse of central authority and a corresponding rise in
the importance of the provinces. Towards the end of the
a king. It included a courtyard, a causeway and what seems
to be the remains of a valley building, forming the focus of
a cemetery of some size. » 6
-
199 (above) Plan ofthe Saff ei-Qisaiyia at EI-Tarif, the tomb of lnyotef
11. Rooms making up the chapel of the king himself are at the rear of
the structure, while the chapels of members of the government and
period, two power centres coalesced around the cities of Chapels of the First Intermediate Period have the same household lie on either side of the courtyard (early IIth Dynasty).
Herakleopolis and Thebes; in the subsequent civil wars, decorative repertoire as tombs of the Old Kingdom, with
200 (left) The rock-tombs of Beni H asan (I I th- 12th Dynasties).
the The bans were to be victorious . The ensuing Middle subtle changes. Many elements of Old Kingdom royal
Kingdom saw a number of extremely innovative sepulchres iconography had been taken over by the elite, especially 20 I (below) The tomb of lnyotef I at EI-Tarif (Saff ei-Dawaba), with
constructed, incorporating an ingenuity not again seen in since, in some cases, that elite had set itself up as minor that of his successor on the left, and smaller saff-tombs behind.This
the archaeological record. The Middle Kingdom was royalty. These usurpations became a part of the stock high- area is now almost entirely covered with modern housing.
followed by a gradual decline and then by the occupation status iconography from this period onwards. They include
of the northern part of Egypt by the Palestinian H yksos: the wearing of a false beard (starting at the end of the 6th
funerary monuments of this latter era are uncommon. Dynasty), wearing the shendyt kilt and using portions of
funerary texts. On the other hand, the impoverished state of
FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD the country often led to decoration being restricted to stone
7th to I I th Dynasties stelae, frequently of mediocre quality.
This period saw the beginning of the important series of
Superstructures tombs at Beni Hasan, beginning with simple, single-roomed
In the necropoleis around Memphis, only a few small tombs monuments, but later continuing with much more elaborate
can be dated to the First Intermediate Period; in contrast, structures. » 7 Towards the end of the period there appeared at
sites south of the Fayoum, in Middle and Upper Egypt, Thebes tombs whose offering places are fronted by a wide
contain a considerable number of rock-cut chapels of the but shallow fore-hall, the front of which consists of a series
period. Most are of simple one-room form, some with of pillars, giving the sepulchres their Arabic name, saff,
pillars, for example that ofTefibi at Asyut (tomb 3). On the implying a 'line', or 'many doorways' (type IIIb; see ill. 242).
other hand, the sepulchre of Ankhtifi at Moalla is a far more The largest examples, which belonged to the Inyotefkings
impressive monument.2 ' ' The rocky hill into which the of the early nth Dynasty, were courtyards sunk into the
chapel is cut is separate from the surrounding cliffs and
takes the form of a natural pyramid, and it seems clear that 198 (above) Asiatic traders depicted in the tomb-chape l of
Ankhtifi made this into part of a complex that aped that of Khnumhotep iii at Beni Hasan (BH -1 11: 12th Dynasty) .
186 THE Fl RST I NTE RM ED lATE PE RI 0 D. MIDDLE Kl NG D OM AND SECOND I NTERM EDIA TE PERIOD THE Fl RST I NTERM ED lATE PE RI OD, MIDDLE Kl NG DO M AND SECOND I NTERM ED lATE PER I 0 D 187
202 The only evidence for
the pyramid of King Merykare
of the IOth Dynasty are t he
stelae of some of its priesthood.
many of whom also served the
6th Dynasty cult ofTeti.This
belongs to Gemen1. whose to mb
lay nearTeti's pyramid
(Co penhagen Ny Carlsberg
IEIN 16 16).
priests. It would appear to have lain near the pyramid of destination has been destroyed, along with most of the
Teti, but it has never been positively identified. 21 9 Also interior of the superstructure. A passage descends from the
apparently belonging to the First Intermediate Period is a end of the vestibule, its roof supported by a series of brick
huge square brick monument at Dara. This mysterious arches, until it ends abruptly in a small stone-lined burial 203 The mortuary temple of Me ntu hotep 11at Deir ei-Bahari.
structure is of considerable size, exceeding the base area of chamber. Strangely, the chamber's Boor is at the same angle
all brick pyramids except for that at Abu Rowash. Its exact as the passage, with its ceiling at a slightly shallower angle.
form and precise dating are unclear, but it certainly falls This would suggest a hurried change of plan- presumably king responsible, Mentuhotep II, was nonetheless buried at but with the body wholly shrouded, it was particularly fitted
during the First Intermediate Period. 220 the intended burial chamber would have been further south. Thebes, where his funerary installation was clearly based on to a king both dead and awaiting rejuvenation, the latter also
In the Saqqara necropolis a few tombs dated to the First the models at El-Tarif. However, his tomb was modified to being the prime objective of the heb-sed. Mentuhotep's
Substructures Intermediate Period carried on the Old Kingdom habit of take into account the wholly different topography of Deir statues are often termed (misleadingly) as 'Osirid' figures
As with superstructures, the burial arrangements of tombs of inscribing the burial chamber with offering lists, offerings el-Bahari: a deep bay in the rock, Banked on the north by (seep. q) :22 J true 'Osirid' figures, where the king is
the First Intermediate Period largely follow on from late Old and images of granaries. Examples include the tombs of high cliffs used for the tomb. The royal temple-tomb itself mummiform, are not found until the reign ofMentuhotep
Kingdom practice. One change that may be seen is the Deshri (ill. I97), Iri, the Sebakus, Wadjet and Neferkare- lay on two levels, both fronted by built colonnades of III at Armant. 224
completion of a shift from square to rectangular shafts that nakhte. Many of these tombs seem to span the end of the proto-Doric columns. The upper terrace's central focus was It is difficult to reconstruct the precise schema of
had begun during the Old Kingdom. This was the result of 6th Dynasty and the advent of the First Intermediate Period a large square massif, either a mastaba or pyramid, perhaps decoration ofMentuhotep's temple, as the remains are very
a definitive shift from crouched or flexed burials to fully (cf. pp. r84-5) . representing the mound of creation. 222 This was surrounded fragmentary, but a sense of the scenes can be made from the
extended ones, with consequent changes in the proportions by a pillared hall, behind which was a colonnaded court and fragments that were recovered. The lower colonnade of the
of coffins, the principal items to be lowered down shafts. One MIDDLE KINGDO M then a hypostyle hall, at the back of which was the main temple was decorated with processions of boats and foreign
very interesting monument, however, the 'pyramid' at Dara I I th Dynasty offering place. campaigns, showing the king vanquishing the enemy, the
has unusual substructure arrangements. m It was apparently From the avenue leading to the monument come a royal lion trampling foes, soldiers marching, fighting in siege
entered via a horizontal vaulted passage in the middle of the Superstructures series of statues showing the king standing upright with and battle scenes and foreign prisoners of all ages and both
north side. Beyond this, a vestibule has a stairway running Court Burials: During the second half of the nth Dynasty, the his arms crossed over his chest and wearing the heb-sed genders. Historical texts detailing battles against the Asiatics
upwards to the left and a passage to the right; their Theban kings obtained the rule of the whole of Egypt. The jubilee robe. As later depictions of Osiris take this pose, are found in this area. The upper colonnade had, on the
188 T H E FI RS T INTERM ED IATE PER IO D, MIDD L E KI NGDOM AND SECOND IN TE RMEDIA TE PER IOD T HE FI RST I N TER MED IATE PE RI OD, MIDDLE K I NGD OM AND SECO N D IN TERME DI ATE PERIO D 189
southern side, hunting in the desert. Other scenes from this with a brick-sheathed flat fac,:ade, approached by a steeply While a number of tombs in the Deir el-Bahari
level included images of daily life with herdsmen, boats, the sloping rectangular courtyard (Type Ilia) . Owing to the necropolis were used during the latter part of the nth
papyrus harvest and scenes of marshlands (presumably from poor quality of the rock, the decoration was executed on Dynasty, the funerary arrangements of the last two kings
the northern wall). Closer to the central massif, the sacred a limestone lining. of the dynasty are unclear. It is known that a functioning
focus of this monument, images of the king and the gods Other tombs of the period continued the sajftype, a funerary establishment existed for Mentuhotep Ill, but it
engage in different activities that ensured the continuation variation using free-standing pillars rather than rock-cut has yet to be firmly identified. One possibility, however, is
of the cosmic cycle and the eternal life of the pharaoh. piers being seen in the tomb ofMeketre (TT28o). With that it may have been identical with a well-known sanctuary
Scenes of offering being made, the king being embraced by their long, tunnel-like, rear part, these sepulchres provide built by the king, atop a rock massif known as 'Thoth
various divinities, the success of the heb-sed race, images of the prototype for the classic 'T-shaped' Theban tomb- Hill' .227 This temple had, however, been built on the site
royal ancestors and the king performing the daily ritual for chapel, a form that became particularly common in the of an earlier shrine, which might argue against it being
the gods, all work together to ensure the safety of the king New Kingdom. One interesting variation is found in the a mortuary monument. On the other hand, a ravine on
and the country. tomb ofMeketre, which had a small chamber cut below the north side of the hill has revealed, half way up a 35-m
In addition to the cult for the dead king, Mentuhotep, the main corridor of the chapel and another below the (n5-ft) cliff, a tomb with a large burial chamber and stone
the temple at Deir el-Bahari also contained chapels for six fac,:ade, equivalent to the serdabs of earlier periods. The sarcophagus. Turned into a Coptic shrine in the 4th
of his female family members. These shrines are markedly former contained an exceptional set of tomb models, of century AD, this could have been Mentuhotep Ill's
different in their decoration, being more in keeping with a type more usually placed in the burial chamber. 226 burial place.
private funerary chapels of the period. They show scenes of
daily life with, in addition to the usual scenes of butchery 206 Relief of Queen Ashayet receiving offerings; from her sarcophagus found in her tomb (DBXI. I7) in Mentuhotep ll 's temple (CM JE47267).
and offerings, an emphasis on cows, calves and milking.
These are perhaps an allusion to Hathor, goddess of the
West in general and of the site ofDeir el-Bahari in
particular. The motifs are continued on and in the
· sarcophagi of these women. Another vignette that is typical
of these female chapels and sarcophagi is the consumption
ofliquid offerings. This motif, although seen in a few
mastabas at Saqqara, is rare and not repeated in a royal
context until the Amarna Period. The ubiquitous presence
of lotus flowers underlines the funerary nature of these
representations.
Just outside Mentuhotep Il's temple was the small,
finely decorated rock-cut tomb-chapel of Queen Neferu 11
(TT319) .22 s This had a small fac,:ade and a stone-lined passage
leading back into a square chapel, with decoration that
focused on the usual offering-related scenes, plus others
showing the hairdressing of the queen- a motif also found
in the tombs of the six royal ladies mentioned just above.
The tombs of the principal officers of state lay along the
broad processional way that led from the temple towards the
cultivation. Many were built high up in the northern cliffs,
190 THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD. MIDDLE KINGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD THE FIRST INTERMED IATE PER I OD, MIDDLE KINGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 191
a
208 The foun dations of a temple simi lar to that of Ment uhotep 11
were constructed some way to the south of Deir ei-Bahari ('Wadi S');
its founder remains uncertain.The graded platform below the
c cliffs, with the entrance to the royal tomb (TT281 ), is at the rear.
surrounded by shaft tombs. Grading for the causeway leads into the
distance, flattening the southern end of the Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna hill
207 Plans of three significant The ban tombs of the latter part of the before terminati ng in the vicinity of the Ramesseum (late I Ith/early
I Ith Dynasty.They all feature mud-bri ck fa~ades and bunal-passages 12th Dynasty) .
opening from the rear or the floor of the chapel: a. Dagi (TT I 03:
Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna); b. Khety (TT3 I I: Deir ei-Bahari); c. Meketre
(TT280:Wadi S).The small chambers under the fa~ade and main 209 The superstructure of the tomb of Meketre (TT280) incorporated a chamber containing models - a featu re mo re no rmally fo und in
passage contai ned tomb-models.The southern chapel-complex hallmarks of a royal tomb and thus the temple was long the substructure.They are of extraordinarily high quality; this one depicts the inspection of cattle by Meketre (CMJE46724: late I It h/early
probably belonged to the tomb-owner's son. attributed to Mentuhotep Ill. However, it has now been 12th Dynasty) .
argued that it may have belonged to the founder of the
next, r2th, Dynasty,228 perhaps following initial work by the earlier tombs are fairly simple, with a single room funerary equipment of the period, including the now-
Another candidate is represented by an unfinished the ephemeral Mentuhotep IV. Further work on the divided into two by a double row of pillars. The walls standard placement of wooden models on the lids of the
mortuary temple in a bay in the cliffs behind Sheikh Abd problem is dearly needed. opposite their entrances are devoid of a false-door, which coffins. 22 9
el-Qurna. Nothing of the building itself remains- indeed, had to be located to one side of the doorway in order to At Dendara, in contrast with the mastabas that comprise
no structure ever seems seems to have been erected- The Provinces: The provincial cemeteries that had grown up face west. the vast majority of the necropolis, there is a single tomb-
although extensive grading work for the platform and earlier in the First Intermediate Period continued to The fully fledged tomb-chapels, such as these, lie on a chapel cut in the side of a rising area of desert.'Ja Belonging
approach are still dearly to be seen and will have formed flourish. A particularly important site is Beni Hasan, which terrace along the upper part of the cliff. On the slope to Inyotefiqer ii, it is very similar to Theban tombs at
the basis for a structure much like that at Deir el-Bahari. provides an excellent example of a provincial necropolis of directly below were cur the simple shaft-tombs of the middle El-Tarif, with a sunken courtyard framing a colonnade, in
Moreover, tomb-chapels with steeply sloping courtyard the period. It lies on the east bank of the river and thus classes, occasionally marked on the surface by a stela. Many which were found the stelae of the occupants of the tomb.
approaches overlook the site. Clearly this bears all the reverses the usual orientation of tomb-chapels. The plans of were found intact and provide very good examples of the Beyond this, a passage led through a two-pillared room to a
192 T H E Fl RST I N TE RM ED l ATE PERI 0 D. M I DD LE Kl N G DO M AND SECON D I NTE RM ED I ATE PERIOD THE FIRS T I NTERMEDIATE PERIOD. MIDD LE KINGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PER I OD 193
small chamber. Shafts opened in the floor of the pillared THE 12T H DYNASTY
room, while a sloping passage led down from the innermost
chamber of the chapel. Built Superstructures and Offering Places m= ~~ 2 1 I (/eft) Plan of the pyramid
complex of Senwosret I, showing
Royal Tombs: The kings of the 12th Dynasty resumed the use the large numbe r of small
~
~
Substructures of pyramids. That of Amenemhat I at Lisht employed large pyramids w it hin its enclosure .
The usual mix of simple rock-cut shafts and sloping passages quantities of re-used stone, much of it dearly from 4th
"" / D
~
~
2 12 (right) Plan of the pyramid
are to be found in the royal and private sajftombs of the Dynasty pyramid complexes. It has been suggested that
some of this re-use had a ritual import, linking Amenemhat
complex of Senwosret 11 at D
early nth Dynasty at El-Tar if. Rather more elaborate designs Lahun. While t he superstructures D .
reappear in the cemeteries of the reign ofMentuhotep II at with the great kings of the past. '3' On the other hand, if the of t he vario us tombs lay to the D
~
Deir el-Bahari. pyramid were indeed the replacement for an earlier The ban north of t he pyramid, t he ir D
At the rear of the king's own temple, an approximately monument, time may have been considered as being of the subst ructures were on the D
150 m (500ft) long passageway, lined in part with sandstone, essence and ready-cur stone used for convenience. Little o pposite side of t he pyramid. D
descended to a granite-lined, gable-roofed room, containing survives of Amenemhat's mortuary temple, which was built Br The exce ption was tomb 62 1, D
a calcite shrine in which the king was buried. A similar on two levels, perhaps recalling the temple ofMentuhotep II.
Senwosret I's pyramid complex at Lisht was modelled on
[9 0 almost certainly belonging to t he
small pyramid, but outside t he ~
passageway lay in the northeast corner of the tree-lined pyramid enclosure entire ly
courtyard in front of the temple and gave access to a dummy late Old Kingdom examples and included what may be the
-.. ( 12th Dynasty).
burial that seems to have been linked with the royal jubilee last of all subsidiary pyramids. The enclosure also contained
rituals. nine small pyramids for members of the royal family.' l' The back walls of the temple that were closest to the
A gable-roofed burial chamber was also employed in the Fragments of relief retrieved from the pyramid temple pyramid were adorned with stelae, as well as images of the
tomb of Queen Tern, in the rear courtyard ofher husband's provide a basic idea of mortuary temple decoration at this king, accompanied by his ka, seated at offering tables. Lists
temple. In contrast, the substructure of the tomb of Queen time.'JJ The enclosure wall was decorated with a series of of offerings, and images of priests carrying them, were
Neferu II was concealed behind the south wall of her chapel images of the serekh (niched palace fa~ade), surmounted by inscribed on the walls. The decorative themes used are thus
(p. 190), a sloping passage leading to a stone-lined decorated the king's name, with offering bearers marching below. essentially those of the Old Kingdom. Also as in the later
burial chamber, sealed by a monolithic stone door. T he Engaged Osirid and free-standing statues of the king lined O ld Kingdom, a small chapel lay over the entrance to the
room's walls were covered with offering lists, together with the approach to the temple. The ceilings, as always, were pyramid; its decorative programme resembles that found in
extracts from the Pyramid and Coffin Texts. From the same engraved or painted with five-pointed stars. Processions of the mortuary temple.
reign is the chamber of the shaft-tomb ofKemsit (TT3o8- deities adorned the walls, together with scenes of the king Amenemhat II's almost entirely destroyed pyramid'H
belonging to one of the six shrines in Mentuhotep II's temple: offering to the gods and, in turn, being given life, a strong lay on the very edge of the desert at Dahshur, in contrast
see p. 190) depicting offering bringers and the deceased reign and acceptance by them. with the locations at the site chosen by Seneferu half a
having her hair dressed. Interestingly, these motifs closely millennium earlier. A wholly new site was, however, chosen
match those found on the sarcophagi ofKemsit herself and 2 10 The pyramid of Senwosret I at Lisht (12th Dynasty) . for the pyramid ofSenwosret II, at Lahun in the Fayoum. 2 J5
other royal women buried nearby (cf. ill. 206). As with the T his monument was also radical in its construction, being
earlier case ofKaemankh (pp. 182-3), such 'daily-life' scenes the first pyramid since the end of the 3rd Dynasty to be 2 13 Many of the tombs at Lahun ut ilize the mat e rial-savi ng approach
are exceptional as far as a burial chamber is concerned. built of brick, albeit with a substantial stone content, of using natural rock as part of their supe rstructure, including the
beginning with the natural rock knoll that formed the king's pyramid (south side shown here).
In the tombs of the members of the court, the burial
chamber was approached from the back of the chapel, either lower part of the pyramid core. Brick was keyed into this,
via a vertical shaft or a sloping passageway, hidden behind but the stability of the whole structure depended on radial side of the pyramid, breaking with the 8oo-year tradition of
the false-door. Some of these chambers (e.g. in TT240, 3II, walls oflimestone that split the built core into a series of a northern entrance. In addition, the entrance was further
313 and 314) were stone-lined and decorated with depictions compartments, to be filled with brick. The use of the natural concealed under the floor of what had the appearance of an
of funerary items, false-doors, offering lists and extracts rock was extended to the carving of the mastaba cores for unused tomb intended for a member of the royal family.
from the Coffin Texts; the sarcophagus in such tombs was the royal family out of the living rock, to be later sheathed Other, real, tombs belonging to the royal family lay
often made from separate blocks. An interesting variant is tn masonry. alongside, bur their solid mastaba superstructures were far
th e tomb ofMeru (TT240), whose burial chamber is in the The other major innovation in the layout of the tomb is away, on the opposite side of the pyramid. All these changes
form of a sarcophagus, inscribed with a false-door and that substructure entrances are no longer in the expected can only be explained by a desire to protect the burials from
Coffin Texts. place. The king's burial galleries were entered from the south plunderers.
TH E FIRST I N TE RM ED IATE PERIOD . MIDD LE KINGDOM AND SECO N D I N TER M ED I ATE PERIOD 195
194 T HE FIR ST I N TER M EDIATE PE RIO D . MID D L E KI N G DOM A ND SECO ND IN TER M ED IATE PE RI OD
destruction, it is a pity that the Classical tourists who left
accounts of the 'Labyrinth' of Amenemhat Ill at Hawara
(p. 56) fail to mention anything worthwhile of its decoration.
t
216,217 Anumberofbuilt
enclosure/42 belonged to the lnyotefiqer who also tomb-chape ls of the early
constructed a rock-cut tomb atThebes (TT6o). 2 4l thro ugh a pair of equal-sized niches at either end of the I 2th Dynasty exist at Saqqara.
Most 12th Dynasty mastabas in the Senwosret I cemetery This (above) belongs to Ihi,
Wholly brick pyramids were constructed for both eastern fa<;:ade.
viewed from its colonnaded
Senwosret III zJG and Amenemhat Ill (pi. XV; ill. 225)237 at Lisht were solid, with an adjoining chapel, although one In the ancient cemetery of Saqqara, activity seems to court (cf. the plan ofthe
at Dahshur. Substructure entrance locations are again sepulchre, that ofSehetepibre-ankh, had an internal offering have been concentrated in the area of the pyramid ofTeti. adjoining tomb of Hetep, left),
apparently random. While the plan of the Dahshur complex chamber which also contained the shaft leading to the Two good examples of tombs of the time of Amenemhat I looki ng west to its two statue
of Amenemhat Ill broadly followed standard practice, substructure. 2 44 One very large stone mastaba tomb belongs are those oflhy and Hetep, built against the south wall of chambers and (right) the false
that of Senwosret lli 2 l 8 had a rectangular plan, with its to Senwosret-ankh. 2 45 It covers some 200 sq. m (2150 sq. ft), door Behind the tomb are the
the Old Kingdom mastaba of Kagemeni. 2 46 They comprised
O ld Kingdom monuments of
entrance in the southeast corner. In this and other facets it but the chapel on its east side covers nearly 500 sq. m (5400 a peristyle courtyard, in an inner corner of which a doorway
Mereruka andTjetju.
is clearly modelled on the ancient complex of Djoser (cf. ill. sq. ft). This had been completely destroyed, save a few led into a vestibule with two statue-rooms and a deeper
137), although in its details it is wholly a Middle Kingdom fragments of sculpture and granite relief. The chapel was chamber with the false-door. The entrance to the
confection. 2 19 The layout ultimately included an exceptional almost entirely external, with the exception of a small substructure lay in the centre of the courtyard. The extant
southern temple accessed from the southeast entrance, in extension into the mastaba core. The mastaba had a panelled decoration of these chapels is principally composed of
addition to the usual eastern mortuary temple. Members exterior, after the manner of Old Kingdom examples. The offering bringers and the receipt of offerings adjacent to the
of Senwosret Ill's family owned a series of small pyramids entrance to the substructure lay on the north side, under the false-door. North of the false-door were a series of rooms
within the enclosure, to the north and south of that of enclosure wall. Another tomb here that was almost entirely holding statues of the deceased.
the king. constructed and only partially rock-cut takes the shape of a Such 'temple-tombs' mark a new kind of funerary
A second pyramid of Amenemhat Ill, built after his tripartite shrine with a forecourt. The decorational mo nument, which is also found at Lisht, for example the
Dahshur pyramid had suffered structural failure, also had programme of the courtyard contains the majority of tombs of Senwosret and Mentuhotep. These comprise a is the large mastaba of the Vizier Sieset (L.LV), built of
an unusual enclosure design (ill. 226), probably once again 'daily-life' scenes found in earlier tombs; unfortunately it is large enclosure, often incorporating a causeway, with a free- brick with a limestone casing. Although elements of the
inspired by the Step Pyramid. 2 4° Known to Classical writers impossible to interpret the decoration in the shrine portion standing offering place, and in some cases priests' houses as decoration of the chapel survive, nothing is known of the
as the 'Labyrinth', a large area to the south of the pyramid of the tomb due to its poor state of preservation. well. A halfway house between such tombs and more chapel itself, which may have been built into the core of the
seems to have contained the principal elements of the The rubble-filled mastabas at Lisht (and later at conventional mastabas is provided by the Lisht tomb of mastaba. 2 47
mortuary temple. Dahshur) differ from their Old Kingdom predecessors in Djehuty, where the mastaba has a four-pillared fa<;:ade, The cemeteries adjacent to the Lahun pyramid
The devastated state of all these royal monuments makes being surrounded by an enclosure wall, with the leading to a symmetrical chapel with a transverse hall comprised mainly mastabas, often making considerable use
it difficult to say much about their decoration, but the substructure approached via a passageway from the north, and sanctuary. of the native rock. Chapels were thus often rock-cut; that of
surviving fragments suggest that most followed the basic rather than via a vertical shaft through the body of the The private cemetery of Amenemhat ll is largely the Chancellor lnpy (tomb 620) comprised a stone-cased
approach seen at Senwosret l's complex. In view of its total superstructures. In some cases, earlier tombs are recalled unrecorded, but 8oo m (26oo ft) south of the king's pyramid brick mastaba, about 21 x r6 m (70 x 50ft), with a largely
196 T HE FI RS T I NTERMEDIATE PERIOD. MIDDLE K I NGDOM AND SECOND IN TERMED IATE PERIOD THE FIRS T I NTERMED IATE PER IOD. MIDDLE KIN GDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 197
rock-cut triple-shrined chapel below on the east side, which son, Inyotefiqer, 2 ' 2 the owner of a mastaba at Lisht (see design from those of the previous dynasty: a two-columned a
incorporated a four-pillared portico and a curious pit in p. 196). TT6o comprises a long corridor and a simple portico and four-pillared main hall, with a sanctuary at
front of the tomb to hinder unauthorized access. 2 4 8 chapel. The apparent lack oflarge tombs at Thebes may be the very back being features of the tombs of Ameny and
f.-
The exterior surface of a number oflimestone mastabas explained in part by the move of the court to the north, Khnumhotep iii (BH-II and Ill). The sanctuary
-
dating to the reign of Senwosret Ill at Dahshur are carved although the vagaries of preservation may also be to blame incorporated a rock-cut statue of the tomb-owner.
with recessed panelling, recalling the mastabas of the Early -including the possible usurpation of a number of nth Deir el-Bersha was also an important provincial
Dynastic Period and the enclosure wall ofDjoser, albeit Dynasty sepulchres during the early r8th Dynasty. A number cemetery during the First Intermediate Period and early
D
with the faces given a distinct batter, with monumental of tomb-chapels of this date have features that suggest that Middle Kingdom. As at Beni Hasan, a simple doorway
hieroglyphic texts often running along the top of the they may be adaptations of Middle Kingdom monuments. giving access to a rectangular chamber is replaced by a
mastaba, as well as vertically around and between areas In the north, the majority of tomb-chapels were built columned portico and more elaborate interior. Elaboration
of panelling. Examples include the monuments of structures, although there are rock-cut examples and some is also a feature of rzth Dynasty tombs at Qubbet el-Hawa
Khnumhotep, Sieset and Nebyot, with the panelling clearly built structures with rock-cut elements, for example the (Aswan), those ofSirenput i (QH36) and ii (QH3r: pi.
linked to the various aspects of archaism to be seen in aforementioned tomb oflnpy at Lahun. However, as XVII) having pillared fore-halls and then a long passage
Senwosret Ill's funerary complex.2 49 previously, most rock-cut sepulchres lay in Middle and leading to a columned offering place. Tomb 31 is particularly
The area north of the Hawara pyramid of Amenemhat Upper Egypt, due to the terrain, with Beni Hasan remaining interesting in that its passage has a series of niches, each
III contained many mastabas, reused in Graeco-Roman one of the key sites. The rzth Dynasty tombs there differ in holding a rock-cut mummiform figure.
times for sacred crocodile interments. These mastabas
comprised very thick brick retaining walls enclosing 218 Painting in TI60 (Senetllnyotef1qer), one of the few surviving 21 9 (right) Tomb-chapels at Beni Hasan, showing the appearance
limestone chip from the cutting of the substructure, the decorated I2th Dynasty tombs at Thebes. and growth of the forecou rt a. Khety i (BH-XVI I: I lth Dynasty) ; b.
Kh numhotep i (BH-XIV:Amenemhat I); c.Ameny (BH -1 1: Senwosret 1).
whole cased with fine limestone. Recorded sizes of the
mastabas vary from 6 to r8 m (20 to 6o ft) long, while only a 220 (below) Reconstruction of the tomb of Khnumhotep (tomb 2) at
few scraps of decorated limestone survive from their chapels. Dahsh uc showing the elaborate panelled design, reminiscent of Early c
In provincial cemeteries such as Abydos, wide varieties of Dynastic practice, but using different patterns (12th Dynasty, re1gn of
sizes and shapes of brick chapels are to be found, but the Senwosret Ill).
general approach at the site is sloping-sided plastered brick
structures- in some cases pyramids- housing a vaulted
chapel containing the offering stela. The Abydene examples
could have been actual tomb-chapels, or may have acted as
cenotaphs to permit the deceased to take part posthumously
in the festivals of Osiris. 2 1°
While the The ban necropolis was generally characterized
by rock-cut chapels, Cemetery zoo at Deir el-Bahari has a
number of tombs with largely built superstructures. 2 ' '
Dating towards the end of the rzth Dynasty, one of them,
that of one Senwosret-ankh (tomb MMAzn) comprised a
brick structure with a forehall supported by painted wooden
columns. Another, of a certain Amenemhat (MMAzoz), had
a similar structure with a series oflimestone shrines set into
I! the walls, containing statues of the deceased and his wife, as
I well as reliefs of him and his family.
198 THE Fl RST IN T ERMEDIATE PER IOD. M I DDLE Kl NGDOM A N D SECON D I N TERM EDIATE PER I OD T HE FI RST I NTERMED I ATE PERIOD. M I DDLE KI N GDOM AND SECOND I NTERMED I ATE PER IOD 199
The most dramatic 12th Dynasty private tombs are those variations and new details appear within scenes. A variant of
of the nomarchs of Qau el-Kebir, where a core rock-cut the hunt scene shows the activity as being carried out in an
element was supplemented by brick structures and walled enclosure, a detail that carries into the 18th Dynasty hunt
causeways leading down towards the edge of the desert. scenes (e.g. TTwo). Some of the animals shown in these
They are amongst the latest of the great provincial tombs of scenes (e.g. Beni Hasan BH-III, XV, XVII; Bersha 4, 5) are
the Middle Kingdom, as a series of governmental reforms also quite exotic, while others are mythical: a rhinoceros-
carried out by Senwosret Ill concentrated far more power- type animal, a griffin, a serpopard (a leopard or panther with
and hence high-status individuals- at the national capital. a serpent's neck) and the Set animal. Other unusual
This resulted in a major reduction in the number of large creatures that rarely feature in two-dimensional formal art
private tombs built away from the royal necropoleis after his also appear in these tombs: a herd of pigs emerging from a
reign, although this was certainly a gradual process, with papyrus thicket (BH-XVII), bats and several different bird
some prominent provincial burials taking place under species (BH-XV) , monkeys, ichneumon (BH-XV) and a
Amenemhat Ill. mixture of a dog and a bird. The hunt scenes at Meir and
Although the themes represented in the decoration of Thebes also contain exotic animals, such as deer and a
these tombs are the same as those of previous dynasties, giraffe (B2; TT6o). Innovative details within the fowl-
catching scenes include bird traps of different varieties
221 Amongst the tombs of t he later 12th Dynasty at Qau ei-Kebir (BH-XV, XVII) that are still in use today.
are the gigantic monuments of three of the local governors, In addition to the usual crafts, new scenes are added to
incorporating causeways and chapels of almost royal dimensions. 222 (above) The end wall of the tomb-chapel of Khety at Beni Hasan,
the decorative repertoire: arrow- and knife-making,
This view looks up t he causeway of the tomb ofW ahka i (7) . with a set of scen es of wrestling (top) and warfare (bottom) . Su ch
spinning, weaving and laundering. New details appear in
depictions are only found in a handfu l of tombs at th is site (BH-XVII:
cooking scenes, such as roasting a whole ox (e.g. in Meir
lat e I I th Dynasty).
B4) . A group of tombs at Beni Hasan also show several
registers of wrestlers on the back wall, with smaller vignettes 223 (left) A curious series of vignettes found on a pilaster in BH -XVII
of a fortress being stormed (BH-II, XIV, XV and part of show a man stand ing on his head, another one being carried by his
XXIX) . Wrestling men are also shown in the tombs at Meir comrades, cupping(?), and hockey playing.These are all unique to this
t omb (I I th Dynasty) .
(BI , B2) and El-Bersha (tomb 4).
Depictions of foreigners, other than nomads, are
also found in the tombs at Beni Hasan. Enigmatic the design of false-doors as the dynasty progresses, with
representations of families carrying their worldly possessions some acquiring a pair of eyes on the lower lintel. The eyes
coming from the Near East (BH-III), as well as what are have a dual function: they are a vehicle that permits the
presumably prisoners from Libya (BH-XIV), are found here. deceased to look out, and they serve an apotropaic function,
Perhaps this relates to actual emigrations and battles that by protecting the deceased and his body.
occurred during the tomb-owners' lifetimes.
Several intriguing scenes grace the pilasters ofBH-XVII Substructures
at Beni Hasan. These depict medical endeavours, including The earliest pyramids of the 12th Dynasty broadly followed
cupping, removing thorns and carrying people, as well as Old Kingdom practice in having entrances on the north
games like hockey and one of the rare depictions showing side. In Amen em hat I's tomb, the corridor led down to a
human sexual intercourse. The object friezes known from chamber under the centre of the pyramid, from which a
coffins of the Middle Kingdom are also transposed into shaft led downward; unfortunately a rise in the level of the
tombs in registers that are separate from the conventional local groundwater has prevented further exploration. For
offering scenes (e.g. tomb BI at Meir). similar reasons it has been impossible to penetrate even this
Engaged statuary continues to be a feature of tombs of far in Senwosret I's pyramid; however, Amenemhat II's
the Middle Kingdom. In Siren put ii's tomb we have seen the monument at Dahshur lies well clear of the water table,
passageway leading to the shrine lined with rock-cut Osirid revealing a single chamber under the pyramid's centre. Apart
statues of the deceased. Increasing elaboration is also seen in from an elaborate roof, designed to reduce crushing forces
200 THE Fl RST I NTERM ED lATE PE RI 0 D. MIDDLE Kl N G DO M AND SECOND I NTE RM ED lATE PERIOD
THE Fl RST I NTE RM ED lATE PE RI OD, MIDDLE Kl N G DO M AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PER I 0 D 201
from above, the main innovation was that the sarcophagus descended from the outer courtyards of their chapels, A noble of Amenemhat II's reign also had a Pyramid
had been hidden under the floor, with the canopic chest leading to a slightly descending passage, which after some Text-decorated burial chamber: the Vizier Sieset, who had
some distance away, under the floor of a passage directly 20 m (70ft) terminated in a burial chamber. Just before the a large mastaba at Dahshur (L.LV). 259 The substructure was
below the doorway of the burial chamber. These were clearly burial chamber, a second shaft penetrated from above, a entered from a shaft on the north side, leading to a brick-
intended to enhance the security of the tomb and remnant from a pre-existing tomb. The corridors were lined vaul ted sloping passage and a limestone burial chamber,
foreshadowed major changes in subsequent reigns. with limestone, with the paving derived from reused blocks with two annexes, one for the canopic containers.
The tombs of the royal family at Lisht also display odd of Old Kingdom date. The burial chambers were also The tombs of the women of Amenemhat II's family lay
arrangements of substructures. Tomb 493, perhaps that of limestone-lined, with painted decoration comprising texts, to the west of the main pyramid, where the main enclosure
Amenemhat I's wife, was entered by a shaft, which gave supplemented by images of a house fa<;:ade, offerings and the wall annexed an area of some size. 260 The three tombs there
access to a sloping passage, its end lost under the ground 'object frieze' that is regularly found in sarcophagi and are of a type apparently new. Each is a built structure of
water; however, half way along, a passage runs to the right, coffins of this period. This frieze is composed of objects that masonry sunk in a pit, covered by a brick relieving arch. A
ending in a chamber. At the junction of the two passages, were used in daily life and that might be needed in the passage runs the entire length of the tomb, off which open
another shaft ascends to emerge directly under the tomb's hereafter; these objects are additionally charged with two niches, each containing a sarcophagus, its lid just below
chapel. This may have been a 'construction shaft' intended religious power and significance, such as bags of natron that the level of the floor of the passage. From the west side of
for heavy items and covered over in favour of a smaller were used in mummification as well as personal hygiene, or each sarcophagus-cut, three low openings give access to an King's burial
definitive entrance.2 sJ Another interesting arrangement is oils that have sacred significance as well as practical use. Its offering/canopic chamber, below the paving of the passage chamber
seen in tomb 378, whose entrance is in the roof of the origins might lie as far back as the 3rd Dynasty (cf. S2405) . above. At the time of the burial, the niche was filled with
mastaba, but rather than a perpendicular shaft we find one A decorated sarcophagus was sunk in the floor, with a stone slabs, locked in place by a vertical key-stone. With
sloping at about 40 degrees from vertical, which plummets canopic niche to the south east. their passages filled with plug blocks, the tombs effectively
down for some 25 m (8o ft) before hitting the water table. In the complex ofSenwosret I, the pyramids of the king's became solid masses of stone; doubtless this explains the fact
To the north of the king's pyramid is the 'Mastaba du womenfolk display a variety of innovative substructure that two of the tombs remained intact.
Nord'. 2 54 The two elements of its substructure were designs. 2 56 In pyramid 3, there was both an entrance shaft The tombs ofSenwosret II and his family at Lahun also 225 (above) The fi rst pyramid-complex of Amenemhat Ill, the 'Black
constructed in fairly shallow cuttings in the bedrock. That and a 'construction' shaft for the introduction of building include major innovations. Not least of them was, as we Pyramid' at Dahshur (12t h Dynasty) .
below the mastaba itself is interesting in that the burial material. From the former, a corridor ran towards the have already seen, the divorce, in whole or part, of their
chamber was of the same width as the approach corridor sepulchral room, two sets of sliding stone doors being 226 (below) The second pyramid-complex of Amenemhat Ill, at
substructures from their time-hallowed relationship with the
Hawara.
and also had a floor sloping at the same angle as that of the incorporated to block access. superstructures. The entrance to the king's tomb was for the
passage. The latter may have been to aid the placement of A security imperative is also to be seen in high-status first time on the south side of the pyramid, where a shaft led
the sarcophagus in the limited space available. private tombs. At the mastaba ofSenwosret-ankh at Lisht, a dozen metres (40 ft) below the surface, joining a spacious
At Saqqara, the tombs oflhy and Hetep have extensive the substructure was approached from the north, but the passageway that led via a limestone antechamber to the very
substructures. 2 55 In both cases, a main entrance shaft actual entrance lay under an enclosure wall. 2 57 A sloping fi ne granite-lined burial chamber under the pyramid. The
passage then led down to a horizontal gallery and then to entrances to most of the tombs of the royal family lay
224 Plan of the 'Mastaba du Nord' at Lisht.The substructu re below the burial chamber (ill. 215). However, not only was the adjacent to that of the king, the sepulchres themselves being
the mastaba itself had its app roach comdor enti rely fi lled with blocks horizontal passage equipped with four vertical portcullises, of simple form. An entrance shaft led to an antechamber, its
of stone (early 12th Dynasty). but directly before them a unique 'chimney' had been floor sunk to a lower level, at the end of which was the burial
constructed, leading up into the superstructure. This had chamber. Virtually all of the area of this was occupied by the
been filled with sand, so that any intruders would find a sarcophagus, a niche in the right-hand wall containing the
. I
constant stream of sand from above hindering any attempt canopic equipment, a further opening at the far end of the
''
at forcing the first portcullis and blocking any retreat. same wall giving access to the offering chamber.
I However, robbers had never faced the problem, as they had The pyramid of Senwosret Ill at Dahshur26 ' has a
Quartzite trap-doors
I tunnelled into the burial chamber directly from the south substructure reminiscent of the 5th/6th Dynasties. 262
end of the tomb, bypassing the entrance passage entirely! H owever, the tombs of his womenfolk were mainly placed
The chamber contained a sunken sarcophagus and canopic in a catacomb of unique design at the north end of the
chest and is decorated with Pyramid Texts. 2 58 Indeed the enclosure. A long east-west gallery linked the substructures
n n substructure is reminiscent oflate Old Kingdom royal of four small pyramids, which also joined them with a lower
tombs and may be a conscious imitation of them. level in which seven sarcophagi and canopic chests were Burial chamber
Blind passage
202 THE FI RST I N TE RMED I ATE PER I OD. MI DD LE KI N G DOM A N D SECOND I N TERM ED I AT E PERI O D THE FI RST INT ERMED IATE PERIOD. M I D D L E K I NGDOM AN D SECOND INT ER MEDI ATE PER I OD 203
placed in niches in a single room. The rooms under the four More unusual forms are found under the pyramids of roof block, lowered after the burial by a 'hydraulic' device against the supercumbent weight of the rubble in the shaft.
pyramids included so-called 'ka-chambers', seemingly an Amenemhat Ill at Dahshur and Hawara. The former had an using sand: by breaking seals, sand flowed out of shafts, thus Beyond this lay an apparent burial chamber, complete with
equivalent to a king's subsidiary pyramid. elaborate arrangement of passages and chambers, including causing props to descend and place the roofing block atop a canopic niche. However, this was a dummy, a room under
South of the king's pyramid were three more small 'ka-chambers' under the southern edge of the pyramid. the chamber. This system was also used in a number of 13th the floor giving access to the real sepulchral chamber,
pyramids, one of which (number IX), belonging to Queen Some of these ka-chambers belonged to royal wives who, Dynasty pyramids and would be revived a thousand years directly below the gable-roofed room. The ingenuity
Weret II, had its entrance some distance to the northeast of like Weret, lay below the king's pyramid. However, their later for some private tombs of the 26th Dynasty. displayed in the royal tombs was thus now being employed
its superstructure, the shaft joining a north-south passage interments were accessible both from their own entrance The substructures of the mastabas of the officials that in private burials as well.
half way along its 6o-m (zoo-ft) length. To the north, it gave on the opposite side of the pyramid and from the king's accompanied the pyramids of the kings of the late rzth Under Senwosret Ill, the tomb entrance was generally
access to an antechamber, a canopic room and a burial apartments. This arrangement seems to be unique. Dynasty vary considerably in form. That of Inpy at Lahun well beyond the perimeter of the mastaba and usually took
chamber, which all lay under the body of the king's pyramid, Amenemhat's second pyramid introduced sliding trap-doors (620) was entered via a steep corridor from just beyond the the form of a shaft. 26 l A variety of designs exist at Dahshur,
some 50 m (165ft) away from the queen's own monument. in roofs to conceal the route to the burial chamber and also north end of the mastaba leading to a Bat-roofed chamber, tombs 17 (Sobkemhat) and 20 having a simple passage
Under the latter, the southern part of the passage led to the the concept of having a burial chamber carved from a single built at the bottom of a construction shaft; a gable-roofed leading to a gable-roofed chamber. However, in both cases,
'ka-chamber'. block of quartzite. The entrance was by means of a raised relieving cavity lay directly above the room, to protect the sarcophagus and canopic chest lay deeply buried below
the chamber floor. On the other hand, the sepulchre of the
Vizier Khnumhotep (z) differed entirely. Here, the shaft led
to a vestibule, a right-hand turn giving access to a further
vestibule. The sarcophagus lay in a stone-lined, gable-
roofed, niche beyond, while the canopic chest was at the end
Antechamber of a passage that ran parallel with the niche, from the end of
Outer roof-slab, lowered a corridor at the east end of the vestibule.
by 'sand-hydraulics'
Little is known of private tombs around Amenemhat
Ill's pyramid at Dahshur, but a series of simple shaft-tombs
228, 229 The 13th Dynasty Unfi nished Pyramid at Saqqara-South 230 (below) Private substructures of the I2th Dynasty: (left) section
has the most elaborate substructure of any known pyramid (above) . Its of the tomb of lnpy, including dummy chambers above the real bu rial
can opic chest was carved as one with the sarcophagus and chamber; plans of tombs 2 (Khnumhotep: centre) and 19 (unknown:
Sarcophagus of Neferuptah, surrounding burial chamber from a si ngle block of qu artzite (below). right) in the Senwosret Il l cemetery at Dahshur In tomb 2, the
Passage and
trench blocked formed of slabs inserted sarcophagus and canopic chest lay in separate deep niches, accessed
after burial between the king's sarcophagus from a vestibule. In tomb 19, these two items lay close together; but I
and east wall of chamber
deep ly buried under the floor of the burial chamber
11
11
Canopic chest
of Neferuptah
(smashed)
Sarcophagus of
Amenemhat Il l l il
if"~-- Canopic chest I
of Amenemhat Ill
204 TH E Fl RST I NTERM EO lATE PE RI 0 0, MIDDLE K l N G D 0 M AND SECOND I NTERM EO lATE PER I 0 D THE FIRS T I NT ERMEDIATE PERIOD, MIDDLE KINGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 205
and beer below them, beyond which his sons knelt with yet 23 I All that survives of the
DECORATED SUBSTRUCTURES OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM
more offerings of food and drink. His wife and daughters pyramid of Aya is its pyramidion,
Site Tomb Date Owner Scene also offer food on the south wall, the nutrition-related apparently carried off to the
northeast Delta by Hyksos
Thebes TT319 IIth Dyn Neferu Offering lists, Coffin Texts, Pyramid Texts and funeral outfit theme being completed by a procession of offering bearers
looters (CM JE43267:
on the east wall. The ceiling was adorned with a 'woven' 13th Dynasty).
EI-Qatta Middle Kingdom Ne ha Texts
pattern of red and blue crosses.
Saqqara Middle Kingdom Haishetef Offering list Other less regular examples of decoration include the
double tomb ofHeryshefnakhte and Ukhhotep atAbu Sir
Saqqara SQ75 Middle Kingdom Ipi Painted decoration, offering texts and probably Coffin Texts
el-Meleq/el-Haraga,' 67 with ritual scenes in addition to the
Saqqara Shaft 276 Middle Kingdom Tja Painted decoration more standard texts, and the tomb-chamber in Ukhhotep's
Saqqara Middle Kingdom Sihathor-lpi Pyramid Texts; Coffin Texts tom b at Meir (A3), whose wooden door is inscribed with the
names and tides of the deceased.
Abu Sir Before 12th Heryshefnakhte & Ritual scenes; offerings and religious texts
ei-Meleq Dyn Ukh( et)hotep As can be seen, although the few decorated substructures
from this period show a preference for funerary inscriptions
Saqqara 12th Dyn Hetep Funerary and offering text
such as extracts from the Pyramid and Coffin Texts and
Saqqara 12th Dyn lhy Painted decoration; texts and friezes of objects offering lists, other images are also found.
206 THE Fl RST I NTE RM EDIATE PER I 0 D. MIDDLE Kl NG DO M AND SECOND I NTERM EO lATE PER I 0 D THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD, MIDDLE KI NGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 207
Teti, comprised a small brick structure, with a painted
decoration including the deceased receiving offerings. ' 7'
Chapter 9 The New Kingdom: the Early Years
The kings of the period were interred in the same
location, equipped with brick pyramids. '?' The only
excavated example, that oflnyotefVI,'7J was less than
10 m (30 ft) square, faced with white plaster and built on the
slope of the hill, its sides rising at an angle of around 65/68
degrees; it had a decorated cap-stone, while a pair of obelisks
stood in front. The capstone bore the king's names, titles and
pedigree, as did that of the adjacent pyramid oflnyotefV 2 74
Nothing is yet definitely known of the substructure of
InyotefVI's pyramid, none of the adjacent shafts being
demonstrably part of it. The burial chambers of both Inyotef
V and VI both were discovered by plunderers during the
early 19th century, the latter being reported as being
approached by a brick-lined shaft and corridor and lying at
DraAbu'l-Naga 'halfway up the hill' .2 75 However, neither
has yet been rediscovered and precisely localized. W th the reunification of Egypt following the expulsion shaft leading down to the burial chamber. 2 78 No
of the Hyksos, the principal cemetery of Egypt settled at contemporary decoration has survived, but K93.n was
232 Aerial view of the remains of the pyramid of lnyoteNI at Ora
Abu'I- Naga.The shaft in the middle is from an earliec over-built, tomb. Western Thebes for much of the 18th Dynasty. Here, a extended during the zoth Dynasty by the High Priest of
major revision of royal funerary provision was implemented, Amun, Ramessenakhte, apparently converting it into a
233 Fragments of the capstone while an extensive series of private rock-cut tombs were shrine. The surviving texts clearly link this pious task with
of the pyramid of lnyoteNI 's built, a number of which are classic examples of the the cult of Amenhotep 1. 2 79 If this attribution is correct,
predecessoc lnyoteN, have been Egyptian mortuary chapel. the adjoining K93 .10 could be a chapel of Ahmose I,
found close to the pyramid of Amenhotep I's mother, Ahmes-Nefertiry, or his wife,
the former This one is now in
TH E 18TH DYNASTY: FROM AHMOSE I TO Meryetamun. Two potential free-standing mortuary chapels
the British Museum, London
(BM EA478: 17th Dynasty). AMENHOTEP Ill of Amenhotep I have also been identified. One lies in front
of Ora Abu'l-Naga, below K93.n,' 80 the other at Deir
Superstructures el-Bahari. The latter stood for only 40 years before being
Royal Tombs: At the very beginning of the new dynasty, demolished when the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut was
Ahmose I built a very unusual mortuary complex at Abydos, extended to cover its site.
comprising a pyramid, a cenotaph for his grandmother, two T he uncertainties surrounding the funerary monuments
temples and a pyramid- plus a substructure- spread out of Ahmose I and Amenhotep I obscure who exactly was
along an 1.25-km (%-mile) axis across the desert. 27 6 One responsible for one of the most momentous developments in
temple was a terraced structure against the cliff, the other royal burial practice - the separation of the offering place
built in front of the pyramid, the last example known to from the burial chamber. However, the presence of kingly
have been built in Egypt for a king. It remains unclear tombs in the Valley of the Kings from the time ofThutmose
whether the complex was the king's actual tomb or a I onwards clearly shows that the change had taken place by
cenotaph. 2 77 that king's death.
During the early years of the 18th Dynasty, the old 17th The separation of the royal mummy from its offerings
Dynasty necropolis at Ora Abu'l-Naga continued to host and the solar link provided by the pyramid can only have
most known interments, apparently including several been due to some major imperative, presumably that of
members of the royal family. One of a pair of rock-cut
chapels has been proposed as that of Amenhotep I (K93 .n). 234 (above) The Mayor Sennefer and his wife receiving offerings in a
It comprises a short passage with a four-pillared hall, with a boat in their burial chamber (TI96A: mid-18th Dynasty).
208 THE Fl RST I NTE RM EDIATE PERIOD. M I DDLE Kl NGDO M AND 5 ECO N D I NTE RM ED lATE PERIOD T H E NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS 209
235 (above) The pyramid of Ah mose I at Abydos (early 18th 236 (below) Plan of the Abydene fu nerary compl ex of Ahmose I; 'T'
Dynasty) . indicat es t he cenotaph-pyramid ofTetisherit
I
lOOm 400m
T
237 Hatshepsut's mo rtuary temple at De ir e i-Bahari is t he best preserved of the earlie r 18th Dynasty structures. Its design was almost certain ly
influenced by that of t he adjacent I Ith Dynasty monument of Mentuhotep 11 , seen at left (an d ilL203).
security. The significance of the pyramid may still have Millions ofYears'. In contrast to earlier royal funerary Osirid figures of the queen. Beyond the colonnades was the The arrangement of the decoration moves from the
weighed heavily, however, if the oft-remarked resemblance sanctuaries, the focus widens from the king himself to the peristyle court, at the back of which lay the main sanctuary profane to the sacred, with the lower terraces showing
of the peak ofEl-Qurn to a pyramid, looming above the gods in general. The New Kingdom royal mortuary temples of the temple, dedicated to the local version of Amun- military and naval motifs, as are often found on the exterior
Valley of the Kings, was indeed a factor in the ancient choice thus celebrate not only the royal cult, bur also the The ban 'Amun ofDjeser-djeseru'; Djeser-djeseru was the name of of cult temples, or perhaps inspired by the adjacent temple
of this wadi. triad: the god Am un, his wife M ut and their son, Khonsu, Hatshepsur's temple. ofMentuhotep 11. The southern colonnade shows the
While no mortuary temple is known for Thurmose I, as well as other divinities' 8' and royal ancestors. The Deir el-Bahari temple and subsequent structures transport of a pair of obelisks from the granite quarries at
chapels for his prematurely deceased son, Wadjmose, and The first great temples of the dynasty are characterized of the same kind, had four specific cult-foci. The central Aswan to the great temple ofKarnak. Its badly mutilated
his successor, Thurmose 11, lie at the southern end of the by their construction on sloping sites that resulted in a one was dedicated to Amun - or rather a special form of northern counterpart had reliefs ofHatshepsut fowling and
necropolis, near Medinet Habu. Both were of simple design, terraced design . The best-preserved and most striking is that the The ban god, unique to the specific locale. The kings' fishing- just as one would find in a private mortuary chapel
later modestly extended. ofHatshepsut, built oflimestone at Deir el-Bahari. 282 The specific divine essence was now relegated to a secondary - as well as offering to her fellow gods.
The reigns ofThutmose Ill, Amenhotep 11 and complex began in the plain, near the edge of the cultivation, position, their own cult chambers lying away to the left of The middle terrace has exquisitely carved and detailed
Thutmose IV saw the creation of the first large-scale free- in a valley building with two levels and a colonnade of the principal god's, although linked to it as the king was images of the famous voyage to Punt that Hatshepsut
standing royal offering places. It is now being increasingly square pillars. A causeway, lined with sphinxes, led for over fused with Amun after death; a solar court containing an commissioned to bring back incense, incense trees and
realized that the meaning of the New Kingdom mortuary 1 km (Y, mile) up to the main temple. altar, situated to the north of the Amun sanctuary is found other goods from Mrica. North of the ramp is the Birth
temple was much more complex than that of its Old A decorated colonnade, the second also having in all Theban mortuary temples and links the solar element Colonnade, with scenes concerning the impregnation of
Kingdom predecessors. Indeed, it has been suggested that subsidiary chapels of the deities Hathor and Anubis, fronted of the more ancient royal burials with the more recent ones; Hatshepsut's mother by Amun-Re while incarnated in her
the difference was so great that a different term is required each terrace. The ramp that led up from the second court the final element was the veneration of the ruler's father, a earthly father, Thutmose I. This idea of the supernatural
for the New Kingdom monuments, perhaps 'memorial gave access to the inner part of the temple, fronted once chapel ofThutmose I lying directly adjacent to paternity of the pharaoh is an ancient concept in Egyptian
temple' , or the contemporary Egyptian term, 'Mansion of more by a pair of colonnades, the pillars embellished with Hatshepsur's. kingship, but explicit depictions have only survived in a few
210 THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY YEARS THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY YEARS 211
~
L_
-
Middle ~nd Inter: New Kingdom Middle ~nd Inter: New Kingdom This al lowed a multi-level offering place, with a niche for a statue at
Kingdom Period I8th Dynasty 19th Dynasty 20th Dynasty Kingdom Period 18th Dynasty 19th Dynasty 20th Dynasty
the top, a small false-door stela below it (see ill. 246) and the main
lla
VIa
~
llb
Vlb
Jb
the tomb oflneni (TTSr), which seems to have been
Ilia
converted from a sajftomb with a pillared fac,:ade into
Vlla
a 'T-shaped tomb' with a flat fac,:ade by filling the gaps
lllb
IVb
Jll7 VIle rfl1
d~
shallow, hall, with a doorway at the rear leading to the
offering place. Variations on this theme include the piercing
of the rock wall between the fac,:ade and the transverse
~
Va
Similarly, the approach to the offering place may be enlarged
and equipped with pillars, or extra rooms.
~
Examples of the simple form are common, but the tomb
Vb
.~'
ofRekhmire, Vizier ofThutmose Ill (TTroo), provides an
~
interesting variation. 28 > In this case, the corridor that leads
Vc fro m the rear of the transverse hall has a ceiling that rises
steadily to place the bottom of the statue-niche some 6 m
~
Vd
(20 ft) above floor level. That of Senenmut (TT7r) has a set
24 2 Time-spans of the various forms ofTheban tomb-chapels,
of pillars across its transverse hall, dividing it into aisles, each
classified according to the scheme of Friederike Kampp-Seyfried.
Ve
216 THE NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS THE NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS 217
r
251 (/eft) The end-wall of the much smaller chapel of Kha (TIB).
This lay within the core of a brick pyramid at Deir ei-Medina largest number come from the reigns ofThutmose Ill and on tomb walls (e.g. TT254), perhaps related to Book of the
(m id- 18th Dynasty). Amenhotep 11, perhaps reflecting those two kings' public Dead spell 132, which permits the deceased to see his house
fondness for the sport. During the reign ofThutmose Ill, on earth. 2 9' The house is inscribed with an offering formula,
the tomb-owner was also shown hunting hippopotami which has been found in actual houses. 2 92
At the opposite extreme of elaboration are the tombs (TT39, TT53, TT8r, TT82, TT85, TTr23 , TTr25 , TTr55, Although tomb walls of the New Kingdom continue to
in the workmen's community at Deir el-Medina, where TTr64, TT342), a scene that became obsolete shortly depict images of the funeral, changes occur within the cycle.
single-room chapels began to be surmounted by small thereafter. Those dating to the first half of the r8th Dynasty show an
pyramids. One of the most important of this period is During this time fresh details enliven the venerable assortment of traditional representations of the burial,
TT8, built for the head of the community during the scenes of the agricultural cycle. Gleaners can be found in the including rituals that were probably archaic by the r8th
middle of the dynasty. 28 9 This form of superstructure wake of harvesters (TT69), as can girls squabbling over the Dynasty. After the reign ofThutmose IV obsolete rituals
remained current at Deir el-Medina down to the end of fruits of the gleaning. Pulling thorns from feet, sleeping were omitted and a single sequential representation of the
the Ramesside Period. under trees, measuring the fields for taxation (TT69) and actual funeral employed. Such scenes form the basis for a
The r8th Dynasty saw a variety of decorative motifs the presence of a 'corn-doll' to ensure a fruitful harvest series of Book of the Dead vignettes. 2 93 Images of the
employed in private tomb-chapels, with certain themes (TT38, TT 52, TT 57) are other new features. 2 9° Offering tomb-chapel itself, capped by a pyramid, seem to have
distinctive of a particular group of reigns. For example, scenes continue to be shown, but there are fewer rows of become more popular after the reign of Amenhotep Ill,
desert hunting scenes are to be found in tombs dating offering bearers depicted; offerings being brought to the perhaps due to the increased focus on solar worship.
from the reign ofThutmose I (TT2r) until the time of deceased now include fish (e.g. TT 52, TT69 and TTr92). Foreigners begin to appear far more commonly
Amenhotep 11 (or perhaps Thutmose IV- TT276). The Images of the tomb-owner before his house are also found in Egyptian tombs of the mid-r8th Dynasty, probably
218 THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY YEARS THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY Y EARS 219
royal mortuary temples along the way. Images of deceased flanks the doorway that leads from the transverse hall to the
and divine kings were also carried as part of the procession rest of the tomb. The king is shown seated on a throne in a
and the whole event was a rime of renaissance for the kiosk, to whom the tomb-owner brings offerings and pays
cemeteries of the west bank ofThebes. After the tour Amun his respects. In certain instances, most commonly from late
returned by boat to the east bank. This festival, more than in the reign of Amenhorep Ill through the Amarna period
any other, was an occasion for the rejuvenation of the (see below) until the reign of Ay, the king is shown
cemeteries and a time for the meeting of the living and the rewarding the deceased. Less frequently the king is shown
dead. People would visit tombs and make offerings to their in relation to the gods, thereby ensuring the upholding and
ancestors, as well as the king and the gods and generally continuation of maat. Images of the ruling king in
commemorate and celebrate the beyond. This might be conjunction with former rulers are almost always a part of
likened to the Mexican Day of the Dead celebrations. the Festival of the Valley. A few less-regular royal
Tomb scenes show elements of the festival, such as the representations include the king hunting (TT72, TTr43);
procession, visiting tombs, revering the ancestors, the king, worshipping divinities (TTr92); being suckled by his wet
ere. Images of the king are also frequently shown in tombs of nurse (e.g. TT85, TT92, TT350); on the lap of his tutor or
this period, starting in the reign ofHatshepsur. For the most nurse (TT63 , TT64, TT78, TT85, TT93, TTw9, TT226);
part, these show the relationship between the deceased and and being suckled by divinities (TT 57) . Aside from such
the pharaoh, rhus underlining the tomb-owner's position in images were those of certain ancient kings who were
society. Most commonly, a large-scale image of the king especially revered as patrons of the The ban necropolis.
254 Vizier Rekhmire had many responsibilities, including the overseeing of King Thutmose Ill 's sculpture, and the execution of these duties is thus
shown in Rekhmire's tomb.What is particularly delightful is that some of the st atues survive to t hi s day (TT I 00).
253 W hile tomb-owners were always shown formally, minor characters could be seen in a variety of poses.This rare image in the t omb of
Rekhmire (TT I 00) depicts a servant girl from t he rear
reflecting Egypt's increasing contacts abroad. Most drink and fertility remains inherent in these scenes.
foreigners appear in tombs of viziers who had to deal with Dancers and musicians continue to feature as part of the
them. In addition to Nubians, other Africans, Libyans, entertainment. An interesting light is thrown on changing
Syro-Palestinians and many Aegeans feature in Theban attitudes by the fact that many of the dancers and serving-
tombs, appearing in some 40 chapels dating to the New girls in r8th Dynasty tombs are shown effectively nude.
Kingdom, as well as the much laterTT36, dating to the However, when one such tomb (TT 52) was usurped in
reign ofPsametik I. The earliest tomb to feature these people Ramesside times the dancers were provided with clothes.
was that ofSenenmut (TT7r). Clearly, interaction with the An innovative scene found primarily in Theban tombs
denizens of the Mediterranean Sea had increased of the r8th Dynasty shows the celebration of the '(Beautiful)
dramatically by this time. 2 94 Festival of the Valley'. The festival itself, according to textual
Banquet scenes are particularly prominent during the evidence, was probably celebrated from the Middle
earlier r8th Dynasty, becoming increasingly elaborate and Kingdom onwards, although it only seems to be prominent
extensive. The details show people turning around and in r8th Dynasty tomb art. The festival occurred on an
interacting with one another (starting in the reign of annual basis in the second month of the season of Shemu
Amenhotep II), drinking and even vomiting. Figures of (nominally Summer) and was related to Amun, as well as
lesser importance may be shown in unusual poses: in the Harhor as the goddess ofDeir el-Bahari and associated with
tomb ofRekhmire (TTwo) a young serving girl is shown in the west. The image of Amun ofKarnak crossed the Nile
a three-quarters view from the back. The imagery of food, and processed through the west bank, stopping at all the
220 THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY YEARS THE NEW K I NGDOM THE EARLY YEARS 221
individuals had become common. Interestingly, User's burial son-of-Hapu, who enjoyed a very high-status at Amenhotep Substructures
chamber, in TT6r, also had royal affiliations, in being Ill's court and was later deified. He may have also owned a Roya/Tombs:2 97 In the expanse of desert between his pyramid
decorated with the Book of Amduat (seep. 130). rock-cut chapel at Qurnet Murai (TTFK396), due west of and temple at Abydos, Ahmose I constructed a subterranean
The reign of Amenhotep Ill also saw a major upsurge in the free-standing example, although its identification is tomb of unusual form. Mostly cut only a few metres below
the usage of the ancient necropolis of Saqqara for high-status highly tentative. His exceptional status is signalled by his the surface, a pit entrance gives access to a twisting
burials, perhaps as the result of the establishment of a possession of a stone sarcophagus - a very rare item for a passageway that eventually opens into a great hall, its roof
separate northern Vizierate in the latter part of the dynasty. private person of the New Kingdom, although anthropoid formerly supported by r8 columns. Below the hall,
Few tombs dating to the earlier part of the r8th Dynasty are coffins in the material are not uncommon. 2 96 a further passage, seemingly unfinished, leads deeper into
known, but whether this reflects a lack of burials there, or is the matrix.
an accident of discovery remains uncertain. Nevertheless,
the fact remains that from this point onwards a number of a
high-status burials are known at Saqqara.
Amongst the most important is that of the Vizier
Aperel (I.z), datable to the early years of Amenhotep IV
and comprising a four-pillared hall with three niches at the
255 Part of the cross-hall of the tomb of Menena (TT69: back; the entrance to the substructure lay in the left-rear b
18th Dynasty, reign ofTh utmose IV). corner of the chapel. 295 The tomb lies on the escarpment
that fronts the northern part of the Saqqara necropolis,
Most prominent was Amenhotep I, who apparently appears just south of the southern end of the Early Dynastic Period
for the first time under Amenhotep III (TTr6r) and is then cemetery, southeast of the pyramid ofTeti. It is now
a frequent feature ofRamesside tombs, as was his mother becoming clear that the whole hillside here resembled the
Ahmes-Nefertiry, his fellow patron ofDeir el-Medina's cliffs at Thebes, with tier upon tier of rock-cut tombs, some
workmen. with built external elements. However, re-use as a cat-
Although stelae appeared outside tomb-chapels or above cemetery (the Bubasteion) in Late/Roman times and the
shaft tombs throughout Egyptian history, a variation on the accumulation of thousands of tons of debris have long
theme occurs in the New Kingdom. Carved and/or painted hidden this fact.
inscriptions that mimic stelae appear on the end walls of Although the vast majority of private mortuary chapels 257 Plans of the pnnci pal royal
the transverse cor6dor in The ban 'T' -shaped tombs. The tombs of the I 8th Dynasty: a.
at Thebes were rock-cut, at least one individual had a free-
Thutmose I (KV20), extended
lunette of some of these show the tomb-owner praying to a standing structure, closely following the design of that of a
by Hatshepsut; b.Thutmose Ill
divinity or divinities, or an image of a solar disk- more contemporary cult-temple. This belonged to Amenhotep- (KV34); c.Amenhotep Ill
common from the reign of Amenhotep Ill -which indicates (WV22); d.Akhenaten (TA26);
the worship of a solar divinity. Sometimes Opening-of-the- 256 The New Kingd om cl iff-cemetery at Saqqara. e . Horemheb (KV57).
d
Mouth rituals are also depicted in the lunette. The
decoration on the opposite wall often shows a false-door as a
counterpoint to this motif, which balances the composition
of the schema of decoration.
I Certain individuals living in the r8th Dynasty (generally
I~
only dating from the reign ofHatshepsut/Thutmose III to
Amenhotep II) each have two tombs cut into the The ban
hills. It has been hypothesized that they are indicative of an
elevation in status (seep. 26). TTr3r, the second tomb of
User (his first being TT6r), may be the first private tomb at
Thebes to have been surmounted by a pyramid, a feature e ~
Jillf Jlnmmmmm 1111111111111111111
r---'I.......J----'~~1!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1-------IIIIWJIWiu
111111111111111
that until a few years previously had been the attribute of
royalty. By the end of the dynasty, its use by private
222 T HE NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS T H E NEW KI NGDOM: THE EAR LY YEARS 223
This pattern was followed by the earliest certain New Amenhotep Ill was drawn with a pen and ink on a plain
Kingdom royal tomb atThebes, KV2o, in a wadi now buff ground, using stick figures and cursive hieroglyphs.
known as the Valley of the Kings. U ltimately, it was In KV34's case, the background was painted the colour of •
completed for H atshepsut, but it is also possible that all papyrus, with the apparent intention of giving the
but the deepest chamber had been excavated by her father impression of a giant ancient scroll unrolled around the •
Thutmose I. Five successive galleries descend at a steep curving walls.
angle into the mountainside, turning gradually to the south, After Thutmose Ill's reign, the pillars of the burial
evidently in a search for better rock. This remained poor, chamber and the outer rooms of the tomb received full-seal
however, and when a final chamber was added by images of divinities and the pharaoh, in polychrome after
Hatshepsut, it had to be lined with blocks oflimestone to the reign ofThutmose IV. T he pharaoh praises the gods an<
provide a surface that could be decorated. in return, the gods welcome him an d offer him eternal life J Plan of the probable tomb of Queen Ahmes-Nefertiry (and
This 'long-and-deep' plan was abandoned by subsequent within the context of solar resurrection. This all links into naps later also Ahmose I) at DraAbu'I -Naga (early 18th Dynasty).
rulers in favour of a pair of stairways, joined by a fairly a conception of the royal tomb as a gateway to the
short corridor, giving access to an antechamber and finally underworld. The architecture of the tomb leading to the :r his enemies and passed through a series of challenges,
a pillared burial hall. In the first three such tombs, KV34, burial chamber thus emulated the topography of the s united with Osiris and could be reborn together with
38 and 42, the burial chamber h ad the oval shape of the Duat, 9 and different portions of the perilous journey,
2 8 :sun god the next day. T his royal resurrection in a divine
cartouche, the frame used for the principal royal names and entailing passage through a series of gates after routing foes re was crucial to the stability of the nation and the cosmos 26 1 Plan of KV39, possibly completed as a communal tomb for the
and passing tests, that had to be made before finally arrivin~ was an expression of the triumph of maat over chaos. family of Amenhotep 11.
symbolic of eternity. KV34 had been built by Thutmose Ill
and it appears that KV38 had also been built by him for a at the court of Osiris. 2 99 This paralleled the journey of the tus the royal tombs of the New Kingdom were carved and
reburial ofThutmose I. KV42 was later appropriated for the sun god Re, who traversed the underworld during the 12 n ted with a series of funerary texts that would facilitate Private Tombs: During the first half of the r8th Dynasty,
planned interment ofThutmose Ill's wife, Meryetre, but hours of the night, vanquishing his enemies, to be densure a successful voyage. substructures were generally approached via a shaft,
seems to have been intended originally for Thutmose Il - triumphantly reborn the following day. T he basic plan of these kingly sepulchres had previously normally in the forecourt of the chapel, but sometimes
although whether built by h im or by his son is unclear. The tomb and its decoration thus had an implicit, :n used in the reign of Amenhotep I for the burial places within the chapel itself. It should be noted that in addition
The burial chambers ofKV20 and KV34 both preserved though not always geographical, east-west axis mimicking two queens, Meryetamun (TT358 at Deir el-Bahari and to the principal burial place, other complexes might be dug
the first decoration to be seen in a royal burial chamber since the path of the sun, with the idea that the burial chamber mes-Nefertiry at O ra Abu'l-Naga), both including a contemporaneously, or later, in and around the tomb, to
the end of the Old Kingdom . In KV2o it had been drawn on was located in the most western part, the part associated :ll' at the end of the approach passage. T his feature house the bodies of other members of the family.J The 0 '
a limestone lining of the burial chamber, in KV34 upon the with death. Thus the king, having successfully triumphed :ame permanently incorporated into kings' tombs forms of the burial chambers vary considerably, but are
m T hutmose III onwards and is generally believed to generally fairly simple, the main additional feature being :and
plastered rock walls of the burial and antechambers. The
principal material used for this decoration was taken from le served both the practical purpose of protecting the niches to contain the protective magic bricks. T hese were
259 On the left,Thutmose Ill is shown in his burial chamber with inscribed with a protective spell from the Book of the Dead
the Book of Amduat (seep. 130) and down to the reign of nb from storm-water and providing the dead king with
his wife, Meryetre: on the right, he is depicted being suckled by a
easy access to the underworld, also perhaps signifying the (Chapter 151) and equipped with an amulet, to ward off ;h was
sycamore tree, labelled as being lsis - probably with the double-
meaning of the goddess and the king's earthly mother of the same nb of the death-god Sokar. Like most other non-kingly danger coming from each of the cardinal points. A handful ;d and
name. nbs, those of the royal family were undecorated. of tombs have decorated burial chambers (see below). bearers,
258 Sectional view of the tomb offhutmose Ill (KV34: 18th Dynasty).
,.....--~::-----:::;:::::::-------:---:-~--1 Burial arrangements for members of the royal family W hile most substructures lie within the immediate prand
~ .f .£ ( ."-'
greatly during the r8th Dynasty.J00 Early queens, such as vicinity of the main tomb-chapel, in some cases they lay up >k of the
,1:>\i r:·
mes-Nefertiry and Meryetamun, had independent tombs to 1 km ())' mile) or so away. At least fo ur high officials had 1ble
'I . ' ome size. H atshepsut, as Regent, had a similar tomb in modest burial chambers in the Valley of the Kings (KV36, The
·.. Wadi Sikkat Taqa el-Zeide. However, during the second 45, 46 and 48), with other unattributed tombs likely to have lb
t of the dynasty royal family tombs seem to be restricted belonged to such individuals as Thutmose Ill's vizier, red
odest shafts in the Valley of the Queens and interments Rekhmire, whose chapel (TTroo) has no tomb-shafts. The .·ves
ide-chambers of kings' tombs. A possible exception is designs of these tombs are generally simple, with either a •yal
39, an elaborate tomb that seems to have been intended shallow shaft or a stairway and descending passage. A single nits
a multiple occupancy, perhaps by members of the family room is the most common arrangement, but the tomb of
enhotep II, to judge by its foundation deposits. Yuya and Tjuiu (KV46) had a second staircase before the
chamber and KV21 a column and store-room added to the
l
This pattern was followed by the earliest certain New Amenho tep Ill was drawn with a pen and ink on a plain
I
I
~
Kingdom royal tomb atThebe s, KV2o, in a wadi now buff ground, using stick figures and cursive hieroglyp hs. I
known as the Valley of the Kings. Ultimate ly, it was In KV34's case, the backgrou nd was painted the colour of
papyrus, with the apparent intention of giving the • I
TT96, TT2or, and TT383: see summary on next page), In contrast, an almost entirely figurative approach was
262 The substructure of t he t omb of Senenmut (TI353). Unlike most
although the poor recording of the subterranean portions adopted by Sennefer in TT96 (pi. VIII): the deceased and
private tombs of t he period, th is lay a consi derable distance from its
of such monuments clearly distorts the picture. In the his wife before tables of different offerings, offering bearers,
chapel. Whi le t he latter (TI7 1) was high on the Sheikh Abd e i-Qu rna
hi ll, the burial passages lay at Deir ei-Bahari, close to Hatshepsut's case of the Vizier User (TT6r), the adornment of his burial different funerary divinities, including Osiris, Hathor and
temple. apartments uniquely borrows from contemporary royal Anubis, the funeral procession, selections of the Book of the
practice in employing the Amduat, otherwise exclusively a Dead and the Abydos pilgrimage. The most remarkable
royal prerogative until the 21st Dynasty.l0 ' Amenemhat feature of this tomb is the ceiling, which is painted. The
(TT82), in contrast, covered the walls of his burial chamber naturally poor rock made it very difficult for the tomb
with extracts from the Book of the Dead and the ancient builders to smooth out the rock; instead they plastered
Pyramid Texts, along with images of the deceased receiving it over and painted it to resemble the undulating curves
offerings from his children.l06 The Book of the Dead also of a grape arbour. A winged vulture, rare in a non-royal
provided the basis for the decoration of the burial chamber context, spreads protective wings over the tomb from its
of Minnakhte (TT87), which may also have been present in lofty perch.
T T383 (Merymose), although only fragments of columns of A thus-far unique burial chamber belongs to Re
text remain there. (TT2or) .J 0 7 It is painted in yellow paint on a black
226 THE NEW KING D 0 M: THE EARLY YE A R S THE NEW KING D 0 M THE EARLY YE A R S 227
background, apparently intended to imitate the schema of In the main body of the Theban tombs, shaft-approaches
decoration of r8th Dynasty 'black' coffins.l08 The painted steadily decrease in number as the dynasty progresses, with a
Chapter I0 The New Kingdom:
decoration gives the burial chamber its orientation, with the corresponding increase in the occurrence of sloping passages, the Amarna Years
image oflsis on the south (the feet) and Nephthys on the until the latter is the dominant design by the beginning of ......................................... ... ..... ............ ........... ................ .......... .......... ........ ................................................................. ... ...... ..... ..... .... ................................................................. . .................................................................. ....... .. ........ ......................
..... ... .................. .............. . ..._
north (the head). In addition, the walls of the burial the Arnarna Period. Elaborate substructures survive from the
; 11
chamber ofTT39 (Puiemre) were faced with thin sandstone reign of Arnenhotep Ill; a good example is that of Ramose
slabs that were smeared with a plaster wash, as if in (TT 55) which, as is fairly standard at the time, begins with a
preparation for painting that was never executed. ramp in the far left-hand corner of the first hall of the chapel.
At Deir el-Medina, the substructure of the tomb ofKha Descending steeply, stairs flank a central ramp that describes
(TT8- died reign of Arnenhotep Ill) lies in the rock face a 135 degree turn before turning left into a four-pillared hall,
opposite his pyramid and is approached by a steep stairway, presumably the burial chamber, equipped with a series of
at the bottom of which a horizontal corridor leads to the subsidiary rooms. However, designs vary considerably
burial chamber. T he corridor was used to store some between tombs, TTr92 having four long passages that led
funerary equipment, while the burial chamber was secured ultimately to a chamber that lay just behind and below the
by a wooden door with a mechanical lock. innermost niche of the chapel.
18th Dyn Puiemre No decoration, but faced with thin sandstone slabs that were smeared life. The king effectively abolished the majority of Superstructures
Thebes TT39
(Thutmose Ill) with a plaster wash traditional public cults in favour of a single sun god, the No trace of any royal mortuary temple has come to light at
Book of Amduat
Aten. He also moved the royal residence to Arnarna, a virgin Arnarna. It is not unlikely that Akhenaten's close link with his
Thebes TT61 18th Dyn User
(Thutmose Ill) site in Middle Egypt. The brand-new city, calledAkhet- god meant that his worship fused with that of the A ten,
Aten, was constructed in a great bay in the cliffs, at the obviating the need for any separate mortuary temple. On the
Thebes TT82 18th Dyn Amenemhet BoD; Pyramid Texts; deceased kneeling with ointment and taper below
(Thutmose Ill) a niche. Son (sem-priest) and other children offer to deceased and back of which a large wadi led out towards the high desert other hand, private tomb-chapels were constructed in the
wife. Deceased and mother. Bull and sacred cows and the royal necropolis- a new Valley of the Kings (Map cliffs to the north and south of the Royal Wadi (Wadi Abu
Thebes TT87 18th Dyn Minnakht BoD 3) .3°9 This was flanked by hills into which were carved the Hisah el-Bahari). The southern group appear to have been
(Thutmose Ill) tomb-chapels of the royal officials. founded three or four years later than the northern and,
Thebes TT96 18th Dyn Sennefer Priests with offerings, deceased, deceased with daughter, men with
(Amenhotep 11) funeral equipment, priest libating, deceased with wife,Anubis-jackals, 265 (above) Image of Ay and Tey
offering texts, deceased going to 'see the sun-disk' with wife, Os iris- receiving gifts from the king.
Wennefer with Western Hathor, dancers, ceremonies, shrines, son
from the scene in ill. 268 (CMTR
libating and censing, deceased and wife being purified by sem-priest,
BoD, mummy on a couch with Anubis and ba, deceased and wife before I011 112611 ) .
lsis and Osiris
266 (right) The southern section
Thebes TT201 18th Dyn Re Scheme imitates that of a sarcophagus of the Nort hern Tombs at
(Thutmose IV/
Amarna, comprising tombs TA3
Amenhotep Ill)
(Ah mose), 3A~3F (unknown),
Thebes TT353 18th Dyn Senenmut Texts, sketch of deceased, BoD, deceased with Horus, purification, 4 (Meryre i), 5 (PentJu) , 6
(Hatshepsut) Fields of laru, false-door, deceased with parents, deceased with (Panehsy) and 6A~6 D
offerings,Anubis, mummified god, bull with seven cows, and gods of
(unknown).TombsTA I (Huya)
sacred oars. Ceiling: astronomical
and 2 (Meryre ii) lie JUSt beyond
Thebes TT383 18th Dyn Merymose Uncertain: traces of inscriptions and titles the wadi at the top of the
(Ame nhotep Ill) photograph (cf Map 3).
228 THE NEW KIN GDO M: T H E EARLY Y EA RS THE N EW Kl N G DOM : THE AMAR NA YEARS 229
rather than lying high up the cliff face, are much lower down round-pillared, fore-halls and sometimes a pillared inner
and are consequently submerged by sand. The construction hall as well. The innermost part of Amarna chapels generally
of the new capital clearly required large amounts oflabour, as included a rock-cut statue of the deceased- although the
did the foundation of tombs for many of the worthies, and a unfinished state of many of the tombs obscures the true
shortage oflabour was clearly one reason why all the Amarna extent of this fashion. The locations of substructure
tombs are unfinished to some degree. entrances vary, some following The ban fashion in being in
Interestingly, only one of the men to be buried at the left-hand end of the forehall, while in others it is at the
Amarna certainly gave up a Theban tomb in favour of one opposite end. Some are stairways, while others, especially in
at the new city. This was Parennefer, whose TT188 is one of the Type IVa tombs, are shafts.
the few there to contain clear examples of Amarna art.J'0 Tomb decoration in Amarna Period tombs is markedly
On relocating to Amarna he founded TA7 .l'' different from that of any other era of Egyptian history. Due
Some Amarna tomb-chapels were built along Theban to the change in the nature of the religious ritual of the time,
lines, albeit with entirely novel decorative schemes. Such the schema of decoration of these tombs has a great deal in
tombs ranged from large sepulchres of type VIII (e.g. Ay's common with contemporary temples. Both depict the king
TA25 and May's TA14) to a number of examples of type IVa and his family in various poses, whether praying to the Aten,
or going about their daily life in the palace, the temple, or 268 (above) The largest figures
- something that had essentially gone our of use at Thebes
in an Amarna tomb tend t o be
in Thutmose Ill's day - with a very wide hall. However, around the city, surrounded by adoring courtiers and
t he royal couple. He re they are
the basic Theban 'T' -shaped tomb is rare, while there was dignitaries. Scenes of the city of Akhetaten occur frequently shown at t he window-of-
also a considerable number of tombs of a basic pattern not in these tombs. The tomb-owner features rarely in these appearances rewarding t he
generally found at Thebes. This featured square, tombs, except in specific situations: being rewarded by the tomb owne r and greeting t he
king and on the jambs at the tomb entrance. In the populace in t he tomb of Ay
(TA25).
267 View of t he interior of t he fi rst hall of t he tomb of Meryre ii at Memphite tombs of this time the owner is more commonly
Amarna (TA2). featured than in the contemporary tombs at Akhetaten
269 (/eft) The most promine nt
itself place for the tomb owner in an
The fa<;:ade ofTT188 well illustrates the differences Amarna t o mb was o n the
between the decoration of Amarna Period tombs and others doorJambs of the tomb's entry.
of the New Kingdom and, for that matter, most other This co uple , Ay and Tey, later
King and Queen, are shown
periods as well. Leaving aside the style itself, with its
raising their arms in praise to
distortions of bodily proportions, the most striking feature the sun wit h t he text of a hymn
is the complete dominance of the king and queen and the carved above them (TA25).
almost complete absence of the tomb-owner. While the
monarch is depicted in many New Kingdom tombs, it is in
a limited, defined context. In TT192, the royal family are
prominent in the surviving decoration, but this may be a
function of the tomb-owner's intimate relationship with
them as the queen's Steward.
This situation is clearly rooted in the Aten rheology,
which placed the royal family in the position of sole
intermediaries between humanity and the god. Thus,
coupled with the new cult's abandonment of the traditional
funerary values manifested in earliers tombs th rough scenes
of 'daily life', the Amarna tombs show the royal family's
journey from palace to the central city; the royal family
dining; the royal family visiting the temple; the royal family
worshipping; and the royal family receiving gifts.
XX (above) Upper part of the south wal l of the crypt of the burial chamber ofSety I in the Valley of the Kings, showing a winged figure of the
goddess Isis and texts from the Book of Amduat Also visible is part of the vaulted astronomical ceiling that covers the crypt, in wh ich lay the
mummy of the king (KV 17: 19th Dynasty) .
XXI (opposite) The burial chamber of Pashedu x at Deir ei-Medina. Figures of Anub1s guard the entrance, while texts from the Book ofthe Dead
adorn the walls and ceil ing. On the end wall is an image of the Western Mountain, in front of which Osiris sits enthroned;the area below this
tableau was former ly occupied by a stone sarcophagus, destroyed during the 19th century (TI3: 19th Dynasty).
XXII (right) North wall of the burial
chamber of RamessesVI in the Valley of the
Kings, with Part A of the Book of the Earth
(KV9: 20th Dynasty).
27 1 A maJor concentration of New Kingdom burials at Saqqara was adjacent to Teti's pyramid .These included that of lpuia (52730), whose hal l is
seen here; the blocks from the tomb are now in the Cairo Museum UE44755,JE44924,TR21 /6/24/ 16,T R27/3/25/ 17: late 18th Dynasty).
XXIV The no rt h wall of the original bu rial chambe r ofTawosret in the Valley of the Kings showing the final scene from the Book of Caverns, with
the sun god eme rging at t he t o p as a scarab and as a chi ld (KV 14_: 19th Dynasty) .
In its final form, the temple was fronted by three pylons, a
a massive gateway giving access to the great court. A palace
was constructed between the third pylon and the gateway, a
feature that became standard in Ramesside temples. Behind
the court was a broad hypostyle hall, two columns deep and
ten wide, giving access to further, smaller, pillared courts
and the three-fold cult complexes beyond. The temple was
razed to the ground in antiquity, but recovered fragments
show a return to conventional decorative themes. b
• • • • • • ••
•
• of other sepulchres are known from other parts of the
country during the post-Amarna Period. A significant
example is that of the Overseer of Nurses, Sennedjem,
exaggerated style. Scene types that were common prior to
the Amarna Period are reinstated and images of the king
decrease dramatically.
involved the erection of huge temple-tombs for key officials
on sites apparently made available by the demolition of a e 275 In the post-Amarna period
number of Old Kingdom (and earlier) mastabas. some scenes that had appeared
The shafts of the latter formed the basis for a number previously, such as funerary
rituals, regained popularity.
of New Kingdom substructures, while their masonry was
However, new variations, such as
also re-used, along with blocks from nearby pyramids.
the smashing of the pots, were
At least one other cemetery of such tombs lay in the rntroduced into the mourning
Memphite necropolis, in the area between Saqqara-South sequence (Saqqara, tomb of
and Dahshur, where was found the tomb of the Royal Horemheb: 18th Dynasty, reign
Butler, Ipay.l'8 ••••• ofTutankhamun).
Of the same mud-brick construction as the smaller D :
tombs, that of the general, later pharaoh, HoremhebJ'9 •••••
underwent a gradual evolution, beginning as three chapels
opening from the rear of a peristyle court, with a plain .
272 Temple-tombs' of the late 18th/early 19th Dynasties:
forecourt. T he latter was then converted into a vestibule, a.Amenhotep-son-of-Hapu (Thebes: reign of Amenhotep Ill);
flanked by statue rooms and a new forecourt added , which b. Maya (Saqqara LS27: Horemheb); c.Tjia andTia (Saqqara:
still later had colonnades added around it and a large pylon Ramesses 11); d. Neferrenpet (Saqqara STO: Ramesses 11); e.Tasihuy
in front of it. (Saqqara STS: Ramesses 11); f. Paser (Saqqara: Ramesses 11).
276 Although Horemheb's Saqqara tomb was left for the burial of his female relations, the previous ly carved images of Horem heb had the royal
uroei added to the new king's brow to emph asize his now-royalty (RMO H. III.CCCC) .
244 THE N EW KI NGDOM T HE AMARNA YEARS T HE NEW KINGDOM: T H E A M ARNA YEARS 245
constraints, further funerary texts taken from the Amduat, In Horemheb's tomb (KV57), the now-traditional
the Litany of Re and the Book of the Dead, together with Amduat texts were supplanted by the Book of Gates (p. 130) .
Chapter 11 The New Kingdom: the Ramesside Years
unidentified texts written in cryptographic hieroglyphs, This tomb is also noteworthy as it contains the first example
were placed on the shrines that were placed around of a burial chamber carved in raised relief. The decoration
Turankhamun's sarcophagusY' was not complete at the time of the king's death, thus
The sepulchre also includes a scene that was hitherto allowing us to study the technology that was used in its
only found in superstructures: his heir (Ay) officiating as the fabrication.
sem or funerary priest at the funeral. Since conducting these
rites conferred legitimacy to the heir, their presence here Private Tombs: Shaft approaches are standard in the 'temple-
may reBect Ay's desire to present himself to the gods as tombs' at Saqqara. Substructure layouts are to some degree
Tutankhamun's true heir. Thus, political expediency rather inBuenced by their re-use of the shafts from over-built Old
than any religious intent may provide the reason for Kingdom tombs and are often of very considerable depth.
including this scene that is unique in such a context. The principal shaft ofHoremheb's tomb ultimately descends
Ay's tomb is also unusual decoratively as, in addition to to a four-pillared chamber, a final, much smaller, burial
further large-format selections from the Amduat and scenes room being approached via a shaft at its far endYJ
of the king in the presence of the gods, he chose to include a The substructure of the tomb of his contemporary,
double-scene showing himself, with his wife, spearing the Treasurer Maya (LS27), is interesting (and unique for
hippopotami on a canoe and fowling from a canoe. These its location and period) in that its principal chambers were F ollowing the end of the r8th Dynasty, the country's centre opposite end of the necropolis from those of his late-r8th
latter scenes are normally specific to the decoration of the lined with limestone blocks, to allow the addition of relief- of gravity gradually moved northwards, with the Memphite Dynasty predecessors, The building was incomplete at its
private tomb-chapel or royal mortuary templeJ'' and are decoration, impossible in the poor native rock of this part necropolis increasingly supplementing the The ban as the founder's death and was ultimately finished by his son,
unique in the context of (royal or private) burial chamber of Saqqara. The scheme employed showed the deceased cemetery of the elite. Civil disorder and economic decline led Ramesses II. The decoration applied by the latter, in sunk
decoration at any time. Are these a vestige of Atenist usage and his wife, Meryet, worshipping various deities. The to a gradual fall-off in the construction of monumental relief, is far inferior to Sety's own work, in raised-relief of the
or due to some ambivalence on Ay's part as to his background was painted a golden yellow, both the schema tombs as the period progressed. very highest quality. The temple was fronted by two courts
posthumous destiny? of decoration and the colours used being reminiscent of and pylons, now almost totally destroyed, but much of the
royal burial chambers.J24 These rooms were approached 19 TH AND 20TH DYNAS TIES main temple remains intact. The ten-columned portico gives
via a shaft in the inner courtyard of the chapel, leading access to the usual three parallel sets of rooms.
279 (below) The burial chamber of King Ay is unusual in his inclusion Su perstructures
to a series of chambers, from which a further shaft led to The temple ofRamesses II, known today as the
of the fis hi ng and fowl1ng scene that is normal ly only found 1n private
tomb-chapels and some royal mortuary temples- never in a the lowest level, where a decorated room led to a passageway, Royal MortuaryTemples:l' 7 Ramesses I appears to have been Ramesseum, is considerably larger and more elaborate. Its
substructure (WV23: late 18th Dynasty) . giving access to the final pair of stone-lined burial unable to complete a mortuary temple for himself and great enclosure contains, besides the temple itself, a chapel
chambers.J25 provision for his cult seems to have been restricted to the possibly dedicated to his mother, Tuy and wife, Nefertiry,
Moving to more provincial cemeteries, the tomb 'paternal' section of the temple of his son. Sety I's mortuary and a large number of brick-vaulted store-houses- some
of Sennedjem near So hag (p. 235) has two sets of temple was built in front ofDraAbu'l-Naga, at Qurna, at the of which were used for burials in the Third Intermediate
substructures, entered from the left and right rear corners
of the chapel. The latter has a complex set of chambers, 280 (above) The sun god in his bark as he crosses the underworld at night in the tomb of Sety I (KV 17: 19th Dynasty).
including one with four pillars connected to the previous
room by a stairway that descends and then rises again to 28 1 (below) The fa~ade of the inne r part of the mortuary temp le ofSety I at Qurna (19th Dynasty).
emerge at its original level.
At Riqqa cemetery F, only substructures survive,
although fragments of offering places were identifiable.
That oflpiy (F20r) was approached by a 6-m (2o-ft) shaft
giving access to a chamber to the east and another to the
west.''' The latter had a southern extension, from which a
fUrther 4-m (!2-ft) shaft led to the burial chamber. The
neighbouring tomb 202 was generally similar, but the upper
chamber featured a pair of pillars.
248 N EW KI N GDO M : THE RAMESS I DE YEARS N EW KI N GDO M : THE RAM ESSID E Y EARS 249
temples. At Medinet Habu the reliefs of the second courtyard
were concerned with divine festivals, in particular those of
Min and Ptah-Sokar-Osiris. T he ceiling decorations of
temples of the 19th Dynasty mark a change from earlier 18th
Dynasty practice, in that the ceiling of the hypostyle hall of
the Ramesseum is adorned with an entire astronomical
ceiling. A lunar calendar with Ramesses II offering to the
different divinities of the months is also shown.
Most of the wall and pillar scenes in the interiors of
Ramesside temples beyond the open courts show the king
interacting with gods, with Amun being the main recipient
of his devotions. The cult of Re is relegated to his special
sanctuary in the northwest corner of the temples; certainly
the Old Kingdom scenes evocative of the sun's goodness are
nowhere to be found in the decoration of these mortuary
temples. Recurring themes in the inner part of the temple
show the king's name being written on the ished-tree,
inscriptions that ensure his eternal life and rule; the offerings
of incense, bouquets, oils, images of maatand food and drink
to the gods; offering lists; offerings; a false-door or offering
area for the king; prayers to various gods; and the giving of 28 6 (obove) Typ ical scenes of the ki ng smit ing his e nemies ado rn ed
life to the king. The heb-sed scenes that dominated older the pylons of both cult and mort uary temp les. Wh ether o r not the
rule r had fo ught a battle (as had Ramesses Ill, shown here at Medinet
temples are reduced in scope, with the idea of eternity for
Habu), t his scene was necessary as it e pit om ized the ruler's ro le and
such celebrations frequently being provided by scenes of the
was crucial t o t he cont inuati on of moot.
gods offering the deceased pharaoh multiple hieroglyphic
images of the words 'heb-sed' . The increase of the scenes 287 (opposite) At h1s mortuary te mp le , Ramesses 11 sits wit hin an
showing different divinities, especially the The ban triad, is ished-tree , and has his name inscribed on t he leaves for longevity
also linked to the Festival of the Valley (see pp. 220-1). An and a continu ous rule rship.
~=/)~c- -. . . . J
to Memphis where this god was prominent and where many Dynasty (e.g. TTro, TT 5o, TT5r, TT65, TTro6, TT2r7 the two of them on occasion drinking water from T-shaped
of the elite were now being buried.JJ4 and TT255), perhaps a reaction against the excess of kingly pools that are very reminiscent of the shape of the tomb itself,
By the 19th Dynasty, images of the funerary cortege depictions found in chapels of the Amarna Period.Jl5 proliferate. These more explicitly religious scenes make the
with the grave goods, muu dancers, tekenu, journey to By the reign of Sety I the basic format for tomb chapel increasingly similar to a mortuary temple, with the
I - ~'
(( Abydos, shrines ofButo and Sais, butchery and the elaborate decoration of the 19th Dynasty was in place, as can be seen transition to the next world being stressed, rather than the
) )
i
I
I
I
Opening-of-the-Mouth ritual had been abandoned in in the tomb-chapel ofRoy (TT225), with variations being fine life that would be had there. JJ 6 T he inscriptions in tombs
I ;/
( -- I
_____/ favour of an image of the tomb-chapel with the The ban hills visible in other tombs of a similar date, such as those of of this period are painted on a special separately coloured
I f
! I in the background, fronted by images of the deceased and Userhat (TT5r) and Hatiay (TT324). Scenes in Ramesside background, while those of the r8th Dynasty are painted on
I ·'
') '! the performance of the Opening-of-the-Mouth ceremony. tombs contain many more funerary prayers and texts and the same background as the scene, or on a blue-grey
Sometimes the image of a calf with a bleeding leg, the divinities worshipped by the deceased. These appear on ground.m The dominant background colour for tombs of
accompanying vignette to Chapter r in the Book of the upper registers, while lower registers show the provisioning of this period is yellow, suggesting the golden light of the sun, as
Dead, was placed near or within the funeral scene (TTr9, the deceased, an earthly activity. Images showing Hathor, the well as alluding to the metamorphosis of the flesh into gold
TT23, TT 45, TT135, TT277). The appearance of royalty in Lady of the Sycamore, dispensing nourishment to the that was believed to take place after death and the attainment
Ramesside tombs is less frequent than in tombs of the r8 th deceased and his ba (e.g. TTr58) and vignettes showing the of eternal life and divinity by the deceased. Engaged statuary
252 NEW KINGDOM : THE RAMESS ID E YEARS NEW K I NGDOM: T H E RAMESS I DE YEARS 253
1
remains a part of the adornment, as can be seen in the tombs enlargement in the height and width of the passages.
of K.haemopet and Paser (TTro5, TTro6). The former shows Roughly in parallel with this, the entrances of the tombs
statues of the husband and wife carved into a niche above the became larger and were placed in prominent places in
entrance to the substructure, while the courtyard of the the Valley, contrasting with the inconspicuous, easily
latter's tomb contains nine statues of the deceased, three of obliterated, locations seen earlier. Indeed, it seems that the
which are Osirid. 20th Dynasty royal tombs were never intended to be
It was during the 20th Dynasty that portions of books hidden. Instead, it is possible that 'pylons' of rubble were
of the underworld began to be inscribed in the chapels of arranged to flank decorated gateway-entrances that lay
private individuals. This move was accompanied by a shift several metres above the contemporary ground level. The
in the balance berween text and image in a tomb in favour tombs seem to have been closed by simple wooden doors; no
of the former. evidence of the sealed blockings found in earlier tombs was
The patterns described above are best seen at Thebes, present in those ofRamesses II and his successors. Indeed,
although they broadly hold good throughout Egypt. There it has been suggested that the doors of royal tombs may have
are, of course, local variations and it m ay be observed that been on occasion opened ceremonially subsequent to the
'Theban' motifs are not always found in the Memphite area, buriaJ.Ho In this situation, the security of the tombs will have
while tombs at El-Kab and Thebes often have common relied paradoxically on their visibility and the reliability of
themes and even identical scenes . The Voyage to Abydos is the necropolis police- the latter perhaps an unwise
rare, but not unknown at Saqqara (e.g. Tjia and Tia and approach in the troubled times of the late 2oth Dynasty.
Pabes), as are images of the king, while the Saqqara scene of From this period we also have information on the names
ritual pot-breaking is not found in Thebes. However, it is anciently given to the various parts of the royal tomb,
interesting to note that a tomb dating to Tutankhamun's derived from a number of ancient documents. w From the
reign at Sohag (p. 235) has more in common with the entrance, they are as follows:
deco ration of contemporary Memphite tombs than with
those of the much nearer The ban area.338
MODERN AND ANCIENT TERMS
The Memphite tombs, mainly of a Ramesside date,
FORTHE PARTS OFA KING'STOMB
continue to show residual stylistic influences of the Amarna
Period, coupled with the iconographic shift that is seen at Corridor I setja-netjer en wat shu
First God's Passage [of Re] of the Sun's Path
Thebes. Images of Osiris and other deities enthroned and
adored by the tomb-owner abound. Corridor 2 setja-netjer sen-nu
Second God's Passage
Substructures Corridor 3 setja-netjer khemet-nu
Roya/Tombs:339 The initial tombs of the 19th Dynasty followed Third God's Passage
right niche khemyu enty hetepu no netjeru iabtet im
the architectural pattern of that of Horemheb. However, Sanctuaries in which the gods of the east rest
with Ramesses II (KVy) a number of changes occurred. left niche khemyu enty hetepu no netjeru imentet im
Sanctuaries in which the gods of the west rest
First, the simple stairway previously seen in the Valley of the
Kin gs was replaced by a ramp, flanked by stairs, as seen a Corridor4 setja-netjer fed-nu
Fourth God's Passage
little earlier in the royal tombs at Amarna. Second, the axis
niches at iry-aa sen
of the burial chamber shifted through 90 degrees, with the 2 door-keepers' rooms
result that the crypt now ran across the chamber, with four
Well-room weskhet iseq
pillars in front of it and another set of four behind. Hall of waiting
This arrangement remained constant in all completed
Pillared hall weskhet merkbet
royal tombs into the 2oth Dynasty, although a number were Chariot Hall
290 Musicians in the tomb of Nakht at Thebes. Originally naked,they were given clothes during a Rame~side usurpation, the paint of wh ich has
finis hed off to abbreviated plans. Another change seen
now largely fallen away (TT52: 18th Dynasty). Burial per n nub (enty hetep tu im-ef)
towards the end of the 19th Dynasty was a reduction in the chamber House of Gold (in which One rests)
angle of descent of the tombs, together with a considerable
254 NEW KINGDOM THE RAME551DE YEARS NEW KINGDOM THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 255
Entrance
Ra:~=------.~~==
d 294 (overleaf) The Ramess ide period saw a more complex type of
ceili ng decoration 1n t he bunal chamber. Some exqu isite ce ilings, for
~ ~=1:::::::::::::::::::1
exam ple th 1s one 1n the tomb of Ramesses VI, detail the pat h of the
w_ 29 I Plans of princ ipal su n through the night when he is swallowed by Nut and reborn the
royal tombs of the fo llowing day, with the constellations indicated by various images
Ramesside Period: (KV9 20th Dynasty) .
a. Sety I (KV 17);
b. Ramesses 11(KV7) ;
~~C--~r~:~r----~--
c. Merenptah (KV8);
d.Tawosret (KV 14),
usurped by
Sethnakhte ;
e. Ramesses Ill (KV I I),
begun by Sethnakht e;
f. RamessesVI (KV9) ,
~ C,__:_____..o~==-"t-......-=....;._J_
begun by RamessesV;
g. Ramesses XI (KV4).
It is uncertain how far these designations applied to granite pillars and formerly covered by an earthen
tombs before the 2oth Dynasty. mound surrounded by trees. The central part of the hall
To be considered in conjunction with the Valley of is encircled by a channel, intended to be filled by subsoil
the Kings tombs is the so-called Osirion of Sety I at water to make an island, upon which cavities suggestive
Abydos.J42 T his cenotaph 'tomb' lay behind his finely of a sarcophagus and canopic chest are cut. This was
decorated temple, dedicated to seven of the gods of Egypt, intended for a symbolic interment linking the king with
including his deified self. A series of passages and rooms Osiris, whose tomb was believed to lie a few kilometres
lead to the great hall of the Osirion, its roof supported by away at Umm el-Qaab.
256 NEW KI NGDOM: THE RAMESS I DE Y EARS NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 257
The decoration ofRamesside royal tombs further Sety I's Osirion at Abydos also conrains celestial images: Entrance
emphasized the journey of the king's soul through their the eastern chamber's ceiling is decorated with an image of
decoration. The fronr portion, which was regarded as Nut stretched over Geb, the earth god, with Shu, god of air,
Accidental breakthrough
nominally 'east', closest to daylight, is dedicated to Re, while separating them. T his is the first such depiction and one that into adJacent tomb (KV I 0)
the back portion, the 'west' and dark portion, is dedicated to becomes a stock image subsequently. When the Osirion was
Osiris, Lord of the West. The division is frequently marked completed by Sety's grandson, Merenptah, the Book of
by two images of Osiris enshrined that are located on the far Caverns, another 19th Dynasty funerary text, was added to
wall of the first pillared hall of the tomb. the enrrance passage to the structure. This book was regularly
Bur ial chamber
The tomb of Sety I in the Valley of the Kings (KV17) is featured in the royal tombs of the 2oth Dynasty and is most
innovative in its inclusion of the first astronomical ceiling strikingly featured in the tomb ofRamesses VI (KV9).
after that of Senenmut (TT353: see above, p. 226). Sety's Ramesses II's KV7 adds a variation to the exterior of the
ceiling, adopted with enthusiasm by later Ramesside kings tomb: instead of a blank sealed doorway, the linrel above the
296 (above) Axonometric
(e.g. Merenptah (KV8), Ramesses VI (KV9), Ramesses VII enrrance to the tomb bears a panel depicting the solar disk
projection of KV I I , begun by
(KVr) and Ramesses IX (KV6)) is an artistic tour de force of the sun god, Re, Aanked by images of the king and Is is Sethnakhte and completed for
and one of the most eleganr and evocative images from the and Nephthys. The disk on KV7's lintel conrains images of his son, Ramesses Ill.
royal necropolis. The ceiling, hovering above the place the sun in its three guises at differenr times of the day and is
where the mummy lay, illustrates the passage of the sun painred yellow, the colour of the sun during the day. Inside tomb were the realm of Osiris and the god stood guard over
through the body of the sky goddess Nut at night and its the tomb the sun is painted red, indicating that it is later in them . Although a motif found in a number of private tomb-
rebirth the following day, thus promising the king a role in the day and corresponds to the sun's passage through the sky. chapels (e.g. that of Aperel (Saqqara I.z)) and revived in the 297 (below) Early copy
the eternal cycle of the cosmos. Sety's tomb is also the first This device is adopted by subsequent rulers. Images of the much later tomb of Mentuemhat (TT34), it is not otherwise of one ofthe f1gu res of
to include an early version of the Book of the Divine Cow goddess Maat Aanked the tomb's doorway, each kneeling harpers that are,
found in royal substructures.
uniquely, to be fou nd in
(seep. 131) . T his book had only been used once before: on on a basket that was balanced on lotus/lily (the symbol of Interestingly, burial chambers were called the 'House of
a side chamber 1n t he
the shrines that enclosed the sarcophagus ofTutankhamun. the south) or papyrus (the symbol of the north) plants, the Gold' by the ancien t Egyptians (see p. 255). T his might have entrance-way of t he
At this poinr, or shortly thereafter, the arrangement of heraldic plants of Egypt. T his further emphasized the been due to the treasures placed within, the golden colour of t omb ofRamesses Ill
divinities within the sepulchre was regularized, with female nominal orientation of the tomb east-west.J44 the walls,l45 or the fact that the king's Aesh, like that of a god, (KV I I : 20th D ynasty) .
divinities associated with the sun and sky dominating the Ramesses II's KV7 and his sons' KV5 (see below, was supposed to be m ade of gold. C ertainly the gold/yellow
first or upper part of the tomb and male, chthonic deities pp. 262-4) include a rock-cut full-frontal image of Os iris, used in decorating these burial chambers, especially in the
dominating the second or lower part of the tomb.HJ apparently to emphasize that the deep and dark parts of the Ramesside Period, was indicative of divinity.l46
Later Ramesside kings of the 2oth Dynasty maintained
295 The lintel of the tomb of Ramesses X in the Valley of the Kings. w ith the disk of the sun in the centre flanked by two figures of t he king, the solar focus in their tombs through texts known as the
behind whom stand Isis and N ephthys (KV I 8: 20th D ynasty). 'Book of Night' and 'Book of Day', as well as the other,
older texts. These emphasize the royal responsibility of
maintaining the course of the sun through the sky. Another
composition used in late New Kingdom royal tombs is the
'Book of the Earth' and deals with differen t earth gods and
their relationship to the sun god.H? T he positioning of
texts varies through the Ramesside Period, as shown in
the table on the next page, the principal fixed point being
the concentration of the Litany of Re near the entrance.l48
By using different texts placed in specific areas the tomb
allowed the recreation of the cosmos. Thus, in the
sarcophagus chamber the books of the heavens were placed
on the ceiling and the books of the underworld and the
earth were inscribed on the walls, creating the world by
word and by situation.
Element of tomb Thutmose Ill Amenhotep Ill Horemheb Sety I Ramesses Ill RamessesVI
(KV34) (WV22) (KV57) (KVI7) (KVII) (KV9)
Burial chamber Book ofAmduat; Book ofAmduat; Book of Gates; Book of Gates; Book of Gates; the Book of Earth
Litany of Re the king and the Book ofAmduat; king and the gods
gods astronomical ceiling;
the king and the gods
Antechamber List of divinities Th e king and the The king and The king and the Book of the Dead; Book of the Dead;
gods the gods gods the king and the gods the king and the gods
Mid-length The king and Book of Gates Book of Gates Book of Gates;
pillared hall the gods Book of Caverns
Well-room The king and the The king and the Book of Gates;
gods gods Book of Caverns
262 NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 263
writing exceeds 130. Nevertheless, it remains unclear exactly lower chambers of her tomb, like those in other later also applies to the handful of queens' tombs of the 2oth
how many burials were made in this huge tomb: only five Ramesside royal sepulchres, are decorated with images of Dynasty that also lie in the same wadi.
names have come to light, but excavation of the many parts funerary goods and religious emblems reminiscent of the In these sepulchres of the royal family, decoration was
of the tomb which remain choked with debris will doubtless object frieze found in Middle Kingdom sarcophagi and us ually straightforward, with the tomb-owner shown in the
help resolve this issue. coffins. A series of further tombs was also built for sons of company of various deities and selections from the Book of
Later in the dynasty, a somewhat reduced king's-style Ramesses Ill in the Valley of the Queens; these are generally Gates. One notable feature in the tombs of the sons of
tomb was built for the Queen-RegentTawosr et in the Valley of much shallower descent than earlier examples- mirroring Ramesses III was that their father was the most prominent
of the Kings (KV14), a location also used for a tomb contemporary kingly trends- and fairly long and narrow, protagonist, while in the case of the sepulchres of royal ladies
intended for a son ofRamesses IIl (KV3) . The dadoes in the with one or two subsidiary rooms. The same basic scheme their husband or father is wholly missing.
264 NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESS I DE YEARS NEW Kl NG DO M: THE RAM ESSI DE YEARS 265
comprise standard scenes of the deceased before the gods, The majority of the decorated substructures at Deir
but there are depictions of the funerary procession and el-Medina date to the 19th Dynasty, although a handful
extracts from the Book of Gates. Bay's KVr3 also had a also come from the 2oth Dynasty. The well-known TTr
decoration that recalled royal practice, perhaps in keeping (Sennedjem)J5I is oriented so that the west wall of the burial
with his pretensions to power, with images oflsis and chamber is indeed in the west and is therefore covered with
Nephthys over the main entrance and the first corridor scenes related to the netherworld. The east wall shows the
beginning with figures of kneeling goddesses spreading sunrise and a paradisiacal world fo r farmers in the Fields of
their wings, followed by a series of images of Bay before Iaru from Chapter no of the Book of the Dead. The
various gods and the king. T he second and third remaining scenes show mummification by Anubis (a
passageways were largely taken up with sections from the popular scene repeated in several other tombs at the site,
Book of the Dead. Any decoration that might originally with some variations, including TT219, TT22o, TT290,
have been applied to the following chambers has long TT323 and TT36o), Osiris and other divinities of the
since vanished . underworld. The majority of these images are attached to
In contrast to the sparse adornment of the substructures Spell 17 of Book of the Dead.
of most of the elite tombs, at Deir el-Medina, many tomb- The majority of the other decorated burial chambers in
chambers were given brick vaults, upon which were applied the Deir el-Medina cemetery contain large-scale illustrations
plaster and painted decoration. This circumstance is from different spells of the Book of the Dead as well as
certainly the direct result of the tombs' owners being the images of funerary divinities, demons and manifestations of
artisans responsible for decorating the royal tombs in the the deceased's ba (TT290, 292). O ther images found in these
Valley of the Kings. In both conception and execution the tombs include traditional views of family members engaged
decorative approach is often very similar- not surprisingly, in different activities and poses (TT3 even shows a
of course, as the same artists were responsible for both! manifestation of old age in the form of grey hair!), offerings,
Amongst the results were the some of the jewels of the Voyage to Abydos and the Opening-of-the-Mouth
Ramesside art. scene. One other motif (found in TT2, 284, 306 and 359) is
266 NEW K I N GDO M : T H E RAMESSIDE YEAR S N EW K I N GDOM : T HE RAM ESSIDE YEARS 267
the adoration by the deceased of the 'Lords of the West', the usual kinds of funerary vignettes on the side walls, Tom b Date Owner Scene
a group of ancient kings, queens, princes and princesses, together with text of the Negative Confession. The entrance
TT IO 19th Dyn Penbuy i & Kasa i Vaulted ceiling with Anubis,Thoth and Four Sons of Horus
headed by Amenhotep I and Ahmes-Nefertiry, who were was flanked by knife-wielding demons, the whole room
(Ramesses 11)
patro ns of the Theban necropolis. T he 'Lords' range back to being reminiscent ofDeir el-Medina burial chambers.
Mentuhotep 11 of the mh Dynasty, but mainly belong to the Yet another tomb is that of Sobkmose from Rizeiqat, TT32 19th Dyn Djehutymose Ceiling decorated with text
(Ramesses 11)
late qth/early r8th Dynasty and provide a useful catalogue whose stone-built chamber has images of the deceased
of royalties of the period.J5 2 and the gods.J55 TT2 12 19th Dyn Ramose i Offering texts and tree-goddess
(Ramesses 11)
A somewhat unusual scene found in these tombs is one
of Anubis leaning over a fish mummy (TT2) as a variant of Private Tombs - Built: In other areas of Egypt, in particular the TT292 19th Dyn Pashedu ii Anubis, mummy and other gods being adored by deceased and wife; tree-goddess and bas
(Ramesses 11) drinking; Osiris; vaulted ceiling:Anubis-jackals, demons and other funerary divinities
the more common image where the mummy of the tomb- Delta, where rock-cut structures were impossible, the old
owner is featured. Tree-goddess scenes, found in the chapels approach of building the substructure in a cutting was TT335 19th Dyn Nakhtamun ii Nut in mountain; Osiris; deceased and wife adoring gods and emblem s of gods; family member
(Ramesses 11) offering to deceased; Opening-of-the-Mouth; mummies before tomb; guests at a banquet;
of contemporary tombs, are quite common (e.g. TT2n, 212, continued. Important examples belonging to Viceroys of
vaulted ceiling: offering texts, cat slaying Apophis as serpent, and funerary gods
292). Delightful vignettes showing a cat, a symbol of Re, Kush are known at Bubastis, where the tomb ofHori iii
slaying a serpent, the representation of Apophis, with a comprised a corridor of baked brick - a fai rly uncommon TT336 19th Dyn Neferrenpet ii Coffins; banquet; divinities; deceased and wife;Weigh ing of the Heart;Anubis and mummy;
(Ramesses 11) vaulted ceiling: horizon and scarab,Western Mountain, the sun god
sharp knife are also found in these tombs (e.g. TT216, 335) material in pharaonic Egypt - flanked on each side by three
and are related to several of the spells found in the various vaulted chambers. Their walls were also of baked brick, as TT339 19th Dyn Huy iv& Texts
(Ramesses 11) Pashedu xv
funerary books. A particularly lovely and unique scene was the pavement of the tomb, presumably to guard against
shows one tomb-owner kneeling before a palm tree and damp, but the upper walls and roofs were of mud-brick. TT3 56 19th Dyn Amenemwia i Offering texts; tree goddess; family members; divinities, deceased and wife
(Ramesses 11)
drinking from a pool of fresh water (TT 290) . Four of the rooms held stone sarcophagi. Other tombs of
A handful ofRamesside private tombs away from similar type had been built nearby, including that ofHori's TT3 60 19th Dyn Qaha i Anubis-jackal ; mummy and Anubis; deceased; vaulted ceiling: deceased
(Ramesses 11)
Thebes have decorated substructures, including that of like-named father, also a Viceroy.J5 6 Other examples of such
Amenhotep at Deir Durunka in Middle Egypt.Jn There, vaulted tombs are well known at Abydos, where the earliest TT3 19th Dyn Pashedu x Deceased and divinities;Abydos pilgrimage; deceased and other family members (pi. XXI)
decoration is preserved on three walls of the chamber, specimens appear to date to the first part of the r8th Dynasty (Ramesses 11)
showing the judgment scene, scenes of offerings and the and can be seen to have been surmounted by mastabas. An TTS 19th Dyn Neferabet i Gods and deceased; family members and deceased adoring divinities
deceased being conducted to the hereafter by Hathor and interesting tomb at Abydos is Groo, which is approached (Ramesses 11)
Anubis. At Abydos lies the vaulted burial chamber of both via a shaft, giving access to antechambers, a right-angled TT2 14 19th Dyn Khawy ii Guardians and personification of the West; deceased and Renutet and Harsiesi, Maat,Thoth &
Deduhorankh (v4o),J54 with decoration in red and black turn into a passage and the sepulchral chambers and a sloping (Ramesses 11) Hathor; son mourns mummy; vaulted ceiling: divinities and the Gate of the West
ink. The end wall showed the deceased before Osiris, with passage that opens directly into the main burial chamber.J57 TT2 19 19th Dyn Nebenmaat ii Anubis jackal; son as priest censing and libating to parents ; deceased and wife with gods and
(Ramesses 11) family member;Anubis and mummy on couch ; offerings by deceased to divinities, offerings
made by wife and son to gods; funeral procession to tomb; vaulted ceiling: gods and deceased
DECORATED SUBSTRUCTURES INTHEBANTOMBS OFTHE RAMESSIDE PERIOD
TT220 19th Dyn Khaemteri i Anubis-jackals; divinities; mummy on couch; funeral banquet
Tomb Date Owner Scene (Ramesses 11)
TT6 18th- I 9th Dyn Neferhotep & Shrine and divinities, extracts from Book of the Dead (BoD), Fields of laru, Book of Gates, TT290 19th Dyn lrynefer i Inscription with titles, family members,Anubis-jackals , BoD, divinities, offering to divinities,
Nebnefer deceased and wife (Ramesses 11) Anubis tending mummy; vaulted ceiling: deceased kneels before a palm tree and drinks from
pool, divinities, ba and shadow
TT I56 I 8th- I9th Dyn Pennesuttawi Deceased adoring Western hawk, Hathor cow and Sobek;Weighing of the Heart; image of
deceased and wife TT216 19th Dyn Neferhotep ii Nephthys;Anubis-jackals; deceased and wife; adoration ofWestern emblems; cat slaying a
(Sety 11) serpent; gates and guardians with knives; vaulted ceiling: divinities
TTI 19th Dyn (Sethy Sennedjem i Netherworld scenes; mummy, banquet; extracts from BoD; Osiris; deceased in front of gods
1/Ramesses 11) of the underworld TT2 11 19th Dyn Paneb i Sokar's bark; deceased and family; mummy on couch ; parents, wife and gods; vaulted ceiling:
(Siptah) tree-goddess, divinities
TT298 19th Dyn Bakii& Anubis and mummy with Is is and Nephthys; text with list of relatives
(Ramesses 11) Wennefer i TT359 20th Dyn lnherkhau ii Deceased and wife; Book of Gates; gods
(Ramesses IV)
TT323 19th Dyn Pashedu vii Hawk; Benu bird; family before gods;Anubis and mummy
(Sety I) TT267 20th Dyn Hay vii Names and titles; deceased with family members ;sem-priest and divinities
(Ramesses V)
TT2 19th Dyn Khabekhnet i Re, Osiris, Hathor and king; Hapi and offerings; winged lsis;Anubis and fish mummy; various
(Ramesses 11) divinities with and without deceased TT3 55 20th Dyn Amenpahapi i Deceased and wife adoring
268 NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 269
by a shaft in a further room. Later examples were plainer,
Chapter 12 The Third Intermediate and Saite Periods consisting only of limestone rooms.
The dominant decorative themes in these tombs are
largely consistent with those of the Ramesside Period. The
antechamber ofNRT-III, built by Pasebkhanut (Psusennes)
I, has, on the north and west walls, processions of genii,
surmo unting scenes of the king offering to Osiris and Isis.
O n the east, Pasebkhanut offers to Re-Harakhty, above
which scene are to be found a series of demons. The tomb
had separate granite burial chambers for the king and the
queen (who was later evicted to make way for the (re?) burial
of KingAmenemopet), each having a mummiform figure
of the deceased on their rear walls. A further room, which
held the burial of the General Wendjebaendjed, has scenes
of this favoured courtier doing homage to Os iris, Harakhty
305 (left) Plan of the mastaba of
andApis.
Pasebkhanut A, son ofthe High
Priest of Amun Menkheperre
The decline in the monumentality of tombs after the was a mastaba, the chapel consisting of a main chamber, Private Tombs: No private tomb has been found in situ at (Abydos D22: late 21st
New Kingdom was dramatic, reflecting the lack of central at the back of which is a small offering place, which once Tanis, although re-used blocks discovered there attest to their Dynasty).
control that was a feature of much of the Third Intermediate contained a fine stela showing the tomb-owner before adornment with the usual kinds ofRamesside mortuary
Period. However, after four centuries of universally modest Osiris, Isis and Horus. A number of contemporary tombs scenes. Of the small number of monumental tombs of the 306 (below) The main group of21 st/22nd Dynasty royal tombs at
Tan is: from the left that of Amenemopet (NRT-IV); Pasebkhanut I
sepulchres, a revival saw the construction of some of the in the same area had similar plans. dynasty that are known in Upper Egypt, one of the most
(NRT-111); Osorkon 11(NRT-1- probably built for Nesibanebdjedet I);
largest and most elaborate tombs ever built in Egypt, as well Elsewhere, virtually nothing has been identified from the important is the aforementioned tomb of Pasebkhanut A at unknown king (N RT-VI); Pimay (NRT-I I).That ofShoshenq Ill (NRT-V)
as others that marked the high-point in the long battle dynasty. It is assumed that the royal tombs at Tanis, located Abydos (D22). Access to its substructure was via a brick- lies at a higher level a short distance to the left of the photograph: see
between tomb-builders and tomb-robbers. within the city temple precinct, had been surmounted by lined shaft, 6 m (20 ft) deep. Five chambers lay at the il l.307
brick chapels, but any possible traces were swept away
2 I ST DYNASTY during excavation. Nevertheless, it is conjectured that they
may have resembled those later built above the substructures
Superstructures of the tombs of the God's Wives of Amun at Medinet Habu
A major motif of the new regime is the almost complete (pp. 227-8), taking the form of miniature temples .J59
disappearance of monumental, decorated tomb-chapels
from the archaeological record. A few Middle or New Substructures
Kingdom chapels at Thebes received summary additions Royal Tombs: The tombs constructed for the kings of the
(e.g. TT68, 70, II7, 337 and 348), but no new chapels are 21st Dynasty at Tanis were wholly unlike those of their
certainly identifiable. Indeed, all of the identifiable high- immediate predecessors in the Valley of the Kings in design.
status burials of the dynasty at Thebes (TT320; MMA6o) As had long been the case in the Delta, the tombs were built
were clearly designed without a superstructure. The reason structures, sunk a few metres into the ground, not far above
for this is unclear, but at the same time funerary deposits the water table.J 60 The first examples (NRT-I and Ill)
were being reduced to simply the mummy and its coffins possessed granite burial chambers within a limestone
and suggest a major re-think, perhaps in part motivated by structure that also contained an antechamber, approached
security considerations.
There are a handful of examples in other cemeteries, in
304 (above) Outer lintel from the 26th Dynasty Theban tomb of
particular in Cemetery D at Abydos, where a group of New
Pabasa (TT279), showing t he elevation ofthe bark of the sun god,
Kingdom sepulchres was joined by the tomb ofPasebkhanut flanked by t he God's Wives of Amun N itokris I (left) and
A, son of the High Priest of Amun, Menkheperre (D22) .J58 It Shepenwepet 11 (right) and t he deceased (twice).
270 THE TH I RD INTERMEDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS THE THIRD I NTERM ED lATE AND SAITE PERIODS 271
borrom, two of them stone-lined, but the tomb proved to be simultaneously, being placed close together in the chambers
entirely robbed, save a few shabtis of the tomb-owner.J6 ' of the tomb and along its corridors.
At Thebes, the known 21st Dynasty burial places are Apart from the principal cluster of interments at Deir
'' generally usurped from earlier owners and equipped with el-Bahari, smaller groups of 21st Dynasty burials are known
NRT-V ''' 307 (left) Plan of the royal little more than a nest of coffins.J 62 The burial places involved from other parts of the The ban necropolis, generally
'' necropolis at Tanis:
i Pylon of include both the superstructures and substructures of these intrusive within earlier tomb-complexes . Given the evidence
NRT-1 : Nesibanebjedet(? - 21st
i Amun-temple earlier sepulchres. This is common to all levels of society, of the Bab el-Gasus, it is possible that a number of other
Dynasty); usurped by Osorkon 11
'
'' for himself, Prince Harnakhte C including members of the quasi-royal high priestly family. such deposits may have been cleared to be replaced by mass
'' andTakelot I; also used for burial O ne of the latter, Nauny, daughter of Pinudjem I, had her
~
reinterments, in parallel with the reburials of the New
of Shoshenq V (? - all 22nd coffins and mummy placed in the outer corridors of the Kingdom royal mummies which took place at roughly the
Dynasty);
comb of the 18th Dynasty queen, Meryetamun (TT358) at same time.
NRT- IV NRT-11 : Pimay (22nd Dynasty):
NRT-11 1: Pasebkhan ut I, Q ueen
Deir el-Bahari, some years after the restoration of the latter's
Mutnodjmet B, Prince comb during the reign ofNesibanebdjedet I (Smendes) . 22 N D A ND 23RD DY N ASTIES
Ankhefenmut C and General Another three ladies, a sister and two nieces ofNauny, were I
NRT-111
WendJebaendJed (21st
Dynasty); later also used fo r
placed in a tomb (MMA6o) nearby, in which they were later
joined by a number of other mummies. As the tomb filled
Superstructures
Early in the new dynasty, the lack of superstructures seen
;I
Amenemopet, Siamun, I
up, previous occupants were removed to make room for new with The ban private tombs during the 21st Dynasty I,
Pasebkhanut 11 (21st Dynasty)
arrivals . The tomb, for once apparently purpose-built, took apparently continued. However, under Osorkon I, although
lQ}
and Shoshenq 11(22nd Dynasty);
NRT- IV:Amenemopet; later the form of a sloping passage, leading to a large shaft, with a burials continued to be made further west, such as in the
used for Siamun(?): stairway at the side, leading down to the burial chamber. 161 New Kingdom tombs of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna,J 6 5 the
N RT-VI NRT-
NRT-V: Shoshenq Ill and IV The area ofDeir el-Bahari seems to have been favoured centre of burial moved down from Deir el-Bahari
(22nd Dynasty) :
particularly popular during the 21st Dynasty, containing to the locale of the Ramesseum. Small brick chapels,
NRT-VI : Unknown:
D Limestone NRT-VII: Extension to NRT-1,
the two largest sepulchres of the dynasty. The earlier one is
the only tomb of a High Priest to have been identified,
sometimes lined with sandstone slabs with painted
decoration of a very similar type to that found in Ramesside
mid-22nd Dynasty.
D Granite
belonging to Pinudjem II (TT320) .J64 Lying room (330ft) tombs,J 66 were built within the vaulted brick store-rooms of
Mud-brick 308 (below) Upper register
D south west of the temples ofDeir el-Bahari, it seems likely the temple (ills 273-4).J6? Similar mud-brick chapels were
I
ofthe west wal l of the that the sepulchre had been constructed on a much smaller also built slightly further afield down into the 25th Dynasty.
antechamber of the tomb of
scale during the early New Kingdom and then substantially Of a fairly standardized form with a small pylon and a triple
0 IOm Pasebkhanut I, with processions
offunerary deities (Tanis NRT-111: extended for the interment of the high priest and his sanctuary arrangement, they lay along the edge of the desert,
0 30ft
21st Dynasty) . immediate family. The burial chamber seems initially to behind the New Kingdom royal mortuary temples.J 68
have held just the bodies ofPinudjem and his wives; they Elsewhere in Egypt, few tomb superstructures survive;
were later joined by his daughter and son-in-law and then those that do show that decoration was minimal, being
(during the 22nd Dynasty reign of Shoshenq I) by some 40 generally restricted to a stela. One place which does provide
royal or distinguished individuals of the New Kingdom. some data is Abydos, where some tombs seem to have had
They were transferred there for security purposes from their mastabas - or even pyramids- above their tomb-shafts,
own tombs via a number of other provisional resting places , forming the centre of a walled complex fronted by one or
making up the famous 'Royal Cache'. more pylons.
Another communal burial seems to date to the very end
of the dynasty, under the High Priest Pasebkhanut II. This is Substructures
the Bab el-Gasus, close to the temple ofHatshepsut and Royal Tombs: There is a hiatus in the sequence of tombs
adjacent to MMA6o and another near-contemporary tomb, known at Tanis during the early part of the 22nd Dynasty
309 (left) Plan of the tomb of MMA59 . It contained 153 coffins or nests of coffins, together and there are indications that the royal necropolis may have
Pinudjem 11, south of Deir
with various other items, such as shabti-boxes and wooden shifted elsewhere (perhaps to Bubastis), but was abandoned
ei-Bahari, and later used as the
Royal Cache (TI320: 21st
stelae. The burials range across much of the last half of the in the face of flooding.J 69 Osorkon II returned to Tan is,
Dynasty) . dynasty and seem to have been moved to the tomb usurping what seems to have been the sepulchre of the 21st
272 THE THIRD I NTERMEDIATE AND SA ITE PERIODS THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS 273
The Tanite tombs of Shoshenq Ill and Pimay (NRT-V
and II) were new constructions of very simple form,
reminiscent oflate Predynastic tombs: a rectangular cavity,
divided in two by a stub-wall. NRT-II is undecorated, but
N RT- V was adorned with elements largely derived from the
Amduat, supplemented by various less-usual scenes and
vignettes from the Book of the Dead.
During the reign of Osorkon II, a separate royal line
established itself at Thebes, beginning with the former High
Priest of Amun, Harsiese. His tomb lies within the temple
enclosure at Medinet Habu, a sandstone structure probably
once surmounted by a chapel (MHI).l7° A stairway led down
to a burial chamber, in the centre of which the priest-king
had been laid to rest in the trough of the granite coffin made 312 (above) The burial chamber ofShoshenq Ill at Tan is (NRT-V) was
fo r Ramesses II's younger sister, Henutmire, but equipped decorated with extracts from the books of the underworld (22nd
with a new lid. Two niches in the wall on each side of the Dynasty).
coffin held canopic jars. No other tomb of a Theban 23rd
31 3 (below) The tomb of the priest-king Harsiese at Medi net Habu,
Dynasty king has been identified, but that ofOsorkon Ill built withi n the temple-enclosure there.The niches in the lateral walls
may be mentioned in 26th and 27th Dynasty papyri, whose were intended for the canopic jars. A chapel was presumably built
3 I0 (above) A number of 22nd Dynasty tombs were built within the implication is that it may also have lain at Medinet Habu.J7' above along the line of the later ones of the God's Wives of Amun
brick store-chambers of the 19th Dynasty Ramesseum. In the latter part of the Third Intermediate Period, a (see below, 1lls 317- 18).
number of petty kingdoms arose to join those already in
3 I I (/eft) Reliefs from the mortuary chapel of Nakhtefmut (Ram88)
place at Tanis and Thebes. One was at Leontopolis (Tell
at the Ramesseum, including his daughter, Djedmutiusankh
(Philadelphia E1824-6: 22nd Dynasty, reign of Osorkon 1). Moqdam), where a queen named Kama(ma) was buried in a
stone-built tomb, intact in 1921, but with its contents largely
des troyed by water.J7 2
Dynasty founder, Nesibanebdjedet I (NRT-I: ill. 307) .
Partly rebuilt and decorated anew, it also held the body Private Tombs: The most impressive private tombs of the 22nd A popular priestly venue for burial during the latter part
of Osorkon's father Takelot I. Dynasty are those of the High Priests of Ptah at Memphis, of the Third Intermediate Period was the mortuary temple
The decoration of the tomb continued to employ the in form much like the royal tombs ofTanis, being stone ofHatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari.J7 6 0ne of the few such
kind of motifs and compositions that had been found in structures sunk in the temple court.m That of Shoshenq burials to be properly recorded comprised a pit 4 m (12 feet)
royal tombs since the 18th Dynasty. The ceiling of the D (son of Osorkon II) comprised a single room, built of deep cut in the floor of the Hathor shrine of the temple,
antechamber bore the celestial decans, its west wall showing re-used blocks and decorated both on its fac;:ade and on its which led to a chamber; the room was no more than 4 m
the sun's journey across the sky, bracketed by a figure of the interior. The west wall was taken up by extracts from the (12 feet) or so square, but contained three wooden
goddess Nut. On the south wall the dead king prepares to Book of the Dead, the others by various deities and more sarcophagi , which had clearly been assembled in situ.m
approach Osiris, while the remaining wall surfaces are parts of the Book of the Dead.
occupied by episodes from the Book of the Dead, including Another High Priest, this time of Amun at Thebes, had a 25T H AND 26 TH DYNAST IES
the weighing of the heart: no longer is the king a god on tomb at Abydos, in cemetery G. Here, Iuput (Shoshenq I's
earth gone to join his brothers in heaven, but one who must son) had a granite burial chamber, decorated with scenes Superstructures
now submit to judgment like a mere mortal. Scenes showing from the Book of Amduat, approached by a long corridor.J74 Roya!Tombs:J78 The increasing fragmentation of the country
the king in the Fields oflaru underline the intruding mortal T he whole structure had been built in a long narrow pit. culminated in the invasion of the King of Kush (N ubia),
aspects of the king. Elsewhere in the tomb are more At Thebes, burials of officials continued to be made in Piye, founder of the 25th Dynasty. Fully Egyptianized, the
traditional royal scenes, including extracts from the Amduat, older tombs throughout the period. In many cases this Kushite ruling family had formerly been buried under
while in the burial chamber are scenes of the regeneration of happened repeatedly, with one generation cleared out to tumuli and mastabas, bur had now adopted the pyramid
the sun. make way for a new one. m shape for their tombs, built in their homeland, at El-Kurru
274 TH E THIRD I NTERMEDIATE AND SA ITE PERIODS THE T HIRD INTERMEDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS 275
become an important place of burial during the 23rd water-filled pit.'" The only record of them survives in the
Dynasty (ills 317-18). The best-preserved example, built by writings ofHerodotus, who visited Sais c. 450 BC; he writes
Shepenwepet II for Amenirdis I, is a stone-built structure that Wahibre, fourth king of this dynasty was:
fro nted by a pylon. T his gives access to a fo ur-pillared hall
buried in the family tomb in the temple of Athena [Neith],
and then to a sanctuary, surrounded by a corridor. Its
nearest to the shrine, on the left-hand as one goes in. The
decoration featured Pyramid Texts, the Opening-of-the-
people of Sais buried all the kings who came from the
Mouth texts and ceremony, as well as images of the tomb-
province inside this area. The tomb ofAmasis [Ahmose II]
owner offering to different gods, purifYing temples, making
is also in the temple court, alrhough further from the shrine
offerings and being granted life by the various divinities.
than that of Ap ries [Wahib re] and his ancestors. It is a great
As in the O ld Kingdom, the texts are situated for the
cloistered building of stone, decorated with pillars carved in
convenience of the deceased, rather than in a sequence that
the imitation of palm trees and other costly adornments.
makes sense to the visitor.
W ithin the cloister is a chamber with double doors and
The royal cemetery of the 26th D ynasty lay at its city of
behind the doors stands the sepulch re.
origin, Sais. Following the practice of the Tanites, these
kings' tombs lay within the enclosure of the local temple of H ERODOTUS, H ISTORIES, BOOK !I: §169 .
the goddess Neith, their probable site now marked by a huge
3 14 (above) Burial chamber ofthe High Pnest of Ptah. Shoshenq D,
from Memphis (CM JE88131 : 22nd Dynasty, reign of Osorkon 11). 3 16 The pyramid ofTaharqa at Nuri (Nu I: 25th Dynasty).
315 (/eft) The granite coffin-lid of Hars1ese, from his tomb at Medinet
Habu (CM JE59896).Aithough the lid had been made fo r him, the
trough was usurped from Ramesses ll's sistec Henutmire ( 19th/23rd
Dynasty).
276 T H E T H I RD I N TER M ED IATE A ND SA ITE PERIODS THE T H I RD I N TERM ED IAT E AND SAITE PE RI 0 OS 277
317 (above) The tombs ofthe God'sWives of Amun at Medinet This implies that the earliest Saite kings were buried in a 3 19 View of the Asasif, showing the locat ion of the principal tombs.
............................................................................. .................................... ......... .............. ............................................................................................... ....................................... . ..... ................................................ ................ ....................................... ...................... ....................................... ........
Habu were surmounted by small chapels of a kind that may have been single tomb- or perhaps that each had a separate tomb
also found at sites such as Tan is (25th-26th Dynasty).
below a single superstructure. The description of Ahmose
II's monument seems to conjure up a standard Egyptian with the remote past, further reinforced by the decoration The decoration of these monuments employed scenes
3 I 8 (below) Plans of the mo rt uary chapels of the God's Wives of
peripteral shrine, with a central cult-room surrounded by a that in some cases directly copied ancient prototypes. and texts from the entire span of Egyptian history. T his very
Amun at Medinet Habu. From left to right Shepenwepet I (with
section of burial chamber: MH 17);Amenirdis I; Shepenwepet 11 colonnade. Presumably, the burial chamber was sunk in the The designs of the rock-cut chapels that form the kernel much ties in with the archaism which is the hallmark of the
(central shrine, flanked by Nitokris I and Mehytenweskhet C). ground beneath- suggesting an affinity with the tombs of of these tombs seem to owe something to the royal mortuary art and to some extent, the culture, of the 26th Dynasty.
the God's Wives of Amun at Medinet Habu. temples of the New Kingdom, as well as the 'temple-tombs' The rise of archaism in art, harking back to the golden ages
of the nobility at Saqqara and the small brick chapels of the of Egyptian culture, was linked with an increase in tomb
Private Tombs:J80 The latter part of the 25th D ynasty saw a middle part of the T hird Intermediate Period. W hile their decoration. Artists relied heavily fo r their inspiration on
sudden revival in monumental tombs. The most outstanding plans all differ in detail, they generally centre on an open scenes from Old and New Kingdom tombs that were
of these lie on the Asasif at Thebes, the majority belonging to courtyard, frequently surrounded by a colonnade. Beyond slightly altered in their new format.
officials connected with the God's Wife of Amun, the key this are one or two hypostyle halls, with subsidiary Motifs that included scenes of fishing and fowling,
figure at Thebes during the 25th and 26th D ynasties.''' The chambers, giving access to the offering place and the butchery, apiculture, offering and sculpting are arranged
tombs combine both brick-built and rock-cut elements, the entrance to the substructure. The innermost sanctuary varies side by side with funerary texts of every type. Even the
former comprising principally a massive niched enclosure in form, with either a false-door or statues of the deceased. textile designs fo und on the ceilings of earlier sepulchres are
wall and pylons fronting both the main axis and the stairways In the earliest tombs of the type, dating to the latter part of reproduced in the Theban tombs of this era. In a delightful
that usually led down at right angles. It has been suggested the 25th D ynasty (e.g. TT223 and 391), the arrangement of adaptation of the scene showing the overseeing of royal
that their location, close to the ancient tombs and temples at the chambers along a single axis is fairly rigorously statuary, a striding statue of the God's W ife of Amun, whom
@ @ D eir el-Bahari, was chosen to link the sepulchres explicitly maintained; later, more changes of direction are to be seen . many of the Asasif tomb-owners served, is substituted for
278 T H E TH IRD IN TER M EDIATE A N D SA I TE PERIODS THE THIRD I N T ERM ED l ATE A N D SA IT E PERI 0 DS 279
' J
·-.
....
320 (above) The pylon of the tomb of Mentuemhat atThebes (TT34: 25th Dynasty).
321 (below) The tomb of Shoshenq on the Asasif (TT27), dating to the end of the 26th Dynasty; its exterior walls are panelled, recall ing
structures of the Early Dynastic Period.
322 (opposite) TT34, showing the West Portico, leading into the second courtyard and the 1nner part of the tomb (25th Dynasty).
[]
a
323 Section and plan of t he 324 Plan and section of the tomb-chapel ofthe Vizier Nespamedu at
tomb of Pedamenopet (TT33) Abydos (D57: 25th Dynasty, reign ofTaharqa).
o n the Asasif, the seco nd largest
tomb in the Theban necropol is;
cut inner element. The initial vestibule of the latter leads to 325 (above) View of t he surviving portion of the superstruct ure of
for a detai I of t he area of the
a four-pillared hall, followed by one with six pillars. Beyond t he to mb of lufaa at Abu Sir (early 27th Dynasty).
burial chamber see ill. 53
the latter are two main rooms, surrounded by a corridor and
Ii
I
(26th Dynasty).
culminating in a false-door. d 326 (/eft) Plans of tomb superstructures of the Sait e and Late
1 Periods: a.lufaa (Abu Sir: 27th Dynasty) ; b. Nespaqashuti (TT3 12: early
Tombs combining rock-cut and built elements are also
11 to be found at G iza, behind the Great Sphinx. Their brick
e 26th Dynasty) ; c. Bakenrenef (Saqqara LS24 early 26th Dynasty); d.
Pabasa (TT279: early 26th Dynasty); e. Wennefer (Saqqara: late 30th
outer parts are badly destroyed, as are the inner elements, Dynasty); f. Nesidjehuty (Saqqara QS4 12: early 26t h Dynasty).
although reliefs and columns were seen in 18201!, allowing
327 (below) View of the rock-cut t omb-chapel LGB I at G iza;the
two to be attributed to General Pedubast and one
royal presence reigning over Thebes at the time. containing a longitudinal hall leading to a cruciform
Although not on the same scale as the sepulchres on the arrangement of rooms, all extensively decorated.J85 The same
Asasif, the resumption of the construction of large tomb- kind of decorative approach used at Thebes is seen in such
chapels is to be found elsewhere. In cemetery D at Abydos tombs as those ofBakenrenef and that ofTjeri, with daily
are the tombs of two Viziers.J82 That ofNespamedu, datable life scenes appearing in the courtyard and religious texts
to the reign ofTaharqa, comprised two large brick-built within the chapel proper.
courts, each fronted by a pylon, the whole structure Concentrated around and near a number of Old
standing some 3 m (10 ft) high and measuring 36 m (n8 ft) Kingdom pyramid complexes are a series of great shaft
from east to west (D57). T he chapel formerly had a domed tombs with sand-based protective devices (pp. 286- 9). In
roof (a fairly common arrangement at the site) and, to judge contrast to the tombs just discussed, they seem generally to
by the angled exterior wall, may once have been enclosed have had very simple superstructures. At the tomb oflufaa,
inside a pyramid. Nakht's D15 was of very similar size and this comprised a wall around the perimeter of the shaft. A
layout, albeit shifted around so that its main axis ran from huge stela had been embedded in a deep and wide niche in
north to south. the centre of the eastern fas;ade of its brick enclosure.
At Saqqara, another Vizier, Bakenrenef (who served Fragments of limestone in front of the niches in the other
Psametik I), built a sepulchre that rivalled the size and three sides suggest that these too had stelae. However, Iufaa's
elaboration of those on the Asasif. T he tomb (LS24)J8J lies on tomb also had a set of rooms on the surface directly to the
the escarpment at the very eastern edge of the Saqqara east of the shaft, which exhibit a plan highly reminiscent of
plateau and has a built outer portion giving access to a rock- the tombs at Thebes and the tomb of Bakenrenef.J86 The
282 THE THIRD I NTE RM ED lATE AN D SAITE PER I ODS THE TH I RD I NTE RM ED IATE AND SAITE PERIODS 283
1
steps at the far end of the sepulchral chamber, or a pair of I Unknown king of
c. 5th century BC O oO
stairways just outside the doorway of the antechamber. ~-----o-----7( 2 Unknown
The usual bed-bench lay in the centre of the burial chamber. 3 Queen Naparaye
0
Later Kushite monarchs, beginning with Tanutamun,
standardized on the simpler plan introduced by Shabaka,
! CIJJ
!__ ________ ~
imnnrlllll 4 Queen Khefisa
5 Queen Qalhata
6 Queen Arty
with a burial chamber adorned with paintings.J 88 The 7 Unknown
8 Kashta(1)
vignettes and texts essentially follow the age-old association 10~14Unknown
of royal burials with solar matters, the entrance doorway /1 IS Shabaka
I
I'
\
0 Sm 16 Tanutamun
being surmounted by painted apes adoring the sun god in I
I \
\
I \ 0 IS ft 17 Piye
his bark, a similar motif also appearing on the rear wall. ,'
I \
\ I 8 Shabataka
I \
I
I '
\
Tum I ~6 Unknown
I \
I \
Private Tombs: While a number of the great tombs of the I
I \
\
I \
I \
Asasifhave simple shaft-substructures (e.g. TT196 and I \ 18
I \
328 The tomb of Udjahorresnet at Abu S i ~ showing the simple stone TT279), the substructure often begins with a corridor '
wall that surrounded the mouth of his shaft (early 27th Dynasty). leading from the right-hand side of the main offering place ~
'
\ W Tum4
~
to a series of descending corridors and stairways. A notable 8 //. @ G B Tum I
lower parts of the rooms were cut out of the bedrock, some
at least being equipped with vaulted roofs; the upper parts
of the walls were free-standing. These appear to have been
undecorated. Although Iufaa's tomb seems to be one of the
point is the way in which the substructure is 'layered', with
an interest in the relative vertical placement of elements one
above the other. In Pedamenopet's TT33, the burial chamber
is approached from below, its floor lying some distance
7
21
lff7tffl
@]
21
23
[) '/:'-, 9
eCf]m
<..?_//!7; I0
<':/!$}
Tum 5
0 Tum 2
19
pillared burial chamber, the aisles of which were vaulted. from the Book of Caverns, while the sepulchral chamber At Abydos, the underground apartments of the tomb
A curious corridor completely surrounded the subterranean itself has the Amduat on its walls and an astronomical ofNespamedu (D57: ill. 324) 39 2 comprised a main shaft,
rooms, at a slightly higher level, accessible via a flight of ceiling. Altogether the tomb is a wonderful pastiche of the containing two arched, built, chambers, one above the other
284 THE THIRD I NTERM EO lATE AN 0 SA ITE PER I 0 0 S T HE THIRD I N T ERMEDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS 285
333 (above) Section ofthe
tomb of Psametik-nebpehti at
Saqqara (LS 19 26th Dynasty) . 336 & 337 LG 84, the tomb of Pakap at Giza, employed the same sand
protection as the tom bs at Saqqara, plus a sand-filled protective
334 (right) Section oftomb of trench around the perimeter (the latter also found at the tomb of
Horkhebit at Saqqara (26th Udjahorrsnet at Abu Sir). Generally known as 'Campbell's Tomb', an
Dynasty) . additional burial chamber was cut in the side of the entrance shaft
,I under Darius Ifor the Overseer of the Treasury Ptahhotep.A new,
and a smaller one alongside, with a rock-cut room. Access to 335 Isometric section of the burial chamber of an example of the secondary, entrance shaft was cut at around the same time, and gave
the chambers seems to have been via an adjacent stairway. most developed form of a 26th Dynasty shaft tomb at Saqqara, access to a group of chambers occupied by at least three furthe r
showing the 'sandraulic' sarcophagus-closing mechanism. burials, including that of the Priest Nesisut. Stil l later, in Graeco-Roman
Moving to the north, a number of different forms of 338 This view of LG 84 shows the main shaft, the secondary entrance
times, a large chamber with twelve loculi was added to this complex shaft, and one part of the surrounding trench.
substructure are to be found at Saqqara, all generally
(originally late 26th Dynasty) .
approached by shafts. A simple set of rooms formed the high-status body from robbers. The kernel of such a tomb
burial chambers of Bakenrenef's LS24, contrasting with its was an arched-roofed stone-built burial chamber, built at the A major cemetery lay in the area around the temple of
elaborate superstructure (pp. 283-4) . Slightly more elaborate bottom of a deep, wide shaft. This contained a simple to Old Kingdom monuments can hardly have been Re at Heliopolis.J98 The tombs here were primarily vaulted
are the burial apartments ofPsametik-nebpehti (LS19) and rectangular stone sarcophagus, flanked by niches intended fo rtuitous and may be linked with the investigations and stone structures, sunk in the ground surface. These could
Irahor (LS23); although comprising only an antechamber for canopic jars. copying of ancient monuments well attested during the include multiple chambers, often each containing an
and a burial chamber, the latter had a pair of niches in the These shaft tombs were designed to be entirely filled Saite Period (seep. 56). Another group lie to the southwest interment. Like the other decorated tombs in the Memphite
end wall and also two niches on each side-wall. These four with sand after the burial. Temporarily closed holes in the of the 5th Dynasty pyramids at Abu Sir, that oflufaa proving necropolis, they drew their decorative inspiration from the
locations were intended for canopic jars; this shift of chamber roof were opened after the funeral to allow sand in to be both the largest of the type thus far known and to be Old Kingdom, being inscribed primarily with the Pyramid
canopies from the foot of the body to its flanks is to be seen from the main shaft to engulf the sarcophagus . The burial intact.J94 Texts, plus additional verses taken from the other Books of
in other tombs of the Saite Period, although often with only party retreated through an arched brick passage that joined While the sand-filled shafts greatly enhanced security, the Underworld. The same approach is seen in the shaft
a single, wide, niche on each side, designed to hold a half- the burial chamber to a rock-cut access tunnel and shaft certain tombs added to the effect by arranging a set of tombs, their burial chambers being dominated by the
size canopic box with two jars. beyond the wall of the main shaft. This arch was pulled concentric sand-filled trenches around their perimeter, Pyramid Texts, together with extensive offering lists.J99
A very distinctive kind of tomb-substructure appears in down during the exit, sand pouring into the passage . penetrating to a level below the bottom of the main shaft. The Book of the Dead is also prominent in other such
the Memphite necropolis during this era. The earliest The net result was that access to the burial was T hese made it much more difficult to bypass the sand filling contemporary tombs as LS23 .
known example lies half-way between the edge of the impossible, unless almost every grain of sand had been of the shaft by tunnelling down outside the perimeter and A wholly different decorative approach is to be seen in
escarpment and the Step Pyramid enclosure and belonged to removed from the tomb first- running into hundreds of coming up inside the burial chamber. At least one such the oases, especially in Bahariya (Sheikh Sobi) . Here, a series
Horkhebit.J9J Any superstructure that might have existed is cubic metres. In the most elaborate examples the to mb lies at Abu Sir and belongs to Udjahorresnet, who held of tombs have pillared chambers approached by shafts, their
lost, but the substructure comprised a very large chamber sarcophagus lid was lowered into place by props resting on high office under the last kings of the 26th Dynasty and the rooms extensively painted with scenes of the gods, the
(8.1 x 9·55 x 8.6 m or 27 x 31 x 28ft) at the bottom of a deep sand-filled cavities. When released from below, the escaping Persian invaders of the 27th Dynasty.J95 funerary procession, mummification, the judgment of the
shaft, with approximately half the area of the chamber, but sand allowed the lid to come down on the trough. This At Giza is another example with just this kind of dead and other suitable underworld scenes. Amongst the
400
concentric with it. After the body had been placed in the contained an anthropoid cavity, in which lay a large stone additional protection, the so-called 'Camp bell's Tomb' most impressive are those ofDjedamuniufankh (reign of
sarcophagus in the centre of the chamber, the whole tomb anthropoid coffin, which in turn held the mummy, with or (LG84) .J9 6 On the other hand, a simpler shaft tomb of the Ahmose II), his son Baennentiu (pi. XXVII) and his
was filled with sand, the labour of removing which led to its without an inner wooden case. period there had a shaft only 3 m (10 ft) square.J97 The contemporary, the Governor Djedkhonsufankh. The latter
surviving intact until 1902. The best-known examples of such tombs are found in deepest of the series of chambers of this tomb, G7757A, at had painted reliefs cut into the plaster of walls of the vaulted
Such use of sand led to the development of a more two clusters at Saqqara, one close to the pyramid ofUnas, 12.5 m (40 ft) depth, was that of the General Kheperre. It antechamber while the burial chamber, approached by a
elaborate version of the design that represents perhaps the the other in the ruins of the mortuary temple of the 5th was lined with cemented blocks, with the sarcophagus shaft from the antechamber, was adorned with divine figures
most sophisticated of all Egyptian attempts to safeguard a Dynasty king Userkaf. The choice of sites directly adjacent trough sunk in the floor. in yellow.
286 THE THIRD I NTE RM E D lATE AND SAITE PER I 0 DS THE THIRD I NTE RM ED lATE AND SAITE PERIODS 287
I
Chapter 13 The Late and Graeco-Roman Periods
The early years of the Late Period were occupied by the 27th
Dynasty, during which Egypt was but a province of the
Persian empire. A few of the shaft tombs at Saqqara and Abu
Sir date to the first part of the dynasty, but all seem to have
been begun in 26th Dynasty times and there are effectively
no tombs which have been unequivocally dated to the years
of Persian rule. The same is true of the following native 28th 34 1 Relief from the tomb of Neferseshempsamtik at Memph1s/Kom e i- Fakhry (CM JE I0978: 30th Dynasty) .
and 29th Dynasties, although a large amount of material has
been attributed to the 30th Dynasty. 4m This 'gap' is certainly
illusory, the problem being the lack of clear criteria to dress; unfortunately it was found in a re-used context. 40' Another burial of the 30th Dynasty provides interesting
distinguish between tombs constructed in the late 26th and However, a major group of later Late Period tombs is in light on the widespread re-use of tombs during the Third
early 30th Dynasties and those constructed during the Cemetery Gat Abydos-Central. 401 One of the earliest of the Intermediate and Late Periods. Tjaisetenimu, Secretary of
intervening decades. group had a large brick courtyard, one part of which was Nakhtnebef(Nectanebo I), took over the Memphite
columned and roofed (G57)!04 Another type of tomb here sepulchre of Ahmose-sineith, who had served under Ahmose
Superstructures has its mastaba built integrally with the brick-built II. The doorjambs of the tomb preserve a text in which the
The only unequivocal trace of a 27th Dynasty funerary substructure (see below).'o' usurper claims his action to have been a favour to the former
chapel is a stela from Saqqara showing the owner in Persian In the Memphite necropolis, tombs of the 29th/3oth owner and that the latter would act as an intermediary in
Dynasties are to be found in a number oflocations at transferring divine goodwill to Tjaisetenimu. 40 7
339 (above) A scene in Greek style in the tomb of Petosiris atTuna Saqqara,' 06 in particular along the avenue to the Serapeum, Only one Late Period royal tomb has been found, that
ei-Gebe l (early Dynasty ofMacedon) . a major focus for local activity in Late times and on into the ofNaefarud I at Mendes in the Delta. The whole tomb had
Ptolemaic Period. Superstructures of brick and stone faced been devastated (see below), but there is a suggestion that it
340 (right) Stela from a tomb of a certa1n Djedherbes, son of Art am, the Serapeum Way, a stone example being that ofWennefer, might have been topped by a mastaba. On the other hand,
with an interest1ng compound of Egyptian and Persian styles.The
which consisted of a pyloned vestibule with a four-pillared the superstructure may have resembled those reported by
name of the owner's father is clearly Pers ian .This piece is one of the
few unequ ivocal funerary monument s ofthe Pe rs~an domination of hall, at the back of which were three niches (ill. 326e). The Herodotus to have stood above the earlier royal tombs at
t he 27th Dynasty; it was found in a secondary deposit in the area of entrance to the substructure lay in front of the pylon, just Sais, or else those over the sepulchres of the God's Wives at
the Gisr ei -Mudir at Saqqara (CM JE98807). to the left. Medinet Habu.
288 T HE LATE AN D G RAECO-ROMA N PERI ODS THE L A TE A N D G RA ECO - RO MAN PER IOD S 289
Substructures
Royo/Tombs:'o' Following the departure of the Persians in
404 BC, three native dynasties ruled in succession, from
Sais, Mendes and Sebennytos, which cities thus became
royal necropoleis in the time-honoured manner. The only
excavated example comprised a large limestone sarcophagus,
together with fragments of the walls of the chamber that had
once surrounded it; these bore funerary texts for Naefarud I,
founder of the 29th Dynasty.
Only the sarcophagi (and a few shabtis) survive from
two 30th Dynasty royal tombs, wholly divorced from their
original locations. Belonging to Nakhtnebef and
Nakhthorheb (Nectanebo I and II), first and last kings of the
30th Dynasty, the sarcophagi found their ways to Cairo and
Alexandria respectively- both sites devoid of contemporary
pharaonic remains. That ofNakhtnebef was recovered in
fragments from various modern buildings, while the other
sarcophagus came from Alexandria's Attarin Mosque,
where it had been used as a ritual bath. It was never occupied
by its royal owner, who fled to Kush before another Persian
invasion. It has been generally assumed that the kings'
tombs had been built at their natal town, Sebennytos
(Sammanud), although it is not impossible that they might
have lain elsewhere, for example Saqqara, where
Nakhtnebef, in particular, built extensively.'0'
342 (above) Me ndes!Tell ei-Ruba, showing the position of the tomb of Nefarud I, just inside the enclosure wall of t he temple of Banebdjedet
with the giant granite naos of t he t emple sanctuary in the distance (29th Dynasty). Private Tombs: During the Late Period there was a move
towards tombs designed for multiple burials, with large
34 3 (below) The sarcophagus of t he pharaoh Nakhthorheb (Ne ctane bo 11), t he o nly trace of his tomb (from Alexandria; BM EA I0:
chambers flanked with deep niches intended to hold stone
30th Dynasty). 344 Plan and section of
sarcophagi. In addition to new-builds, Saite tombs were t he 'Os iris Shaft' at G iza
extended along such lines in later times. LG84 (ills 336-8) (Late Period).
is a good example, where a chamber was cut high up in the
entrance shaft in early Persian times, while still later, in underground, which is completely flooded by infiltrating
Graeco-Roman times, this secondary complex was extended water. Drained and cleared in 1998, the chamber at the
by the addition of a large room with two levels ofloculi, to bottom revealed a trench and four pillars, surrounding a
accommodate 12 interments. In G 7757A (cf. above, p. 287), large granite sarcophagus with the lid thrown off. This
later burials were placed in chambers further up the tomb's appears to have been arranged so that it was surrounded
shaft, the latest being of Roman date;'w in Bakenrenef's by water infiltrating fro m the ground, reminiscent of the
LS24, two large hypogaea were cut underneath for O sirion of Sety I. Indeed, Zahi Hawass suggests that this
Pedineith, Vizier early in the 30th Dynasty.' " curious chamber was a symbolic tomb for the god O siris.
A fascinating tom b in this genre is the so-called 'O siris T he tomb is datable to Saite/Late Period times and it was at
Shaft', near the causeway ofKhafre at Giza.' " Two successive th is very time that H erodotus reported that Khufu was
shafts lead down to a chamber with six niches, two of which buried under the Great Pyramid on an island surrounded
held a sarcophagus. One of the empty niches contains a by water: could this tom b be what Herodotus' informant
shaft in its floor that descends to a level about 25 m (So ft) had in mind?
290 THE LATE A N D GRAECO - RO M AN PER I ODS THE LATE A N D GRA EC O - ROM A N PER I ODS 29 1
The predilection for multiple family interments is also at Athribis comprises a complex of multiple compartments, to time-hallowed pharaonic concepts. It is worth The new Graeco-Roman cities in Egypt, however, often
seen in Abydos G57.4' 3 A shaft behind the superstructure led apparently constructed in more than one phase.''6 The tomb remembering that for many Hellenes and Romans the developed funerary beliefs that merged the different
to a chamber with no fewer than five sarcophagi , belonging was built some way above the modern ground level, a principal funerary rites involved cremation or urn burials. traditions. Thus, the tombs from this era show an interesting
to one Irtuharerau and his family. Another type of tomb number of the rooms containing stone sarcophagi, as well as In Rome, laws forbade cemeteries within a city's walls and fusion of both Classical and Egyptian architectural and
in Cemetery G is one with one or more vaulted brick simpler interments. often burials were to be found lining approach-roads- one decorative elements. The style of monuments, with their
chambers, built integrally with the mastaba superstructure!'' of the most famous of such necropoleis being the Appian decorative motifs derived from Egyptian practices and
These sepulchres were intended to be family burial places, THE G RAECO-RO MAN PERIOD Way. Walled cemetery enclosures are also to be seen beliefs, were ultimately exported to other parts of the
with individual chambers often having multiple interments. throughout the northern provinces including Britain. Large empire, with cemeteries aping those of Alexandria spreading
G5o, found intact, had seven occupants, distributed over The independent Egyptian monarchy was brought to an end cemeteries of cremations in urns emerged during the rst to Britain and Gaui. 4' 7
two chambers, the family of one Djeho. with renewed Persian occupation in 342 BC. The country was century BC, beginning in northern Spain and spreading to
More limited numbers of burials are also to be found in then absorbed into the empire of Alexander (Ill) the Great C aul and then towards Britain and the D anube provinces. TO MBS IN TH E EGYPTIAN TRAD IT IO N.
tombs of the 29th/3oth Dynasties at Saqqara.''' That of ten years later, ultimately becoming the kingdom of the In the 2nd century cremation was appearing in North Africa
Wereshnefer had a simple substructure, with the burial Macedonian general, Ptolemy (I) in 310, after the murder of as well, including Alexandria, where a cinerary urn might be Superstructures
chamber lying directly south of the 2-m (6-ft) square shaft, Alexander IV. Finally, the Ptolemaic state collapsed before placed in a loculus, rather than the corpse. This rite was It is often difficult to distinguish early Ptolemaic
containing three sarcophagi. the power of Rome, Egypt becoming a Roman province clearly not adopted by those who favoured 'Egyptian' -style monuments from those of the 30th Dynasty. However, one
In contrast, other Saqqara tombs had more extensive after Cleopatra VII's death in 30 BC . This foreign rulership interment, burning of the corpse being anathema to tomb that can certainly be dated to the very dawn of Greek
substructures housing a whole series of burials. One that had little immediate effect on Egyptian funerary practices, Egyptian mortuary belief. From about AD 6o inhumation rule is that ofPetosiris at Tuna el-Gebel.4' 8 The tomb follows
lay somewhere on the Serapeum Way and at least part of although as time went by alien elements began to be was restricted to the Aegean and Near East. the New Kingdom practice of making the chapel a
whose contents dated to the reign ofNakhthorheb, held absorbed. However, in parallel, the arriving Hellenic settlers
the sarcophagi of no fewer than r6 people, including brought with them their own traditions of funerary 347 Part of the Tuna ei-Gebel necropolis, with tombs ranging in date from Petosiris (right Dynasty of Macedon) to the Roman Period.
Tjaiharpata, Djehor (a dwarf), Peftjaukhonsu and Isetirdis. monuments and traditions, which bore little or no relation
Another, near the pyramid ofUnas, belonged to the family
of one Kanefer, with three chambers and seven interments; 346 Alexandrine cinerary urn (GRM 16152).
three more lay in the adjoining sepulchre oflnemhes. Both
tombs were reached by shafts, the latter taking the form of a
large chamber with four loculi.
As at other periods, the preservation of tombs in the
Delta is generally poor and in most cases substructures
continue to be brick, or sometimes stone, compartments
sunk just below the surface. An extremely elaborate example
345 This tomb at Saqqara contained the burials of two men named
Psametik and, probably intrusively,the 30th Dynasty Queen
Khedebneithwbinet 11.
348 The tomb of Petosiris at Tuna ei-Gebe l has t he exterior appearance of a miniature vers io n of a contemporary templ e (Dynasty of 349 In content the decoration of the pronaos of Petosiris' chapel very closely followed t hat of N ew K1ngdom and earlier to mbs, with scenes of
Macedon). 'dai ly-life' forming the maJority of the decoration. However, the scenes were executed in a particular style that combined the Greek w ith the
Egyptian, as can be seen in this scene of t hreshing grain.
miniature version of a contemporary temple, but differs Other tombs at Tuna el-Gebel have superstructures more
from New Kingdom examples in lacking a pylon, its fa<;:ade akin to houses, with doors, trellis windows and drain-spouts Away from the Nile Valley, the oases of the Western mummy being taken on a wheeled cart to the cemetery.
being a 'pronaos'- a forehall with pillars joined by half- carved onto the exterior. 4!9 In Roman times, the Desert attained a considerable level of prosperity in the The ceilings in some of the tombs are particularly
height (screen) walls. The decoration of this monument is superstructures of such tombs became the actual places of Graeco-Roman Period, with a number of major cemeteries spectacular. Some sections are painted to resemble wood,
interesting from a number of points of view. First, while the interment, with the body laid out in the principal room of established. Particularly good examples are to be found at while others show the starry night sky, texts and protective
outer pronaos is decorated with agricultural scenes, scenes of the building, thus moving far more towards C lassical Bahariya,422 Dakhla and Siwa,4'J with fine painted images of vultures and falcons with outstretched wings
senetand technology, the inner chapel has mythological conceptions of the tomb. The interior dadoes and walls of decoration. Some contain interesting decorative features. that are traditionally associated with temples and royal
carvings clearly derived from Ramesside royal tomb these tombs are often painted to resemble inset panels of Apart from the usual images of divinities, some have curious tombs Y• Simpler rock-cut tombs have been found in
prototypes, in addition to the standard offering bearers and stone, such as marble and granite, also a C lassical conceit. motifs showing foxes eating grapes, reminiscent of the fox in Kharga Oasis. They retain fragments of plaster, thus
offerings. Second, while the reliefs of this inner room are in a Some rock-cut tomb-chapels of classic Egyptian type are Aesop's fable. The tomb of Mesuiset at Siwa has a cornice suggesting some form of painted decoration, as can be
purely Egyptian style typical of the Late Period, the reliefs in known at Thebes,420 particularly at the north end ofDeir decorated with a uraeus surmounted by a sun disk and seen in the rock-cut and brick-constructed chapel at Ain
the pronaos are in a hybrid Greek/Egyptian style. However, el-Medina, where a series oflarge tombs were cut in early images ofOsiris and Isis, as well as hieroglyphic texts. Lebekha.4'5
this was not to be a new start, as no further tombs with this Ptolemaic times,• 2 ' two (DM2003 and 2005) being furnished The adornment of the Siwan tomb of Siamun, dating Pyramids were reintroduced during this period.
particular style of work seem to exist and with the with sarcophagi taken from the sepulchres of the God's to either the end of the 30th Dynasty or early Ptolemaic At Amheida and Bir Shaghala in Dakhala Oasis, pyramidal
establishment of the Ptolemaic regime, monumental Wives of Amun at Medinet Habu. They consisted of a times, is somewhat reminiscent of Ramesside tomb mud-brick superstructures surmounted a complex series of
superstructures in Egyptian style largely disappear from passage that sloped down to a square underground room decoration. It shows the embalming scene, Opening-of-the- long vaulted rooms that were probably plastered and
the record. in which a vertical shaft led down to the substructure. Mo uth ritual, the weighing of the heart and an image of the painted.
294 THE LATE AND GRAECO - ROM A N PERIODS THE LATE A N D GRAECO - ROMAN PER I ODS 295
One of the best known examples was a The ban sepulchre
taken over by the family of one Mentuemsaf around the
transition from Ptolemaic to Roman rule.4 28 The funerary
equipment of the new occupants was spread between the old
chapel and the substructure area, which seems to have been
extended to receive a stone sarcophagus. Another tomb
taken over was TT32, which held the remains of the family
of Soter, of the reign ofHadrianY9 There are also a number
of examples of re-use of rombs at Deir el-Medina; 430 indeed,
not only sepulchres became the homes of mummies: the
cellar of house C3 contained a number of bodies, including
that of one Pebos.
Other sorts of communal tombs are to be found in
later Roman times. In some regions, rather than being
immediately buried, mummies apparently remained for
considerable periods among the living, at home and/or in
a public reposirory, in which homage could be offered to
them, perhaps housed in some kind of wooden shrine.4l'
It would appear that groups of bodies would periodically
be removed from homes or reposirories to the cemetery,
where they would be placed in mass brick-lined burial pits,
the mummies being piled one on top of the other. This
presumably reflected the need to make way for more recent
dead amongst the living. The best-excavated such cemetery
lies at Hawara, the tombs varying in their precise form. 432
The earlier burial groups were in large brick structures,
divided into four chambers by crossing walls and originally 35 1 Cei ling of the 'Zod1ac Tomb' at Wann ina, a s1ngle-chambered
cased by limestone blocks. Each of the chambers was filled monume nt apparently owned by one Meryhor The two zodiacs have
been assessed as g1ving dates in the years AD 52 and AD 59, one
with an evenly laid brick filling. Only in one case did a stone
presumably the birthday of the tomb's owne r and the other perhaps
chamber survive, within which lay a pit containing
ofh 1s wife.
mummies. Another large grave group was housed in a long,
narrow, chamber with an arched roof There were also some
350 Pyramids were reintroduced du ring Graeco-Roman times in remote areas. Here at Amheida in Dakh la Oasis, pyramidal mud -bric k more elaborate structures. inclined passages. The dead were found in radiating loculi or
superstructures surmounted a complex senes of long vaulted rooms. Such interments in brick structures are particularly in a bed scraped out of the ground of the rocky passage
known from the Fayoum. Another approach is seen at floor.4H In one tomb were crude representations of the
Bahariya Oasis in the Roman Period, where broad loculi husband-and-wife occupants, but generally these sites were
Substructures frequently for collective burials. Often little or no open off wide rock-cut corridors.4JJ Half a dozen or more lacking in decoration.
In the early Ptolemaic tomb of Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel, architectural change is made, but fresh chambers with mummies were here laid out in each loculus, their heads A traditional type of tomb continuing into the
the substructure was approached from a shaft in the middle loculi were added to a number of Late Period tombs, facing towards the central corridor. Tomb 54, for example, Ptolemaic Period is the brick-vaulted burial chamber, of
of the rear part of the chapel, which gave access to chambers for example, LG84 and G7757 at Giza.426 These new had six of these large loculi, together with two smaller ones which some 40 examples lie at the eastern extremity of the
on both the east and west. These held the burials ofPetosiris, rooms were cut in the sides of the tombs' shafts. A at the end of the tomb. Other sepulchres in the area were As as if at Thebes. 435 The structures showed signs of plastered
his wife and son, the first two in stone sarcophagi. considerable number of cases of re-use are known at Thebes, shafts, with multiple chambers and niches opening from the paint decoration on some exteriors; it is thus possible that
Such a basic kind of shaft-superstructure remains typical, where the chapels and substructures of New Kingdom bottom. they at one time stood proud of the ground surface.
as do vaulted or domed brick tombs, sunk into the desert tomb-chapels were occupied by Ptolemaic and Roman The cemetery associated with the city ofKaranis (Kom Constructed of mud-brick, of an elongated rectangular
gravel. Also common is the re-use of earlier sepulchres, interments. 42 7 Ushim) contained late Ptolemaic tombs with short shafts or form, the side walls were between 6 and ro courses high and
296 THE LATE AND GRAECO-ROMAN PER IODS THE LATE AND GRAECO - ROMA N PER I ODS 297
one-and-a-half thick. Inside, the longer wall has a ledge to Egyptian Osirian tradition with the Greek cycle of From the rotunda a stairway leads down to the second
take the weight of the roof and outside the narrower walls Persephone in the U nderworld. Egyptian underworld level, which is elaborately decorated (see ills 358-59).
continue up to meet the apex of the 'Flown Vaulting'. Access deities, dressed in G reek garb, jostled with cherubs and more Beyond is a 'burial chamber', with three dummy sarcophagi
is often by a doorway in the end wall and a majority have conventional Hellenistic and Roman geometric and vegetal carved from the natural rock; the actual burial passages, with
small brick shrines in front of the entrance. If this was not motifs. In some instances the loculi were framed by stelae loculi, lay behind and below. T he majority of the decoration
present, then entry was through a chimney-like hole in one that bore the name and tides of the deceased; otherwise the of the catacomb is carved from the living rock and was
of the vaulted ends. blocking stones remained plain, or were carved or painted to probably once painted. The decoration in the main tomb,
resemble doors or windows. fashioned like a diminutive temple, shows a delightful mix
TOMBS IN THE CLASSICAL TRADITION 436 In Roman times, the room with the couch disappeared of the two dominant cultures. The approach is marked by a
along with the well, but dining rooms for memorial feasts portico with composite columns supporting a curved
For the majority of the Graeco-Roman Period a variety of were added. Such a hall, or triclinium, with rock-cut pediment, adorned with a winged sun disk with uraei, a pair
tomb types appear. In many of these the super- and benches for reclining diners is to be found in the great of hawks and another sun disk. Immediately beyond, a pair
substructures are merged, or so little of the former remains Roman Period hypogeum at Kom ei-Sh ugafa at of niches, one on each wall, guard the approach to the
that one cannot sensibly comment on them. Many tombs, Alexandria."' The entrance to the hypogeum is via a spiral sarcophagus chamber; carved in the classic Egyptian style,
following the Classical models, become communal tombs, staircase, giving access to a vestibule or rotunda built around complete with torus mo uldings and cavetto cornices, they
especially in Roman times. Furthermore, besides these a well, the domed roof supported by eight pillars. To the left contain a male (right) and a female statue respectively. These
Egyptian-derived tombs, purely Classical sepulchres were is the triclinium. figures are clearly Roman in inspiration and are dated on the
constructed in some areas, in particular at Alexandria and
other newly founded cities. The very earliest tombs follow 35 3 (right) The main room of Anfushi tomb 2 at A lexandria is almost
the Macedonian concept of built chambers under a ent irely decorated in Classical style. How evec the stairway leading into
tumulus. Only one example survives, the Alabaster Tomb in t he sepulchre has purely Egyptian-t ype scenes.
I
11
'I '1'1 .
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
t
I
0
I
I
t
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
presumably for laying out the body and beyond this, rooms _ _ _......,. ... ...
~~ ~ ~~-·- ~: . '.!.'
type of tomb emerges, combining super- and substructures
and their functions. This abandons the old Hellenic ofloculi for the final interment. The entrance fa<;ades to
rumulus in favour of an open courtyard sunk in the rock, these chambers were decorated in plaster and paint. For the
approached by a stairway, which gives access to the other most part the decoration of such tombs, where it survived,
parts of the tomb. Although there are many variations, the followed the Hellenistic tradition, bur with Egyptian
courtyard usually had an altar and a well that provided water overtones in terms of iconography, often combining the
298 THE LAT E A N D G RA ECO - ROMA N PE RIOD S THE LATE AND GRAECO - ROMA N PERIODS 299
/ 356 Closure of a loculus (cavity for the body) incorporat ing the
image of a t empl e, from A lexan dri a (G RM).
resurrection.
The interior of the burial chamber with its three rock-
basis of style to between AD 8r and AD 138, thus providing a cut sarcophagi is carved in high relief with Egyptian crowned with a sun disk, is shown dressed as a Roman Other Alexandrian catacombs with painted decoration
date for the main tomb. funerary scenes interspersed with Graeco-Roman funerary legionary, in a typically Classical twisting (contraposto) include the Tigran Tomb with images of a mummy on a
Beyond, two bearded snakes (agathodaemon), each with motifs, such as Medusa heads, images of Silenus (the pose. The opposite image is the same, save for the fact that a funerary bed, flanked by Isis and Nephthys, images of
a caduceus (the symbol ofHermes, equivalent to Anubis, companion ofDionysus ), ox-heads and funerary wreaths. serpent's tail has been substituted for Anubis' legs. He is Osiris, Anubis and Horus. The ceiling is painted in a
who guided the dead between the two worlds), a thyrsus The Egyptian scenes include images of the deceased as crowned with Osiris' atefcrown. Clearly the Roman tomb- typically Roman way with geometrical and vegetal motifs.
(symbol ofDionysus who became associated with Osiris) Osiris lying on a funerary bed, with Anubis, Thoth and owner had adopted Egyptian funerary beliefs, or at least a These tombs are also frequently painted to resemble marble,
and an Egyptian double crown, guard the doorway to the Horus attending him. Canopic jars are placed below the version of them. other stones and tiles. In some instances very Classical
burial chamber or underworld. Above each of them is carved bed. Other walls show priests censing female divinities, with In the nearby, but later, tomb known as the Hall of motifs, such as a four-horse chariot, are painted on the
a shield, each with a Medusa, to act as traditional Hellenistic pseudo-hieroglyphs carved on one side, Apis being offered Caracalla, decoration is entirely painted, with scenes pediments.
protective devices, guarding the dead against demons as well to by a pharaoh and images oflsis, Osiris and the Four Sons associated with Osiris and his resurrection, mummification, Elsewhere in Alexandria, there are examples of the tomb
as thieves. ofHorus. as well as what appears to be the Judgment of Paris, a paintings apparently imitating what one might expect in a
The chamber is further protected by a winged sun The doorway leading back out to the portico is adorned typically Hellenistic scene, but odd in these surroundings. wealthy house: geometric patterns, vegetal motifs and the
disk and a row of uraei, guaranteeing a solar rebirth. with the most extraordinary of images: a pair of Anubis It is quite probable that similar painted scenes appeared occasional scene painted on a wall within a border. T he
The snake was a chthonic deity (i.e. associated with the figures that truly show the fusion of the Hellenistic and elsewhere in these catacombs, but the paint has long since scenes are, however, unlike those found in houses as they
underworld and resurrection) in the Graeco-Roman Egyptian traditions. On one side of the doorway Anubis, disappeared . naturally pertain to the afterlife. At the site ofWardian,
false-doors were executed in paint and at Gabbari, tomb peristyle hall or court some distance below. This then gave
B23's painted roof, imitating a deeply panelled ceiling and access to the burial chambers, generally equipped with loculi.
the fragments of painted cherubs and vines on walls, Several cemeteries of Roman date have also been found
hint at the glories it once contained. The grand tomb in the oases. For the most part only the basic structures
B26 has a carved fac;:ade, as well as elaborately garlanded remain, with little indication of their decoration, if they had
Ionic columns and was painted very much in the style of a any. The majority of elite Roman tombs in Kharga Oasis are
ho use. Serpents, conforming to both Graeco-Roman and cut into the desert tajla and then built up in mud brick.
Egyptian funerary iconography, together with Egyptian They are intended for multiple burials in chambers that are
funerary deities, often garbed in togas or tunics, form the generally rectangular with vaulted ceilings. At the site of
focus of the decoration of the sarcophagus chamber and Umm el-Dabadib fragments of plaster were found within
fu nerary bed. the ruined tombs and in some cases, especially at Qasr
A good range of specimens of Graeco-Roman Classical Sumayra and Sumayra South, plaster still adhered to the
tombs has been excavated at Marina el-Alamein, along the walls, confirming that they were originally plastered and
coast to the west of Alexandria. 439 Some had pyramidal possibly painted as well. The bodies were placed in the main
superstructures, stepped rather than smooth-sided, up to chamber, though in rare instances, as at Douch, they were
2 m (6ft) in height and 'crowned' by some form of funerary sometimes placed in additional smaller chambers cut further
sculpture- a type well-known from Asia Minor. Another back into the gebeL 44°
superstructure form was a square base consisting of three Shaft tombs from this period also exist here. None of
steps, supporting a square-capitalled pillar; the shaft of these tombs that have thus far been explored shows evidence
the latter sometimes bore carvings of the deceased reclining of decoration. T he few rock-cur tombs examined, probably
on a couch. The bases of some of these tombs contained dating to the Ptolemaic Period, retain fragments of plaster,
the loculus-chamber; in others, it lay below ground. thus suggesting some form of painted decoration, as can be
T hese column/pillar tombs could be as high as 7 m (25ft) seen in the rock-cur and brick constructed chapel at Ain
or more. Lebekha.
Other kinds of tombs had a superstructure that held the These Graeco-Roman Period tombs mark the end of
triclinium and a central room, at the back of which was a the line of monuments that stretch back to beyond the dawn
corridor, leading to a staircase, which gave access to a of history, in which the continued interaction between the
XXV View into the fi rst open court of the tomb-chapel of Mentuemhat on t he Asasif at Thebes (TI34), showing the West Portico, leading into
t he second courtyard and t he inner part of t he tomb (see also ill. 322); late 25th/early 26th D ynasty.
XXVII I (overleaf) Tom b B I at Gabbar i in the w estern part of A lexandria, looking south towards chamber B 1.5, and show ing the vast
number of loculi (cavities for the body) in these monuments. B I had no fewer than 220, some of w hich held up to ten burials, incl uding
both cremations and Inhumations, some of the latter with mummified bodies.The tomb w as begun in the 3rd century BC and was
extended and re-modelled t hrough the 4th centu ry AD .The necropol is was revealed by clearances for a new road - visible in t he
background - and th is particular tomb has now been buried under the completed road, largely destroyed by its foundation piling.
Part IV
NOTES
CHRONOLOGY
GLOSSARY
MAPS
SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS
INDEX
Notes 87. Hodel-Hoenes woo: 136.
SS. Derchain 1975.
nr. Cherpion 1994: 86ff; Manniche 198S: 229,
Muller 19S4: 366-67.
162. Seal-impressions naming Djoser's mother,
Nymaathap, were found inside Kr.
S9. Peters-Altrock in Derchain 1975: 69. 122. Manniche 19SSc: 240. 163. Quibell 1913.
90. This has been especially noted and 123. Lichtheim 1976: n5-1S . 164. Garstang 1904.
commented upon by Teodozja Rzeuska, who 124. See Hassan Hassan 1932-60: VI/z and r65. Reisner 1936: 267-9.
r. Dziobek 1998: 78-So. 28. The basic work on the subject is Spencer 51. Srrudwick 1995: ror; Romer 1994: zn-32. first noted this whilst working at Saqqara with Barta 1963 for detailed discussions of offering r66. The other has never been explored, owing
2. Lichtheim 1973: 58. 1979· 52. E.g. the tomb ofNefermaar at Meidum Karel Mysliwiec. lists. to its dangerous condition, the result of it
3· Named after the low benches found outside 29 . The standard work on the subject is (Harpur 2001). 91. Types of scene described in more detail in 125. Vandier 1964: 135. having been cut into by a later animal
village houses in Egypt- known in Arabic as Arnold 1991, although the older Clarke and 53· Peer 1930. this chapter are printed in bold. 126. Alrenmuller 1975, Junker 1940: 1-39. catacomb.
mastabas. Engelbach 1930 is also of use. 54· See El-Daly 2005. 92. This is especially true in the Old and 127. Manniche 19S7= 41. r67. Maragioglio and Rinaldi 1964-77: III.
4- See Ikram and Dodson 1998: I09- r12; 155- 6. 30. Wood 1987. 55· Firth and Quibell 1935: s- 6. Middle Kingdoms, with greater variation nS. Junker 1953: figs. 87, 96, 97a, 98. r68. Although the mid-Third Dynasty Layer
5· After Davies and Gardiner 1915: 56. 31. Aston, Harrell and Shaw woo. 56. See Vyse r84o, II, for descriptions of the occurring in the New Kingdom. 129. Kendall 19Sr: 105. Pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan has never been
6. Gardiner 1955: 9-17 dissects an ancient 32. Harrell and Baun 1995. pyramids by Arab writers. 93· There appear to be no fixed rules 130. Now CM CG1447. Thanks are due to properly excavated, the topography of the area
Egyptian funeral. 33· For the most recent discussion of the 57· For many of the early travellers see Greener concerning scene location and the preferences Petra Vlckova for discussing these images with makes it unlikely that it ever had a 'classic'
7· Although the names of many cemeteries are subject, see Chapter 2 ofNicholson and Shaw !966. that exist do change over rime, as well as from Ikram. rectangular enclosure, while potential remains
lost to us, a few remain. In the Old and 2000. 58. Dodson wood. cemetery to cemetery. This chapter merely 131. El-Khouli and Kanawati 1990. of a valley temple may exist (cf. Dodson
Middle Kingdoms these rook their names 34· Morschauser 1991. 59· Man niche 1987; 1988a. explains general trends in scene location. 132. Hornung 1999. wooc).
from the royal pyramids erected at the site. 35· Although a great deal has been published 6o. Rhind r86z; Dodson and Janssen 1989. 94· The following volumes are of particular 133· Allen 1994. 169. The latter six have also been attributed to
The New Kingdom royal necropolis ofThebes on the technical aspects of tomb decoration, 6r. Dodson and Janssen 1989. use in the study of scene types in private 134. Qui bell and Green 1898: wff; Payne 1973 Huni; they are summarized in Dodson 2003c:
was the Place ofTruth (cf. Ventura 1986). Chapter r ofManniche 1987 remains a useful 62. One of the most notorious being the tombs: Harpur 1987, Manniche 1988a, band and Kemp 1973. 54-6.
8. Otto 1960. summary. destruction of the private tombs at Meidum: Vandier 1964 and 1969. 135. Adams 2004. qo. Maragioglio and Rinaldi 1964-77: IV:
9· Roth 1992. 36. Gay Robins has expressed some see Harpur zoor. 95· Gardiner 1957: 170-3; Davies and Gardiner 136. Dreyer 199S. 171. Ward 2000: 45- 82.
IO. Extensive studies of such letters can be reservations about the use of grids in 19th 63. Dodson 1997/8. 1915: 73-93 · 137. Alien 19SS. 172. Harpur 2001.
found in Gardiner and Sethe 1928 and Rimer Dynasty private tombs, although royal tombs, 64. Long feared lost, Lorer's detailed records of 96. Muller 1975. 13S. Kemp 1966; O'Connor 19S9. 173. Barra 199S. Earlier, Djoser had had a
1993· such as that ofRamesses XI (KV4) do show his work were finally published in Piacenrini 97· Yanek 19S9: }II-22. 139. Ward 2000: 39- 43· serdab in his Step Pyramid mortuary temple.
n. Borghouts 1998: 23. that grids were initially used and then erased and Orsenigo 2005. 9S. Save-Siiderbergh 1953. 140. Emery 1949-58. 174. A masterful analysis of the decoration of
12. Studies using grave goods include Richards prior to the work of the relief sculptor to avoid 65. James (ed.) 1982: 141-60. 99· Robins 1993: 1S8. 141. Kemp 1967. Old Kingdom private tombs can be found in
2004. confusion. 66. Gardiner and Weigall 1913. lOO. Brewer and Friedman 19S9: 77: Sandon 142. Dreyer 1993 and 1996. Harpur 19S7.
13 . One must be conscious of making a series 37· According to Robins (1994: 64-9), the grid 67. Davies 2003. 1950. 143. Emery 1949- 5S: Ill, 6o. 175. Alexanian 1999.
of assumptions about the relative value of in the Old Kingdom was less formal and 68 . See James 1997 for a discussion on Howard ror. Robins 1993: 188. 144. Montet 1938. q6. Reisner 1942.
objects, labour and skills in antiquity and also consisted more of a series of guidelines than an Carter's epigraphic techniques. 102. For lists of tombs containing images of 145. Wood 19S7. 177. Maragioglio and Rinaldi 1964-77: V:
to realize that cemeteries might not exactly actual grid. 69. }~qui er 1940. butchery and fish and poultry processing see 146. Leclanr and Clerc 1993: 206-7; Munro 17S. Arnold 1979.
reflect social organization. 38. See Robins 1994 for a thorough discussion 70. Brunton 1937, 194S Tables I-IV in Ikram 1995: 297-305. 1993b. 179. Quibell 1898b.
14. Harpur 1987= 20- 31. of the canon of proportions in Egyptian art. 71. Habachi 1957. 103. Aufrere 1999. 147. Dodson 1996a. r8o. Fraser 1902; Brunner 1936: 14-20.
15. See Smith 1992 for a study of intact tombs 39· Manniche 1988b: 31. 72. Goyon 1987. 104. Harer 1985: 49-54. 14S. Mathieson and Tavares 1993; Mathieson rSr. Kamal 1903; Brunner 1936: 22-3.
from the 17th and r8th Dynasties. 40. Several scholars are currently analyzing the 73· Dodson 1992b. 105. Lists of meat, fish and poultry preparation et al. 1997. 182. The small pyramids noted above have no
r6. An Egyptian month consisted of 30 days paint used in tombs . The two most 74· Dodson 1999. scenes can be found in lkram 1995. 149. This change of interpretation, the result substructures.
broken into 3 ten-days. Textual information comprehensive sources on the subject are 75· Nicholson 1996, 1999. ro6. Hodel-Hoenes woo: 41. of further excavation, was announced by rS3. See Reisner 1942: S5-129.
from the New Kingdom workers' village of Chapter 14 ofLucas and Harris 1989 and 76. Martin 1991. 107. See Ikram 1995: table 4 for a brieflist of David O'Connor at the American Research 1S4- Dunham and Simpson 1974.
Deir el-Medina indicates that the average Chapter 4 ofNicholson and Shaw 2000. 77· Verner 1994. scenes in which pigs appear. Center in Egypt meeting in Baltimore in April 185. Maragioglio and Rinaldi 1964-77:
working week was 8 days long, festivals and 41. Mackay 1920: 35-6. 78. Labrousse 1999. ro8. Kanawati 1993- 95; 2002. The alleged 'mound' had previously VI-VIII.
other holidays were days off and that every day 42. Wachsmann 1987= n. 79· Swelim and Dodson 199S. 109. Kanawatai 19S0-92. been canvassed as the prototype for the 186. Labrousse 1999.
the workers worked for two shifts of 4 hours 43· For a more thorough discussion of pattern So. Alexanian 1999. no. For practical information regarding these pyramid in a number of recent works. 1S7. Smith 1949: 211.
each, with a break in between. books, see Wachsmann 1987= 12-26. Sr. Arnold and Oppenheim 1995; Oppenheim activities, see Shaw and Nicholson 2000 and 150. Quibell 1923. r88. J<Squier 1929.
17. Krauss 1996. 44· Manuelian 1994a: I-59· 1995· Lucas and Harris 1962. 151. Saad 1947, 1957, 1969. 189. Petrie 1S9S; Kanawati and McFarlane
rS. Ventura 1988: 43· 45· Sist 1993b. Sra Schaden 2007. m. See Decker 1992 for a full discussion of the 152. Reisner 1936: 138. 1993·
19. Brand 2000: 258. 46. Manniche 1988b: r8 . Sib cf. Ryan 1992. different games played by the ancient 153. Munro 1983; Dreyer 2006. 190. Davies 1901a.
20. Manniche 1987: 11. 47· See Keller 1991: 62-3. Sz. Hawass zoooa, 2ooob. Egyptians. 154. Raven 2006: 64-66. 191. Davies 1901a.
2r. Ibid. 48. Currently being excavated by Mark S3. Hawass woob. n2. Milde 19S8: 89. 155. Saad 1957. 192. El-Khouly and Kanawati 19S9.
22. Robins and Shute 1987. Lehner: see Lehner 2002. 84. Manniche 19S8a. II3. Roth 1994. 156. Firth and Qui bell 1935. 193. Davies 1902.
23. See Rossi 2004: 96-147. 49· David 1986. S5. For a good overall discussion of this n4. Harpur 19S7= Sr. 157. Although no tell-tale post-holes have been 194. Blackman 1914-53.
24. CM unnumbered, published in Arnold 50. There is a considerable body ofliterature problem, see Van Walsem 199S: 1205- 13. n5. Harpur 19S7: 57· identified within the Shunet or rhe adhjacent 195. Mackay, Harding and Petrie 1929;
1987= 86-88, and Hawass 2002: 34· pertaining to the village and its inhabitants. S6. An icon in this context is defined as a n6. See Eaton-Krauss 19S4 for a full discussion enclosures at Abydos. El-Khouly and Kanawati 1990.
25. Manniche 1987= 11. These include Cerny 1973a, Romer 1984, symbol (or symbolic language) in which of this topic. 15S. Dodson 199S. 196. Publication of the site for the EES is in
26. Owen and Kemp 1994: 121-29. Bierbrier 1982, Va! belle 1985, Ventura 1986, iconographic features or attributes form a II7. Wild 1961: 177- 97· 159. Swelim 1987. preparation.
27. Such potential 'dual use' of a feature is nor Lesko 1994, Janssen 1997, Davies 1999, visual vocabulary that can be 'read' and uS. Aufrere 1991: 581-S6. r6o. Ibid. 197. Reisner 1932.
uncommon in Egyptian practices. McDowell 1999 and most recently Meskell understood by an illiterate audience with a n9. Manniche 1997. r6r. Garstang 1903. 198. Petrie 190S; Kanawati 1993-1995.
2002. common cultural background. 120. Manniche 1988: 45· 199. Richards 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004.
3 10 N O TES NOTES 3I I
zoo. Petrie 1900. 241. Mace 1921: 14-15. 284. Using the typology devised and published 332. Seyfried 1987: 219-22. 379· Personal communication Penny Wilson, 425. Rossi and Ikram 2004-
201. Saleh 1977. 242. Gaurier andJequier 1902: 98-roo. by Frederike IG.mpp (1996); see also 333· Assman 1984: 282-4. September 2003; a possible fragment of the 426. See above, p. 214.
202. Alliot 1933-5. 243. Davies 1920. Kampp-Sifried 2003. 334· Van Dijk 1988: 42. sarcophagus of Psametik I! is in the Louvre 427. Strudwick 2003.
203. Minaulr-Gout and Deleuze 1992; 244. Lansing 1924: 41. 285. Architectural derail and bibliography of 335· Strudwick 1994: 322. Museum. 428. Rhind r862.
Valloggia 1986; 1998. 245. Lansing 1933: 9-15. all New Kingdom Theban tombs is provided 336. Although some tombs from the 18th 380. Aston 2003. 429. Kikosy 1995.
204- Firth and Gunn 1926. 246. Silverman 2000. in Kampp 1996. Dynasty do have scenes of a religious nature, 38r. For all these tombs, see Eigner 1984. 430. Montserrat and Meskell 1997.
205. Naguib Kanawati, personal 247. Simpson 1988. 286. Rhind r862: 136-7. such as the Judgment of Os iris (TT69). 382. Randall-Madver 1902: So. 431. Ikram and Dodson 1998: 275.
communication. 248. Petrie et al. 1923: 26-7. 287. Manniche 1987' 16. 337· Sttudwick 1994: 326. 383. Bresciani 1988. 432. Petrie 19rr; Bierbrier (ed.) 1997.
206. Jequier 1929. 249. See also Ikram and Dodson 1998: 252; 288. The Epigraphic Survey 1980. 338. Ockinga 1997. 384. Porter and Moss 1974: 291. 433· Hawass 2000a.
207. Junker 1929-55: IV. Dodson 1988c. 289. Vandier andjourdain 1939. 339· Dodson 20oob; Reeves and Wilkinson 385. El-Sadeek 1984. 434· Grenfell and Hogarth 1900: 41.
208. Daressy and Barsanti 1917; Blackman and 250. Simpson 1974. 290. Blackman 1922: 235-40. 1996. 386. Bard 2003. 435· Carnarvon and Carter 1912: 5·
Apted 1914-53: I, ro-1r. 251. Winlock 1942: 52. 291. Srrudwick 1994, 37- 47· 340. Roehrig 1995. 387. Seen. 372, above. 436. Fedak 1990: 129-33; the definitive work
209. Davies 1904a: 30-r. 252. Davies 1920. 292. Strudwick 1994, 37-47. 341. Cerny 1973b: 23-34. 388. Gasm El Seed 1985. on the subject is Venit 2002.
210. Personal communication, Miroslav Bard.. 253 . Mace 1914: 214-17. 293. Milde 1994: 17. 342. Frankfort, De Buck and Gunn, 1933. 389. Eigner 1984. 437. For a recent survey of the evidence, see
2rr. Caste! et al. 2001, Valloggia 1986, 1998, 254. Gautier andJequier 1902: 66-9. 294. Wachsmann 1987' 126. 343· Hornung 1995: 70-3. 390. Diimichen r884-1894· Chugg 20o4/zoo5.
Minaulr-Goult and Deleuze 1992. 255. Silverman 2000. 295. Zivie 1990; 2000. 344· Wilkinson 1994· 391. Holscher 1954: 27. 438. Empereur 1995.
212. Minault-Gour and Deleuze 1992; 256. Arnold 1992. 296. lkram and Dodson 1998: 258. 345· Carter and Gardiner I9IT 139. 392. Randall-Madver 1902: So. 439· Daszewski 1997.
Valloggia 1986; 1998. 257. Lansing 1933: 15-26. 297. Dodson zooob; Reeves and Wilkinson 346. Keller 1991: 6r. 393· Arnold 199T 31-3. 440. Dunand et al. 1992; lkram and Rossi
213. Minault-Gout and Deleuze 1992; 258. Hayes 1937. 1996. 347· Forman and Quirke 1996: 128, Ikram 394- Verner 2002. 2003, Rossi and Ikram 2004.
Valloggia 1986; 1998. 259. Simpson 1988. 298. Hornung 1990: 74-6. 2003: Chapter 2, Hornung 1999. 395· Verner 1994: 195-208. 441. Exploring Christian funerary tradition
214. Dodson 1992b. 260. Ir has been suggested that the tombs in 299. The best explanation of the imagery in 348. Reeves and Wilkinson 1996: 36-7. 396. Vyse r84o: I, 216-18, 232- 3; II, 131-44. is beyond the scope of the present work;
215. At the time of writing being investigated this area were built much later in the Middle the Valley of the Kings can be found in 349· Le blanc 1989; Weeks 1998; 2000. 397· D'Auria et al. 1988: 176-So. however, see Thomas 2000 for a discussion
by a Liverpool University expedition, to which Kingdom; however, this extension of the Hornung 1982. 350- Seyfried 1998 . 398. Bickel and Taller 1997; Hawass 2003: of funerary sculpture as well as an extensive
we are indebted for information. temenos seems designed to enclose them, 300. Dodson 2003a. 351. Shedid 1994b. 174-79· bibliography on Christian funerary traditions
216. Personal communications, Mark Collier suggesting that they were indeed part if 301. Cf. Dorman 2003. 352. Win lock 1924. 399· Drioton 1954. in Egypt.
and Bill Manley. Amenemhar II's original plan. The contrary 302. Dorman 1988, 1991. 353· Kamal 1916: 90-93 [89° ]. 400. Hawass 2000: 185-92; 2003: 214.
217. Newberry and Griffith 1893-4; see arguments, based on pottery types, probably 303. Neugebauer and Parker 1969. 354· Ayrton, Currelly and Weigall 1904: 9· 401. Aston 1999.
further, below. over-stares the refinement of pottery 304. Cf. Kampp 1996: 93-4. 355· Hayes 1959: 269-71. 402. Mathieson et al. 1995; I99T 31; pi. VI.
218. Arnold 1976. rypologies for rhe middle of the 12th Dynasty. 305. Mond 1905: pl.III. 356. Habachi 195T 97- 102. 403. Petrie 1902: 34-40.
219. Malek 1994; however, excavations by Zahi 26r. Arnold 2002. 306. Davies and Gardiner 1915. 357· Garstang 1901: 21, pi. XXXIII. 404. Petrie 1902: 34·
Hawass have now confirmed that his 262. As does the probable tomb of the wife of N7· Redford 1994: pis XXVIII-XXXII. 358. Randall-Madver 1902: 65, 77-8, 94· 405. Petrie 1902: 36-7; these tombs were
candidate is actually a pyramid of the 5th Senwosrer II at Lahun (621). 308. Ikram and Dodson 1998: 210-12. 359· Lull 2002: 51-9. mis-reconstructed by Mariette as pyramids.
Dynasty, attributable to Menkauhor (cf. 263. De Morgan 1895. 309. Martin 1974, 1989; El-Khouly and Martin 360. Dodson 20oob: 140-6; Monret 1951. 406. Arnold 1997.
Berlandini 1979). 264. Uphill 20oo: 75-9. 1987. 36r. Randall-Madver 1902: 65, 77-8, 94· 407. Jansen-Winkeln 1997.
220. Weill, Tony-Revillon and Pillet 1958. 265. Engelbach 1915. 310. Davies 1923b: 135-45; the other significant 362. Niwinski 1988: 21- 8; 205. 408. Dodson 20oob: 162-3.
221. Weill 1958. 266. Peer et al. 1913-14: II, 35-41. example is of course that of Ramose. 363. Winlock 1942: 94-7. 409. In particular major work in rhe
222. Arnold 1974- 267. Engelbach 1923: 14, 20-23. 311. Davies 1903- 8: VI, 1-6. 364. Graefe 2003. necropoleis of the sacred animals.
223. Naville 1896: 26, pi. 13. 268. Dodson 20oob. 312. Hornung 1992b: 48- 9; 1992c: 125- 7. 365. Srrudwick 2001: 7· 410. D'Auria et al. 1988: 17, 25, called in error
224. Mond and Myers 1940: r88 , pi. r6-r8. 269. Tylor 1896. 313. Raven 2002; 2006; van Walsem 2003. 366. Quibell 1898a. 'Saire'.
225. Winlock 1942: 87, 101- 4. 130. 270. Bietak 1996: 20-r. 314. Dodson 20oob; Martin 1974, 1989; Reeves 367. Quibell 1898: 9-12. 411. Bresciani 1983.
226. Winlock 1955. 271. Polz 2003: 13. and Wilkinson 1996. 368. Nelson 2003; As ton 2003: 138-42. 412. Hawass 2007.
227. Voros 1998. 272. Winlock 1924. 315. Martin 1974, 1989. 369. Dodson 2003d. 413. Petrie 1902: 34·
228. Arnold 1991. 273. Polz 2003; Polz and Seiler 2003. 316. Holscher 1939. 370. Holscher 1954: 8-10. 414- Peuie 1902: 36-7; these tombs were
229. Garstang 1903; Tooley 1995. 274. Polz 2007: 120-22, 133- 7. 317. Cf. Tawfik 2003. 371. Leahy 1990: r86. mis-reconstructed by Mariette as pyramids.
230. Petrie 1900: 21. 275. Dewachter 1985; Dodson 1994: 42. 318. Hasegawa 2003. 372. Gauthier 1921. 415. Arnold 1997.
231. Goedicke 1971. 276. Harvey 1994; O'Connor 2003 . 319. Martin 1991. 373· Badawi 1957. 416. Gomaa and Hegazy 2001.
232. Arnold 1988; 1992. 277. Dodson forthcoming. 320. Ockinga '997· 374· Amelineau r899b: r6- 28; Vernus 1976: 417. Morris 1992.
233. Arnold 1988: 78ff. 278. Dodson 2003e. 321. Piankoff 1955. 67-72. 418. Lefebvre 1923-4; the owner's brother,
234- De Morgan 1903: 29-39. 279. Polz 1995a, b. 322. E.g. in that ofHatshepsut (p. 2rr). 375· See Srrudwick 2001 for a case-study in the Djedthutefankh had served under
235. Brunton 1920; Petrie 1891; Petrie et al. 280. Van Siclen 1980. 323· Martin 1989. form of the tomb of Sennefri of the 18th Nakhthorheb, bur had collaborated with the
1923. 281. Frequently rhe term 'Mansion of millions 324. Martin 1991: 179- 85. Dynasty (TT99), used on repeated occuasions Persians and had therefore been executed
236. Arnold 2002. of years' is applied to this group of temples 325· Martin 1991: 177-85. from the 21st through the 26th Dynasty, a under Alexander.
237. Arnold 1987. (Haring I99T 23-4). 326. Engelbach 1915. pattern that was certainly not uncommon. 419. Gabra 1932.
238. Arnold 2002. 282. Naville 1896-1900; Win lock 1942. 327· Dodson 20oob: 87-128. 376. Barwik 2003; Sheikholslami 2003. 420. Riggs 2006; Strudwick 2003.
239. Arnold 1979b. 283. Blocks found at Medinet Habu, bur 328. Murnane 1990. 377· Naville 1894-5; the contents of the tomb 421. Nagel 1929: 1-5.
240. The material for this is summarized by clearly originally from the Ramesseum 329. Winlock 1942: 9-13. are now in Oxford, Boston and New York. 422. Fakhry 1973-4: ll; Hawass 2000a.
Uphill 2000, albeit with a probably erroneous (Habachi 1969). 330. Martin 1997b. 378. Dunham 1950; 1955; 1958; 1963; Dunham 423. Fakhry 1973-4: I.
reconstruction. 331. Assmann 2003a. and Chap man 1952. 424. Fakhry 1973: 183ff.
3 12 NOTES NOTES 3 13
Chronology Shepseskare
Neferefre
Amenemhat VII
Wegaf
Niuserre Khnedjer
Menkauhor Imyromesha
Isesi InyotefiV
A Note on Egyptian Chronology PREDYNASTIC PERIOD Unas Set(y)
Sobkhotep III
Badarian Culture 5000- 4000 BC 6th Dynasty 2355- 2!90 Neferhotep I
The scheme used by modern scholars for structuring the Naqada I (Amratian) Culture 4000-3500 BC Teti Sihathor
chronology of historical ancient Egypt is based upon one Naqada II (Gerzian) Culture 3500-3150 BC Pepy I Sobkhotep IV
Naqada III Culture 3150-3000 B c Nemtyemsafi (Merenre) Sobkhotep V
drawn up by the Egyptian priest, Manetho, around 300 BC.
Pepy II Sobkhotep VI
He divided the succession of kings into a series of numbered Nemtyemsafii Iaib
'dynasties', corresponding to our idea of royal 'houses' (e.g. EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD
Aya
Plantagenet, Windsor, Bourbon, Hapsburg, Hohenzollern). 1st Dynasty 3050-2820 Inii
FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD Sewadjtu
These broadly fit in with our knowledge of changes in the Narmer
Aha 7th/8th Dynasties 2190-2160 Ined
ruling family, but in some cases the reason for a shift is Djer Hori
unclear. Djet 9thiioth Dynasties (Herakonpolis) 2160-2040 Sobkhotep VII
Historians of ancient Egypt refined this structure by Den Ini II
Anedjib nth Dynasty (Thebes) Neferhotep II
grouping dynasties into 'Kingdoms' and 'Periods', during
Semerkhet Menruhotep I 216o- [9 obscure kings]
which constant socio-political themes can be identified; Qaa Inyotefi -2123 Mentuhotep V
these are broadly the basis for the chronological section of Inyotef II 2n3-207 4
2nd Dynasty 282o-266o Inyotefiii 2074- 2066 Ibi II
this book.
Hotepsekhemwy Hor[ ... ]
Ancient dating was by means of regnal years, rather than Nebre Se[ ... ]kare
the kind of'era' dating used today (eg BC, AD and AH). No Ninetjer MIDDLE KINGDOM Sankhptahi
comprehensive lists of royal reign-lengths survive today, and Weneg [... ]s
nth Dynasty
Sened Senebmiu
thus in most cases the generally accepted lengths of rule for Mentuhotep II 2o66-2or4
Sekhemib/Peribsen
Mentuhotep III 2014- 2001
Egyptian monarchs is only an estimate based on often-scanty Neferkare
Menruhotep IV 2001-1994 SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
evidence. In addition, absolute dates, in terms of years BC, Neferkasokar
Khasekhem/Khasekhemwy 12th Dynasty 14th Dynasty (N. E. Egypt)
have to be established through various indirect methods.
Amenemhat I 1994-1964 15th Dynasty (Hyksos: N. Egypt) 1650- 1535
Some reigns can be fixed by relation to events linked to Semqen
OLD KINGDOM Senwosret I 1974-1929
better-dated cultures, while others can be placed by Amenemhat II 1932-1896 Aper-anati
reference to mentions of various astronomical phenomena. 3rd Dynasty 266o-26oo Senwosret II 1900-1880 Sakirhar
Djoser Senwosret III 1881-1840 Khyan
These allow other reigns' extent to be calculated by dead-
Sanakhte Amenemhat III 1842-1794 Apepi 1585-1545
reckoning. Nevertheless, there remain many areas of Sekhemkhet Amenemhat IV 1798- 1785 Khamudy 1545-1535
uncertainty and, while dating is solid back to 663 BC, Khaba Sobkneferu 1785-1780
margins of error before then may run in excess of a century. Nebkare 16th Dynasty (Thebes) 1650-1590
Huni 13th Dynasty 1780-1650 Djehury
Accordingly, the dates given here should be regarded prior to Sobkhotep VIII
Sobkhotep I
the 7th century as merely indicative, and liable to 4th Dynasty 2600-2470 Sonbef Neferhotep III
comprehensive revision as more data become available. Seneferu Nerikare Mentuhotepi
Khufu AmenemharV Nebiriau I
Rulers shown in parentheses ruled in parallel with others, Djedefre Nebiriau II
Ameny-Qemau
either as a formal eo-regent, or as a rival during a period of Setka Amenemhat VI Semenre
strife. Khafre Nebnuni Bebiankh
Menkaure Iufeni Sekhemre-shedwaset
Shepseskaf Sihornedjhiryotef Dedumose I
Swadjkare Dedumose II
5th Dynasty 2470-2355 Nedjemibre Mentuemsaf
Userkaf Sobkhorep II Mentuhotep VI
Sahure Rensonbe Senwosret IV
Neferirkare Hor
31 4 CHRONOLOG Y CH RONOLOG Y 31 5
17th Dynasty (Thebes) 1585-1549 THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD LATE PERIOD ROMAN PERIOD
Rehotep
21st Dynasty 27th Dynasty (Persians) 30 BC- AD 395
Sobkemsafi
Nesibanebdjedet 1069-1043 Cambyses 525- 522
lnyotefV
Amenemnesu 1043-1039 Darius I 521-486
InyotefVI BYZANTINE PERIOD
(Pinudjem I 1054- 1032) Xerxes I 486-465
InyotefVII
Pasebkhanut I 1039-990 Artaxerxes I 465-424
Sobkemsafii
Amenemopet 990-980
Taa I
Osorkon the Elder 980-974 28th Dynasty
Taa II 1558- rm
Kamose 1553-1549
Siamun 974- 955 Amenirdis (Amyrtaios) 404- 399 ARAB PERIOD
Pasebkhanut II 955- 941
29th Dynasty
NEW KINGDOM 22nd Dynasty Naeferud I 399-393
Shoshenq I 943-922 Pasherenmut 393 OTTOMAN PERIOD
18th Dynasty Osorkon I 922- 886 Hagar 393-380
Ahmose I 1549-1524 (Shoshenq II 890) Naeferud II 380
Amenhotep I 1524-1503 Takelot I 886-870
Thutmose I 1503-1491 Osorkon Il 870-832 3oth Dynasty
Thutmose Il 1491-1479 Shoshenq Ill 832-792
KHEDEVAL PERIOD
Nakhtnebef (Nectanebo I) 380-362
Thutmose Ill 1479- 1424 Shoshenq IV 792- 782 Djehor 362- 360
(Hatshepsut 1472-1457) Pimay 782-776 Nakhthorheb (Nectanebo II) 360-342
Amenhotep II 1424- 1398 Shoshenq V 776- 739
Thutmose IV 1398- 1389 31st Dynasty (Persians) BRITISH PROTECTORATE (SULTANATE)
Amenhotep III 1389-1352 23rd Dynasty (Thebes) Artaxerxes III Ochus 342- 338
Amenhotep IV/ Akhenaten 1352-1335 Harsiese 860-850 Arses 338-336
(Smenkhkare 1339) Takelot !I 835-810 Darius Ill 335-332
Neferneferuaten 1388-1332) Pedubast I 824- 801 MONARCHY
Tutankhaten/amun 1335-1325 Iuput I 809-793
Ay 1335- 1321 Osorkon Ill 793-765 HELLENISTIC PERIOD
Horemheb 1321-1291 Takelot III 770- 760 Dynasty ofMacedon
Rudamun 760-740 Alexander III 332-323
19th Dynasty REPUBLIC
Iny 740-735 Philip III Arrhidaeus 323-317
Ramesses I 1291-1290 Peftjauawybast 735-725 1953-
Sery I 1290-1279 Alexander IV 317- 310
Ramesses Il 1279-1203 23rd Dynasty (Tanis)
Merenptah 1203-n93 Dynasty ofPtolemy
Pedubast II 739-737 Ptolemy I Soter 310-282
Sety II II93-n87 Osorkon IV 737- 720
(Amenmesse II92-u88) Ptolemy II Philadelphos 285-246
Siptah n87-n81 Ptolemy III Euergetes I 246- 222
24th Dynasty (Sais) Ptolemy IV Philopator 222-205
Tawosret n81-II79 Tefnakhte 732- 724 Ptolemy V Epiphanes 205-180
Bakenrenef 724- 718 Ptolemy VI Philometor 180-164
2oth Dynasty
Setnakhte ll79-II77 Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II 170- 163
25th Dynasty Ptolemy VI (again) 163-145
Ramesses III II77- II45 Piye 753-722
Ramesses IV II45-II39 Ptolemy VIII (again) 145-n6
Shabaka 722-707 Ptolemy IX Soter II n6- no
Ramesses V Amenhirkopshefi II39- II35 Shabataka 707- 690
Ramesses VI Amenhirkopshefii n35-n27 Ptolemy X Alexander I no-109
Taharqa 690-664 Ptolemy IX (again) 109-107
Ramesses VII Itamun n27- 1n9 Tanutamun 664-656
Ramesses VIII Sethirkopshef III9-III8 Ptolemy X (again) 107- 88
Ramesses IX Khaemwaset I urS-1099 Ptolemy IX (again) 88-8o
Ramesses X Amenhirkopshefiii 1099-1096 SAITE PERIOD (Ptolemy XI So)
Ramesses XI Khaemwaset I! 1096-1069 Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos So- 58
26th Dynasty Berenice IV 56
Psametik I 664-610 Ptolemy XII (again) 55-51
Nekau II 610- 595 Cleopatra VII Philopator 51- 30
Psametik II 595-589 (Ptolemy XIII 51- 47)
Wahibre (Apries) 589- 570 (Ptolemy XIV 47-44)
Ahmose Il (Amasis) 570-526 (Ptolemy XV Caesar 41- 30)
Psametik III 526- 525
322 THE PRI N Cl PAL CEMETERIES THE PR I N Cl PAL CEM ETE RI ES 323
Map I The Cemet eries of Egypt (numbers refer to those in the list of principal cemeteries, pp. 320-23).
MAP lA
Med1terroneo n Sea
~ ~'---...=------1
• Jell el{eDlma (Pelusium)
Mi~-~!:pt'Abu O mar 5
BaC.~.~l\i...l)."'-·. , ., ...
~ -Marina ei-Aiamein 12 Kom Firin 14 • ·······-.......
Kom ei-Hisn 15 • -....
S INA l
EI-Qatta 2l·~·-..,
40miles
Kom Ausim 24•
lmbaba 27
Abu Rowash 28 G 29
_____.
.... 50 km
Deshasha 59 ~./
MAP IB m \ • EI-Hawawish 96
Akhm~ MAP IC
Wanina 97 4 ···:. .
EI-Hagarsa 98 ;;·•.., \ Naga ei-De~r 99
...., ;j / She1kh Farag I00
Raqaqna 102 ~\ 0 · ~••. • N-~~<)..ei-Meshay1kh I0 I
Zawiyet Barmas~,a~ 64
Beit Khallaf 103 • ·; ..,G. ~rge~bls~~~r~'ot.o;,v,
11
~Ben 1 Hasan 69
Balansura 68 • -.~. lstabl Antar 70
Ashmur;ein, • ·•.She1kh Abada 72
Sede1nga
Sole b 140 •
0 lOO miles
7' f De~r ei-Bersha 73
Tuna ei-Gebel 7
I 50 km
~- •;Sheikh Said 74
0
,...J• Tell ei-Amarna 75- Map 3
Meir77
. ,, ; , Sheikh Atia 76
-~- Q useir ei-Amarna 78
EI-Qus~y.\'h0
·....... ., . EI-Mae..bda 79
····• Deir E:J_-Gebrawi 80
~Arab ei-Mit eir 83
I I~
EI-Atamna 82 • '· o-{EI-Atawla 84
Asyut 85 • , \!
Matmar 86
De~r
Rlfeh 87 ;\ \ . • Mostagedda 88 I
\ \ ....-- DeirTasa 89
EI-Badari 91 '~ . ·.... EI-Hamamiya 92
Zarabl 90 ;., ?' ~Qau e i-Kebir 93
l-------~-- 40~miles ·"<..•~ "'% · 0 40 miles
SO km 0 50 km
324 MAPS
Qubbet ei-Hawa 127 •' ~ Aswan
MAP 2c MAP
Map 2 The Memphite Necropolis (for key to numbered tombs, see appropriate cemeteries' entries in the index).
(
r.
..
ABU ROWASH
)
GIZA MAP2A
'i"
SAQQARA-NORTH
.-.,~
~ ( I
I
I
ABUGUROB~
ABUS/R ~
MAP2c
r-L.ff··\
Jo#'c, <...
SAQQARA-NORTH 0·
MAP2o 0 ~. 4
t
so.oom
~----------~
•
MAZGHUNA
326 MA PS MA PS 327
Map 4 Abydos (le tters denote speCific cemeteries; for individual tombs within them, see Abydos entry in the index) .
Map 3 Tell ei-Amarna (letters refer to the city's Boundary Stelae; for key to numbered tombs, see Tell ei-Amarna entry in the index) .
K L N
----------~5L00~--------~1~000m
NORTH D
CEMETERY
G_
vo~0 Ds
y
0 0 '-'
I I I HEQARESHU
\
:\' \
\
0
'}.{_
t UIF
""
i\1. 236
0 1000 m
100m
I. ....
··_,)' QURNA
@ em
\ ,\
~C: tNebwenenef
(,.·
...........
(
J/
fD:AMENHOTEP I &
4 ,/
AHMES-NEFERTIRY
. ,., ·•..i
)(~
' AHMES ·
NEF~RnRY
MAP 58
200m
] ./ ,
f:
~~ATSHEPSUT
~ ~\ (Valley Temple(
r =·4 ""- ·
GKAi) ~
'* c!:'l:,
SIPTHAH
r-/
?£
,11:
0 100
t 200 300 m
j
)! /
t!
):
lJ..r
r~
332 MAPS MAPS 333
Map SE The Theban Necropolis: Deir ei-Med ina ((or key to numbered tombs, see Theban Tombs and Deir ei-Medina entries in the index).
0t..__ _ _ _ _ _- - J50 m
Map SF The Theban Necropolis:the Val ley of the Queens ((or key to numbered tombs, see the Valley o(the Queens entry in the index) .
oL-_ __________~som
11
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/igyptens. Rainer Stadelmann gewidmet
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UReed C. Eyre, A. Leahy and L.M. Leahy
(eds.), The Unbroken Reed: Studies in the
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(London: EES). Ho nor ofWilliarn Kelly Simpson, 2vv. Honou r ofA. F Shore (London: Egypt
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~X
368 INDEX
AmAN DonsoN is a Research and Teaching Fellow
in Archaeology at the University of Bristol, where he
teaches Egyptology. He is the author of ten books
and over two hundred papers and articles. Among
his books are The Mummy in Ancient Egypt (1998;
with Salima Ikram), The Pyramids ofAncient Egypt
(2003) and The Complete Royal Families of Ancient
Egypt (2004; with Dyan Hilton) .
I
Thame!>a. Hucb on ,'
r8rA High Holborn, London ~crv 7QX
www. thamesandhudson.com
Printed in China
The first
full survey of Egyptian
royal and private tombs,
from the great pyramids
to the burial grounds
ofwestern Thebes
~ 9
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