DODSON• SALIMA

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Tli~ Tomb in Ancient Egypt
Royal and Private Sepulchres from
the Early D n.tstic Period to the Romans
"'
Aidan Dod!>:-ln and Salima Ikram

HE TOMBS OF ANCIENT EGYPT are for many the

:fining monuments of that extraordinary civiliza-
)n. From the pyramids along the Nile and the
'Yal burial ground in the Valley of the Kings to the
,mbs of queens such as Ramesses II's consort
efertari and the far larger number of private tombs
: nobles like Rekhmire and Ramose, The Tomb in
ncient Egypt is an unparalleled guide for aficiona-
)S and Egyptologists alike.

esides the paintings, reliefs and statues adorning

teir walls, many tombs show the breathtaking
:.ill of ancient architects, and autobiographical
:xts found within give rare insights into Egyptian
Fe. We read of Harkhuf's African explorations,
:turning with the gift of a dancing dwarf to his
oy-king, Pepy 11, and we learn how the General
menemheb saved his king's life when charged by
1 enraged elephant.

7ritten by two experts in the field, authors of The

1ummy in Ancient Egypt, this new book traces
urial practices in Egypt over three millennia, from
1e dawn of Egyptian history to the Roman domi-
ation. It also illuminates the work of key scholars
'ho excavated and catalogued their finds for posterity,
r1d includes a comprehensive list of the principal
~meteries, with glossary and maps for ease of refer-
llce. Richly illustrated with photographs of the
10numents and their art, plus numerous diagrams
r1d reconstruction drawings, this is an essential and
uthoritative resource for all those passionate about
ncient Egypt.

With 402 illustrations, 28 in colour

.. - . ~ ON TH E JACKET :
! he ka-s/.:"c of Mereruka sreps out of his false-door in his 6th Dynasty tomb
hapel >.t Saqqara. Photo: Al bert Shoucair, © Thames & Hudso n Ltd, London

L
 THE TOMB
IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Roya l and Pr ivate Se pulc hre s
from t he Earl y Dynast ic Pe r io d
t o the Ro ma ns

·a
[,
 A I DA N DO D SON A N D SA L I M A I K RAM

THE TOMB
IN ANCIENT EGYPT
Royal and Pr ivate Sepulc hres fro m
the Ea r ly Dyn ast ic Pe ri od
to the Ro mans

W ith 402 ill ustrat io ns, 28 in co lo ur

~ Thames & Hudson

To the memory ofDivisional Sergeant Major Donald Sydney Dodson,
The Queens Body Guard ofThe Yeomen ofthe Guard
Contents
I9 January I925- 23 March 2005

PREFACE 7 Chapter 8
T H E FIRST INTERMEDIA TE PERIOD,
FRONTISPIECE: Anubis holds the mummy ofRoy before the stela of his INTRODUCTIO N 8 MIDDLE KINGDOM AND
tomb, while Roy's wife kneels in grief before him (TT255, late 18th SECOND IN TERMEDIATE PERIOD 186
Dynasty).
Part I
Chapter 9
Designed by Thomas Keenes Chapter I T HE N EW KIN GDO M: TH E EARLY YEA RS 209
EGYPTIAN MORTUARY BELIEFS
Chapter 10
Any copy of this book issued by the publisher as a paperback is sold AND THE NATU RE O F T HE T OMB 12
THE NEW KINGDOM: THE A MARNA YEARS 229
subject to the condition that it shall not by way of trade or otherwise be
lent, resold, hired out or otherwise circulated without the publisher's Chapter 2
Chapter II
prior consent in any form of binding or cover other than chat in which it is THE TOM B A ND SOCI ETY 23
published and without a similar condition including these words being
T H E NEW KINGDO M: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 247
imposed on a subsequent purchaser. Chapter 3
C hapter 1 2
CONSTRUCTION A N D D ECORAT ION 31
First published in the United Kingdom in 2008 by THE TH IRD IN TERM EDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS 270
Thames & Hudson Led, I8IA High Holborn, Chapter 4
London WCIV 7QX C hapter 13
THE STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN T O MB 55
T HE LATE AND GRAECO-RO MAN PERIODS 288
www.thamesandhudson.com
Part 11
© 2008 T hames & Hudson Led, London Part IV
Chapter 5
NI Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or
transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical,
T HE D ECORATION OF THE TOMB 76 NOTES 310
including photocopy, recording or any other information storage and CHRONOLOGY 314
retrieval system, without prior permission in writing from the publisher. Part Ill GLOSSARY 318
Chapter 6 T H E PRIN CIPAL CEM ET ERIES 320
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library MAPS 324
PREDYNASTIC A N D EARLY DYN ASTIC PERIODS 132
A BBREVIATIONS AN D BIBLI OGRAPHY 336
ISBN 978-0-500-05139-9 Chapter 7 SOURCES O F ILLUSTRATIONS 359
THE OLD KINGDOM 142 INDEX 360
Printed and bound in China by Everbest Printing Co. Ltd.
 Preface

A !though Egyptology as a science is two centuries old, it and magnificence of the royal tombs to blind one to such
is surprising how few volumes provide a systematic coverage areas of convergence. While almost infinitely greater in size
of particular types of monuments. This is especially true and complexity, the Great Pyramid at G iza is actually made
with the tombs of ancient Egypt, ubiquitous as they are in up of th e same basic components as the very smallest of the
the popular conception of the country and its culture. private tombs that lie at its foot.
While there are many books available on particular types of The broad division oflabour in the writing of this book
comb (for example the pyramids), individual monuments, has been between the architectural and archaeological
sites or specific aspects of comb design (for example O ld aspects of the tombs, which are the responsibility ofDodson
Kingdom decorative schemes), no modern work attempts to and the technological and sociological material, together
deal with Egyptian tombs as a whole. with decorative schemes, which are from the pen oflkram,
Generally, royal and private tombs are rarely considered although our pens (or perhaps, rather, keyboards and mice)
together, leading to many misunderstandings. T hus one still have not infrequently strayed across these boundaries! The
finds it stated as a 'fact' that private and royal tombs of the remainder of the volume is generally a joint effort.
New Kingdom differ in that while the former are decorated We would like to express our thanks to the following
with scenes of daily life, the latter have scenes of the friends, colleagues and loved ones for hospitality, help,
underworld. This stems from a failure to grasp that the two permissions, photographs, information and assorted
sets of monuments in question had completely different kindnesses: T omas Bacs; Ladislav Bard; M iroslav Barta;
functions. T he private 'tombs' with 'daily life' scenes are Violaine Chauvet; Andrew Chugg; Mark Collier; Lorelei
actually public offe ring places, their royal equivalent being Corcoran; Martin R. D avies; Dana DePietro; Francis
not the sepulchres in the Valley of the Kings but the great Ozokowski; C hristine End; Fayza Haikal; Melinda H artwig,
mortuary temples, such as D eir el-Bahari and Medinet Z ahi Hawass; O yan Hilcon; Sheila Hilcon; Alison Hobby;
Habu, whose decoration includes equivalent 'daily life' Janice Kamrin; Jaromir Malek; Bill Manley; Elizabeth
elements. Conversely, the equivalent of the Valley of the M iles; Karol M ysliwiec; David O 'C onnor; Sara Ore!;
Kings monuments are the subterranean pits, passages and Maarten Raven; J an et Richards; Otto Schaden; J .J. Shirley;
chambers that lie below most of the private 'combs'. On the lbrahim Soliman; Hourig Sourouzian; Nigel Strudwick;
rare occasions that these are decorated, their adornment is John Swanson; John Taylor; Francesco Tiradritti; Medhat
like\Vise based on compositions dealing with the Saad; Miroslav Verner; Nathalie Walschaerts; Leslie
underworld - sometimes the very same ones. Warden; Nich olas W arner; Kent Weeks; Penny W ilson;
T hus, this volume aims to tell the story of the Egyptian Alain Z ivie; and the Inspectors and gaffirs throughout
tomb, its developmen t, construction and study, in an Egypt. To any we have omitted, we extend our sincere
integrated manner. Royal combs will be considered apologies.
alongside their private contemporaries and similarities
emphasized where they exist, rather than allowing the size Bristol and Cairo Aidan Dodson and Salima Ikram

P RE FAC E 7
 Introduction

'Little is in life on earth, Eternity is in the necropolis' decorated, especially during the New Kingdom, and give us
(AM EN) USER (TT131), 18TH D YNASTY ' some of our best evidence for the minutiae of Egyptian
religion. Tombs remain fundamental to our understanding
The tombs of ancient Egypt remain, for many, the defining of life on the ancient banks of the Nile: one is able to follow
monuments of that civilization. This is not because the the agricultural and domestic life of the country; the
Egyptians were an overly morose and morbid group of industrial processes that created some of the monuments at
people, obsessed by death, but rather because they were which the world still marvels; social organization and
obsessed by life and wished it to continue. Tomb familial relationships; and funerary beliefs and the
construction and decoration were key to the continuation ceremonies that accompanied an ancient Egyptian burial.
of existence, albeit on another plane. Tomb-chapels enshrined the name and profession of
The burial places of the nobiliry, artisans and lesser folk their owners, but frequently we can learn more about his 2 The Valley of the Kings. with EI-Q um in the backgro und the entrance to Ramesses VI's tomb (KV9) can be seen in the right fo reground and
of ancient Egypt are fundamental to our understanding of or her family and life. While the latter aspect is often only those of Sety I and Ramesses I (KV 17 and I6) on the left.
that great civilization. From tombs come both the physical a tantalizing glimpse, in a few cases we find extensive
remains of the ancients and their possessions, and the autobiographical texts. In the famous example of the 6th where there is no autobiographical text, there may be clues historical document, a number of tombs being the sole
decorations of their walls open significant vistas on life lived Dynasty African explorer Harkhuf (Aswan QH34n) , we in the texts or layout of the decoration that will provide evidence that a particular king had ever lived.
on the banks of the Nile. Small or large, they often contain read of his African explorations and his return to his evidence of the events contemporary with the tomb's However, the importance of Egyptian tombs is not
extremely fine examples of rwo- and three-dimensional art, boy-king, Pepy II , bringing with him a dancing dwarf; in construction. A good example is the tomb of the Vizier limited to purely historical and sociological aspects: they
which are also important objects of modern study. another (QH26), we learn of a journey into the desert by Ramose (TT 55) , in which a sudden change in the are also frequently stunning works of art and architecture.
Owing to the richness and ubiquiry of tomb sites and a son bent on avenging his father's murder and bringing decorative style shows how its owner presided over the Ramose's tomb, for example, besides being a key document
the relatively small number of archaeologically accessible home his body for decent burial. Yet more texts describe transition from the reign of the New Kingdom pharaoh for the study of the early Amarna Period, is also adorned
settlement sites, the larger part of our knowledge of ancient a man's participation in the ancient mystery-play ofOsiris, Amenhotep Ill to that of his 'heretic' son and successor, with some of the finest reliefs ever executed in Egypt. Other
Egyptian sociery and history is still derived from the study of god of the dead; the construction of the first royal tomb Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten). particularly choice monuments include the 5th Dynasry
sepulchres. Egyptian tombs were divided into rwo portions: in the Valley of the Kings (TT81); the duties of the Vizier; Mortuary temples, the royal equivalents of the private Saqqara tomb ofTi, the 26th Dynasry sepulchre of
the accessible tomb-chapel, which was decorated and bore the way in which General Amenemheb (TT85) saved his tomb-chapels, usually omit such elements, instead focusing Mentuemhat (TT34) and the exquisite 19th Dynasry royal
vivid depictions of the world in which the tomb-owner(s) king's life when charged by an enraged elephant. Even on the pharaohs' cosmic roles as a god in heaven and on tombs ofSery I (KVq) and his daughter-in-law Nefertiry
lived, and the burial chamber, usually undecorated, which earth, with only occasional hints at events during the (Nefertari; QV66) . Another tomb, that ofPetosiris at Tuna
contained the body and the grave goods. Burial installations I (above) Banquet scene from the I8th Dynasty tomb-chapel of monarch's reign. The very existence of a royal burial el-Gebel, illustrates its period- that of the beginning of the
of the kings were unusual in that they were not infrequently Nebamun at Thebes (TIE.2: BM EA37984) . installation, however, is sometimes in itself a fundamental Greek dominion over Egypt- by being adorned with a

8 INTRODUCTION I NTRODUCTION 9
composite form of art, which attempts to fuse elements of
both Hellenic and Egyptian practice.
Besides the paintings, reliefs and statues adorning their
walls, many tombs are significant manifestations of the
architect's craft. At one extreme, there is the sheer scale of the
royal pyramids of the 4th Dynasty, still the most massive free-
standing monuments raised by mankind; at the other is the
ingenuity displayed in some of the tombs of the Middle
Kingdom and Saite Period, where much skill was expended in
protecting the sepulchre from the attentions of tomb robbers.
Unfortunately, in spite of such efforts, the cemeteries of
Egypt have been the subject of extensive plundering since
4 The rear wall ofthe early 12th Dynasty to m b ~c ha pe l of
the very earliest times. Nonetheless, tombs have revealed Kh numhotep 1i i at Beni Hasan ( B H ~ II I) , w ith t he cl ass ic Egyptian scenes
vast quantities of funerary equipment, ranging from of fishing and fow ling. Th e lower part of t he wall bears t he to mb~
everyday items to gorgeous jewelry and luxury mortuary owne r's autobiography.
'
items. Amongst these are the furniture ofHetepheres,
mother of Khufu (G;oooX); the treasures of the 12th their influence on the design of the tomb. The next chapter
Dynasty princesses at Dahshur; ofYuya and Tjuiu (KV46), examines the spatial organization within cemeteries, the
parents-in-law of Amenhotep Ill; ofKha and Meryet (TT8), layout of the tombs and what this may tell us about ancient
the form er being in charge of the construction of the royal Egyptian culture and social organization. This is followed
tomb during the middle years of the r8th Dynasty; of by a discussion on the methods of tomb construction,
Tutankhamun (KV62), the richest of all such finds; of decorative techniques and the builders and artisans
Pasebkhanut I (NRT-III) of the 21st Dynasty. Sadly, other responsible for the construction of the tombs. The section
items in our museums are monuments to the tombs' concludes with a history of the key figures who have studied
destruction . The beautiful fragments of wall-decoration the Egyptian tombs, freeing them from the all-embracing
displayed were usually removed at the cost of the utter sands and clearing and copying them.
destruction of the remainder of the scenes that first attracted Part II gives an overview of the fundamentals of tomb
the cupidity of vandals and self-proclaimed antiquarians. decoration in a high-level way, considering the iconographic
Vandals, often in the guise of collectors and antiquities approaches taken by the Egyptian designer and then
dealers, have been responsible for large-scale destruction in discussing the individual kinds of scene that are to be found
tombs. For example, in Theban Tomb (TT) 222, two within Egyptian funerary monuments. These range from
portions of the wall decoration were removed (and later particular motifs such as hunting and weaving to much larger
sold in the international art market), which resulted in the units such as the Book of the Dead and the Pyramid Texts.
destructio n of most of the decoration on the surrounding The story of the Egyptian tomb is traced in Part Ill,
walls. The tomb was also burnt, out of sheer malice. Some from the dawn of Egyptian history down to the Roman
tombs have been bulldozed in order to gain access to the domination. A range of typical and exceptional tomb
burial chamber. In addition to tomb robbers, many tombs designs are described and illustrated, from the multiple
have also been destroyed to a large extent through the points of view of architecture, decorative arrangement,
vicissitudes of time, visitors, pollution, weather and reuse. style, location and contents.
The volume concludes with Part IV, providing a
This book is divided into four sections. Part I starts with a conspectus of the main cemeteries of Egypt, maps and a
discussion of what is known of Egyptian funerary beliefs and bibliography. The latter and extensive endnotes aim to
provide between them references to all the key works
3 (left) The entrance t o t he 5th Dynasty mortuary temple of Sahure dealing with Egyptian tombs in general and the particular
at Abu Sir. monuments discussed in the text.

I N TR O D UC TION 11
 Part I

Chapter I Egyptian Mortuary Beliefs

and the Nature of the Tomb

' When you prosper, found your household .... When you The afterlife that the Egyptians were attempting to
make a place for yourself, make good your dwelling in the attain and maintain was visualized as a more perfect Egypt
graveyard. Make worthy your dwelling in the west.' in which they, as a maa kheru, or 'justified one', could pass
INSTRUCTIONS OF H O RDJEDEF, 4TH 0 YNASTY 2 an ideal life eternally and harmoniously in the company of
the gods. This place, which could be either a mirror image
The preservation and housing of the body on earth so that of Egypt, subterranean, or even celestial, was often called
the individual could be resurrected formed a fundamental the Fields oflaru, or Field of Reeds, and was the domain
part of the ancient Egyptian view of the necessities for the of the god Osiris (see below). Here the deceased could live
afterlife. Consequently, provision of eternal accommodation eternally at one with the gods.
for the body in the fo rm of a tomb was granted high priority Our knowledge of the Egyptians' belief in the afterlife
by the well-to-do Egyptian. Of course, the less well-off were is largely derived from New Kingdom and later evidence,
also concerned with their life in the hereafter. In their case, although the basic ideas appear to h ave been in place from
however, economic reality determined that they would have the beginning of Egyptian history, evolving over time.
to be content with a hole scooped in the low desert, the only Throughout Egypt's long and varied history there remained
luxury being perhaps burial in some fo rm of coffin, rather one essential element that was the cornerstone of the
than simple wrapping in one's own sleeping mat, or Egyptians' belief in the afterlife: maat. This was the divine
possessing a grave marker in the form of a stela. order and balance that had to be maintained if the universe
Cemeteries tended to be located on the Nile's west bank, were to continue. It was every individual's responsibility to
the side of the setting sun that marked the end of the day. contribute to maintaining the balance of the cosmos (maat)
This was not always practical, so that many burials occur on by living a good and balanced life (one of the symbols for
the east; however, such tombs contain an internal geography the maintenance of maatwas a pair of scales), although the
that fits with the Egyptian belief system. burden of responsibility for this fell on the pharaoh and
priests. By appeasing the gods through offerings and prayers
and by living within the laws of maat, life could continue in
5 (/eft) An image of King Ramesses VI before the goddess Maat (KV9:
Egypt and in the afterworld.
20th Dynasty).
The tomb was the point of contact between the wo rlds
6 (above) The Opening-of-the-Mouth ceremony, as shown in the of the living and of the dead and provided a space where
tomb of Pairi (IT 139: 18th Dynasty) . both worlds could co-exist symbiotically. Tombs were

EGYP T I AN MORTUARY BELIEFS AN D THE NATURE OF THE TOMB 13

divided into two portions, the tomb-chapel or super- access- indeed, the regular visits of priests and family to
structure and the burial chamber or substructure. The celebrate the cult of the dead was its whole reason for
substructure, equivalent to the netherworld, was the realm existence- the burial chamber was intended to be secure.
of the dead, while the decorated tomb-chapel, accessible to Although in most cases constructed close to the chapel-
the living, was the point where the two worlds intersected, often directly under it- in others it was constructed at some
connected by the burial shaft. Generally, with the notable distance. The most extreme examples of this are the royal
exception of the Valley of the Kings, the portions of the
tombs that are visited today are the tomb-chapels, although
burial places of the Early Dynastic Period and the New
Kingdom, which lay in some cases 3 or 4 km (2-2.5 miles)
~

~ -
( dlij

,~f~
access to burial chambers through shafts or sloping passages, from their associated mortuary temples or enclosures. ~

blocked in antiquity, is now sometimes possible. T he approach to the burial chamber was closed after the ~
~

The superstructure or tomb-chapel was the 'public' part

of the tomb and the focus of the celebration of the cult of
interment, options ranging from walling up the door, a
simple filling of the shaft with rubble, through large la ~
the deceased. In the earliest times only a stela served as the
focus of the offering place, but this soon expanded to
blocking stones to elaborate sealing mechanisms including
the use of sand-powered 'hydraulics' in the late Middle
r;~
~

include first a simple superstructure, which later became an Kingdom and Late Period (see pp. 205, 286). The =
elaborate complex, richly decorated with scenes from 'daily substructure was rarely decorated and when it was, the
life'. A complete funerary chapel thus came into existence decorations concentrated on the netherworld, rather than
and became a clear requirement for any fully equipped that of the living. In the case of the royal tombs of the New
sepulchre. Its form varied, depending on the local Kingdom, the burial chambers were an elaborate invocation
geography: cut into the flank of a rocky outcrop in some of the world of the sun god, in whose company the pharaoh
locations; free-standing or incorporated into the core of a would see out eternity.
bench-shaped structure known as a 'mastaba'J in others.
Various combinations of these types, with their associated PROVIDING FOR THE BODY AND THE SOUL 8 O si ri s, ruler of the dead, on a fragment of an I 8th Dynasty stela
decorations, are of course to be found and will be described (Chiddingstone Castle) .
and discussed below. 'I am strong therein; I am glorious there; I eat there ... ;
9 Mutilated hieroglyphs on the
The substructure of the tomb was the abode of the I plough and reap there; I drink and eat there; I make aloud: the articulation of the name magically charged the coffin of Hor; from Dahshur
corpse. It could consist of a single room or a labyrinth of love there.' life-force of the deceased so that he or she could flourish in (CM CG281 06: 13th Dynasty).
corridors and chambers, housing one or many bodies. This BOOK OF THE D EAD, SPELL no, NEW KlNGDOM the afterworld.
element was wholly separate from the chapel and the The ancient Egyptians believed in the magic and power Many tombs contained texts that are called 'Appeals to
superstructure. While the latter was intended for continued The Egyptians believed that the individual was made up of of both written and spoken words. One of their creation the Living', which ask the living visitors to say a prayer or
several parts, some physical, others metaphysical. These myths refers to how the great god Atum had a thought or even just the name of the deceased so that he or she can
7 Section of an Old Kingdom mastaba. showing the key elements of parts were: khet, the body; ren, the name; shuyet, the shadow; conception and then, by voicing it, it came into being. thrive in the afterworld. The name was what gave people
an Egyptian tomb. ka, the double or life-force; ba, the personality or soul; and The Egyptians believed that once a word was written down, their identity and its protection and promulgation was
akh, the spirit. A considerable portion of Egyptian funerary it was inherently magical and could make whatever was therefore crucial to their eternal survival. If one wanted to
religion was dedicated to ensuring the survival not only of written true, especially when spoken aloud, an act which punish an enemy, the worst thing to do would be to remove
SUPERSTRUCTURE
the body by mummification, but of all these components. breathed life into the words. Thus, the representations on his name from his tomb as this one most severe act would

- I
r---
The tomb was a house for eternity, the repository of all the walls could come alive and make real what they depicted render him nameless and beingless in the Fields of laru.
Chapel

Shaft
1\ parts of the personality, but most importantly of the body
and the name. The former was mummified, wrapped in
and had to be chosen with care lest some dangerous being This damnatio memoriae has been carried out in some tombs
came into existence in a tomb. This is why sometimes one (e.g. the Vizier Rawer at Saqqara, KVro and WV23 [both in
bandages and then protected both physically and magically finds hieroglyphs of potentially harmful animals being the Valley of the Kings] and Theban Tombs 39, 42, 48 and
SUBSTRUCTURE by being placed in coffins and a sarcophagus. It was finally disarmed in some way: snakes are shown with a cut in their 71, to name but a few).

u
Bunal chamber
interred in the burial chamber, cut deep into the rock and
secured against intruders. Magical texts, inscribed both on
the exterior and the interior of the tomb, made the person
body, lions are shown without legs and so-on, lest these
dangerous beasts come to life and damage the tomb-owner.
These precautions were especially common in the Middle
The shadow, appearing in funerary texts, was a reflection
of the body through the sun, itself the quintessential symbol
of resurrection and rebirth. An image created by the sun, the
live forever, especially when the name was spoken or read Kingdom. shadow would vanish and reappear with the help of the sun.

14 EGYPT IAN MOR TU ARY BE L I EFS AND THE NATU RE OF THE TOMB EGY PTIAN MORTUARY BEL I EFS A N D THE NATUR E OF THE TOMB 15
Thus, during life it was a constant reminder and reassurance deceased, apparently frozen in its passage between the two and texts, became identified with the realm of Osiris, rather
of rebirth and in death would also be granted the protection worlds. The false-door was arguably the most potent place in than merely serving as a conduit to it.
it needed to continue and emphasize its role as an agent of the tomb as it was the point where the worlds of the dead While Osiris was the ruler of the dead and especially
resurrection. and the living came together and, as such, the focus of the prominent in funerary iconography from the New Kingdom
The ka, ba and akh, all aspects of the soul and cult celebrations of the deceased. and later, a wide range of other deities are found in mortuary
personality, are as difficult to understand as our concept of Related to such false-doors are the statues that were contexts from the Old Kingdom onwards. Amongst these
soul. The ka was depicted with a pair of up raised arms on placed in serdabs (Arabic for 'cellar'), closed rooms are Osiris' sisters, Isis and Nephthys, who traditionally
top of the head, while the ba was shown as a human-headed connected to the main chapel, if at all, by a narrow hole or guarded the foot and head of the corpse respectively and
bird, sometimes with a pair of arms. The akhwas rarely slit in the partition wall. This allowed the statues to 'see' out are often depicted as mourning Osiris. The funeral rituals
depicted, although it was written using the hieroglyphic sign and for incense and prayers to reach them, while remaining suggest that some of the chief female mourners or even
of the Hermit or Bald Ibis, Geronticus eremita. The ka and safe and hidden in the mysterious darkness. priestesses took on the persona of these divinities when
the body were created simultaneously by Khnum, the conducting funeral rites outside and within the tomb-
creator-god, on his potter's wheel. Both continued through TH E REALM O F OSIR IS chapel. Thus, during the course of the funeral, as the
life and into death, rather like doppelgangers or twins. The deceased became a divine akh, the mourners and officiants
kawas the animating force for the individual and, according The tomb could be viewed as a passageway to the realm of at the funeral took on the personae of different divinities,
to texts dating from the Old Kingdom onwards, it outlasted the dead, the Fields oflaru, ruled by Osiris. Myth had it that so moving the funeral into the divine plane.
the body, while needing the same sustenance as the body he had been a prehistoric king, son of the earth-god Geb and Two other goddesses, Neith and Selqet, regularly join
had needed during life. Thus, the offerings depicted on I 0 lnherkh au and hi s ba praisi ng each other in h1s tomb at Deir the sky-goddess Nut, murdered and later dismembered by them in their protective duties, along with four beings
tomb walls, or placed in the tomb, were for the sustenance ei-Med1na (TI359: 20th Dynasty). his brother, Seth. The body's parts were ultimately rescued known as the 'Four Sons ofHorus' . Named Imseti,
of the ka, which absorbed the potential sustenance that the and reassembled by his sister-wife Isis (with whom he was to Hapy, Duamutef and Qebehsenuef, the Four Sons were
offerings provided and was therefore 'charged' so that it associated with the stars and the gods. To become akhwas posthumously sire a son, Horus), embalmed by the jackal- particularly linked with the internal organs, removed during
could be active in the afterlife. After the death of an the ultimate means of securing a successful afterlife. Thus, headed god, Anubis and resurrected to become ruler and mummification. However, they also have their place
individual, the ka resided in the mummified body of the individuals who had lived lives not in keeping with the rules judge of the dead. He is almost always represented with a guarding the flanks of the corpse, in conjunction with two
deceased, as well as in the burial chamber and tomb-chapel of maatwould not achieve the state of being akh and would fully sheathed body, which became the characteristic aspect aspects of the embalming-god, Anubis, named Imywet and
and any representations of the deceased that they contained. be consumed by Ammit (see below) . ofOsiris as a wrapped mummy. There is, however, an Khentysehnetjer.
The bird-bodied ba was a more active part of the spirit, It should be remembered that kings, who were divine interesting question as to whether this meant that Osiris was Various other divine beings inhabit the world of the
being able to move through the tomb, into the cemetery and beings, had a different afterlife and as a consequence being represented as a mummy- or that the mummy was dead; some are true gods, to whom temples were built, such
beyond. According to some texts, in life the ba could be different tombs and cultic practices in which to achieve it, represented as Osiris. In favour of the latter is the fact that as Ptah, Hathor, Anubis and Atum, to name but a few.
released from a sleeping body to travel. Like the ka it had all from non-royal individuals. The divinity of the king meant the classic fully wrapped mummy only begins to be found
the characteristics enjoyed by a human: an ability to eat, that after death he joined with the gods and journeyed with after the rise to prominence of Osiris late in the Old
drink, speak, move and, unlike the ka, a capacity for travel. the sun god as part of his entourage. Kingdom. Early mummies have a very different aspect,4 I I ls1s as a kite conceives Ho r us with the mummified body of Osiris
Despite this facility, the bawas tied to the physical body to The ba and the ka both had human characteristics and while other sheathed gods exist who have nothing to do with (te mpl e of Set y I.Abydos: 19th Dynast y).

ensure the survival of the deceased in the afterlife. The human needs, regardless of whether they were royal or not. death, such as M in and Ptah. The exposed flesh of Osiris's
reunion of the ba and the mummy was the subject of many The tomb was where these needs could be met. Sustenance face is usually painted black or green, both colours of
portions of the well-known funerary text, the Book of the for the soul was provided in the form of provisions left in the fertility and rebirth, the former recalling the black silt that
Dead (see below) . The ba increased in importance in burial chamber, as well as by the images adorning the tomb- was annually deposited on the fields by the inundation of
funerary texts from the Middle Kingdom onwards, although chapel's walls that would be magically made real. However, the Nile and the latter the resulting crops.
depictions of it were not common until the New Kingdom. fresh goods were preferable; thus there was a requirement for Osiris' royal status is emphasized by his representation
The New Kingdom rishi or feathered coffin appears to evoke a place where such offerings could pass between the worlds. with his arms crossed at the breast, holding the royal insignia
the ba with its human head and feather decoration. In its simplest form, a slab of stone, or stela, placed above of the crook and the flail, as well as by his atefcrown,
The akh is the most complicated portion of the ground, could form this interface. Frequently, this stela took consisting of a royal white crown flanked by two feathers,
individual to understand. It seems to be the result of a union the form of a door- the so-called 'false-door' - through alluding to maatand a pair of horns which might refer to the
between the ba and the ka. This akh was the manifestation which the spirit could emerge, partake of its offerings and ram-headed Khnum and his role as a creator of bodies and
of the transformation of the deceased from a living creature then return whence it came. Indeed, in some tombs the souls. In the Ramesside Period the tomb itself, because of
into an eternal and unchanging being made oflight who was false-door actually has a three-dimensional image of the the inclusion of depictions of Osiris and other divine beings

16 EGYPT I AN MO RTUARY BEL I EF S AN D TH E NATU RE O F T H E TOMB EG Y PT IAN MORTUAR Y BE L I EFS AN D TH E NATUR E O F T HE TOMB 17
However, m any seem only to exist within the mortuary being; his posthumous fate was thus to re-join his fellow
context- strange beings whose sole purpose seems to be in deities in voyaging the heavens. Ultimately the king was
the cycle oflife and death that is exemplified by the daily linked most closely to the sun god, with his resurrection
passage of the sun god through the sky and nightly journey manifested as the continual voyage of the sun through the
through the netherworld. Different aspects of the sun god sky during the day and the netherworld, or 'mirror-Egypt',
also play crucial roles in mortuary beliefs associated with during the night. This solar trek is an important aspect of
resurrection, as death did not just mean a journey to the the decoration of the royal tombs of the New Kingdom and
afterworld, but becoming omnipresent through uniting later, but is hardly seen in other contexts as the private
with the sun god in the cycle of death and resurrection. individual had a different journey to make, in this case to
reach the Fields of Iaru, that even more perfect eternal
ACCESS TO THE NETHERWOR LD Egypt.
This was not a straightforward journey; in order to
Just as this life was not the same for royalty and commoners, achieve the goal a series of tests had to be passed and gates
divisions existed in the afterlife as well. At the very traversed until the deceased arrived successfully in the H all
beginning of Egyptian history the king was himself a divine of Osiris to be judged. There, the heart, as the organ that

13 The sun god proceeds on his barque towards his eter nal reb irth in the tomb of RamessesVI (KV9 : 20th D ynasty).

identified an individual's 'essence' or individuality, was Forth by Day', and usually found in the form of a papyrus
weighed on a scale against the feather symbolizing maat. roll placed in the tomb or with the mummy. In addition to
If the heart and the feather were balanced, it meant that the guiding the dead successfully, the Book of the Dead was also
person had led a good and just life and could enter the realm able to predict a successful outcome for the journey. The fact
of Os iris as one who was 'true of voice'. If the heart were that the papyrus depicted and/or described the dead person's
heavier, then the person would forfeit the afterlife and his successful passage through the judgment meant that he or
heart would be consumed by Ammit, the female Devourer she actually had been successful.
of the Dead, depicted as a terrifying amalgam of crocodile, The Book of the Dead is, however, by no means the
lion and hippopotamus . earliest of these 'guides' to the hereafter, incorporating as it
Aids to this spiritual journey appeared in tombs in the does many elements from more ancient sources. The oldest
form of a series of texts containing all the necessary substantial works are contained in the Pyramid Texts,
information and spells that would bring the spirit to its final inscribed inside the burial chambers of royal tombs of
destination. T hese were essentially crib notes that would the late 5th and 6th Dynasties, followed by the Middle
help the deceased pass the tests that barred his access to 'the Kingdom Coffin Texts and related works. The New
12 H aving successfully passed through the trials that followed bodily deat h, Horus presents Hunefer to Osiris, lsis and Nephthys; before O siris, on West', or the afterlife. The most famous of these is the Book Kingdom and later periods saw the development of a wide
a lotus flowe~ are the Four Sons of Horus, here shown all with human heads. From the Book of the Dead of Hunefer (B M EA990 I: 19th D ynasty). of the Dead, or more accurately called the 'Book of Coming range of funerary ' books' . Although they employed certain

18 EGYPTIAN MORTUARY BELIEFS AND THE NATURE OF THE TOMB EGYPTIAN MORTUARY BEL I EFS AND THE NATURE OF THE TOMB 19
parts of the Book of the Dead, royal burials were provided pulled, ideally, by oxen, taken in procession with the
with a separate set of funerary books that were but rarely tomb goods to the cemetery.? The procession included
found in commoners' sepulchres during the New Kingdom. the mourning family and friends of the deceased, priests,
Unlike that of commoners, the rebirth of kings ensured the grave goods and, if the deceased were wealthy, a host of
continuation not just of their lives, but the continuation of professional mourners who would rend their clothes, beat
the very cosmos, hence its importance. Once texts such as their breasts and pour ash upon their heads, ululating all the
the Pyramid Texts, initially composed for royal use, are while. Such hired mourners remain a feature of Egyptian
found in non-royal tombs, one is almost always guaranteed funerals. A peculiar object that fo rms part of the procession
that a new composition will appear in royal funerary from the Middle Kingdom on is the tekenu. In the Middle
contexts. Curiously, during the Third Intermediate Period, Kingdom it appears as a wrapped figure that is crouching or
the Book of the Dead became used much more extensively is in the foetal position, with only the head emerging. In the
in royal tombs, reversing the previous emphasis and now New Kingdom it is shown as an entirely wrapped bundle, or
including the judgment hall scene, in which the pharaoh is with the head and sometimes an arm showing. Its role in rhe
shown being judged like a mortal. Details of this whole funerary ritual is enigmatic.
corpus are given in pp. 129-31. Special sacred dances, the most famous of these
performed by the muu dancers, also played a part in the
FUNERALS AND IN TE RMEN T funerary ritual. The ceremonies of burial culminated in the
Opening-of-the-Mouth ceremony, in which the dead body
The chapel was the focus for the funeral ceremonies, the last was reanimated. 8 Each of the five senses was restored to
point at which the earthly body of the deceased could be rhe deceased in this ritual, which involved the use of
viewed and bidden adieu by friends and relations before the implements that on one hand recalled those used in the
soul went to the netherworld. A stela in TTIIo, belonging to carving of statuary, in particular the adze. This may have
the Royal Herald, Djehuty, of the middle of the r8th been linked with the fact that artificial images could also be
Dynasty, provides a vivid account of an Egyptian funeral: animated through the same ritual. The other tools recalled
those used at birth, a key item being the pesesh-kef k11ife,
A goodly burial arrives in peace, your 70 days having been
which consisted of a flint blade that broadened to a fo rk at
fulfill ed in your place of embalming. You are placed on the
the end. The knife was probably a model of one used to cut
bier ... and are drawn by bulls without blemish, the road
the umbilical cord of the baby and as such was necessary for
being sprinkled with milk, unril you reach the door of your
the soul's rebirth in the netherworld and its ability to eat and
romb. The children of your children, united of o ne accord,
drink again, just as severing the umbilical cord means that
weep with loving hearts. Your mouth is opened by the
the child must use its own mouth to ear and therefore live.9
lecror-priest and your purificatio n is performed by the Sem-
The fo releg of an ox was also used in the ritual, coming
priest. Horus adjusts for you your mouth and opens for you
from a sacrificial animal that no doubt provided a main part
your eyes and ears, your fl esh and your bones being perfect
of the funeral meal. Once the mummy was reanimated it
in all that appertains to you. Spells and glorifications are
joined the mourners for one last time in a funerary feast. No 14 Female professio nal mourners, bare-breasted, weeping and t hrowing dust in their hair (TTSS: 18th Dynasty) .
recited for you. There is made for you a 'Royal Offering
doubt many of the fresh food-offerings of the deceased were
Fo rmula', your own heart being with you, your h eart of
consumed during the course of this meal, with a share being
your earthly existence. You come in your former shape, as
set aside for the delectation of the deceased. All of these INTE RACT ION BETWEE N THE LIV ING AND cult, in order to pay the priest who rook care of the tomb.
on the day on which you were bo rn . T here is brought ro THE DEAD
activities rook place in front of the tomb's offering place. In essence, the offerings derived from these lands would be
you the Son-whom-you-love, the courtiers making
Once the deceased had feasted, the corpse was placed consecrated for the deceased and then given as payment to
obeisance. You enter imo the land given by the king,
in the tomb with accompanying pomp and ritual, with It was not enough to build a tomb if one wanted to live the priest in ch arge of the cult. Passing visitors - ideally for
imo the sepulchre of the west.>
garlands and flowers often being placed on the corpse, as eternally. A mortuary cult/foundation h ad to be established centuries into the future- were also encouraged to enter
Egyptian funerary ceremonies were long and well as on the coffin(s) and sarcophagus. Meanwhile the to provide for the upkeep of the tomb and the celebration of the chapel to admire it and to recite a prayer, preferably
complicated. 6 The prepared mummy would be retrieved spiritual aspect of the deceased had set our on its journey the cult through prayer and food offerings. These cults were the hetep-di-nesu, a traditional incantation that gave the
from the embalmers, encoffined and, being placed on a sled to eternity, described earlier in this chapter. endowed by dedicating some land and its revenues to the deceased's name and titles as well as the basic offerings,

20 EGYPTIAN MORTUARY B EL I EFS A N D THE N A TURE OF T HE TO M B EGY PT I A N MORTUARY BE L I EFS A N D T H E NATU R E OF TH E T OMB 21
 Chapter 2 The Tomb and Society

' You have entered your tomb in peace; your grave is eterniry. Tomb size and complexity are two of the most obvious
A place of arising and resting fo r your noble mummy, a criteria that can be used fo r determining status. Presumably,
place of receiving gifts and offerings to your ka: your true the larger and architecturally more intricate the tomb, the
repository . . . .' more labour and materials would have been used, thus
SARCOPHAGUS OF H AREMAKHET, PTOLEMAIC P ERIOD 11 reflecting the prom inence and wealth of its owner. C ertainly,
the pyramid of the king dwarfs the tombs of his nobles, and
It is important to recognize that the study of tombs is not the royal mortuary complexes of the New Kingdom are
15 Offering lists w ere one of the most important component s of tomb decorat io n and could even be per sonalized to offer more or less of an end in itself: sepulchres, their contents and such factors significantly larger and better decorated than the tombs of
specif1c items t hat the deceased favoured.This one is to be found in the tomb-chapel of Ramose (TISS: 18th Dynast y) . courtiers. They could achieve this as they were built at the
as the layout of a cemetery can provide us with key
information about Egyptian society, in the same way that it expense of the state. M uch of the labour fo r such projects
thereby magically empowering the deceased (see further did for the ancient Egyptians. The identity and gender of was in the form of corvee and/or religio us duty, especially
p. 86) . the tomb-owner, family relationships, religious affiliations in the O ld Kingdom.
Family m embers would visit the tomb, especially on and the social position of the deceased can be gleaned from Size is also dependent on space within the cemetery
festivals associated with the dead, such as the New Kingdom tombs, all of which help to construct a picture of ancient and its general topography, as well as the general prosperity
Festival of the Valley, which involved visiting the tomb, Egyptian society. The elements that enable this are all part of the country at a given time. Tombs of the early New
making offerings of food and incense to the deceased and of the tomb complex: size, architectural complexity, location Kingdom were quite small, increasing in size as the 18th
feasting in the presence of their deceased ancestors. New 16 A typical M iddle K1ngdom hetep.-dt-nesu fo rmula; it reads,'A royal within the cemetery, the materials used in co nstruction and Dynasty became well established and the country prospered .
Kingdom tombs show a scene that takes place in the chapel's offering to Os iris, Lord of Busiris, the great god, Lo rd of Abydos, so decoration, and, in the case of intact tom bs, the number After the reign ofRamesses II they shrank and continued to
that he may give a voice offering (consisting of) bread, beer, ox, fowl,
courtyard, the festival of the god Sokar, who was also and varieties of grave goods included in the burial. 12 An do so until the renaissance of the 25th and 26th D ynasties.
alabaster, linen and ever ything good and pure o n w hich a god lives for
associated with Osiris. A feature of these regeneration interpretation of a tomb-owner's place in society can best Under King Khufu, areas of the Giza cemetery adjacent
the ko of TITLES AND NAME' .The deity and locations may differ
festivals involved a grain mummy, a small mummiform depending on t he location of the bunal and other factors. be obtained by analyzing and combining all these criteria to his pyramid were laid out in streets, with a standard
figure filled with grain, symbolizing the regenerative powers together. Of course, we cannot always determine which of 'nucleus' cemetery allocated to family m embers or individual
of Osiris. In modern Egypt visits to the tomb are also a prosperity, or to help heal the sick. The most popular way of these was most important to the ancient Egyptians, so that members of the court. T hese then completed and decorated
feature of life, with elaborately woven palm-leaves or doing this was in letter form. Such 'Letters to the Dead' were modern interpretations can at best only be hypothetical. them, according to their individual tastes (see pp. 154- 5).
'grain-dollies' being left on the tomb. inscribed on papyrus, or, more often, on pottery bowls. The Practical considerations also came into play, especially wirh
Once the deceased was safely in the netherworld, the bowls contained food that would entice the ka out of the regard to the location of tombs (the position of earlier tombs 17 (above) Dancers at a funeral, as depicted o n a block which o nce
living could approach the dead and ask for supernatural tomb and provide 'payment' for it to speed along the desired being a hindrance), the general economic climate, as well as fo rmed part of a late I 8t h/early 19th Dynasty t omb; from the area of
intervention in their affairs, be it for advice, an increase in intervention.10 changes in religious beliefs.1J t he Serapeum at Saqqara (CM JE4872).

22 EGYPTI AN MORTUARY B EL I EF S AND T H E N ATURE OF THE TOMB THE TOMB A N D SOC I ETY 23
There are records of 4th Dynasry kings providing land, Dynasry tomb ofRedines (G5032), who stresses how he
stone, a parr of the tomb or labourers for tomb construction; built his tomb using his own resources. Certainly, by the end
both rhe sire and rhe labourers were a gift of King Menkaure of the Old Kingdom it was more usual for the tomb-owner
himself to the nobleman Debhen (LG9o) at Giza. Thus, at and his family to be responsible for the construction and
that rime, the size of rhe tomb was in part dependent on decoration of the tomb, with the king being less and less
one's relationship with the king. The more favoured the involved. The endowment of a funerary cult was also a
individual, the more probable that the tomb would reflect personal matter. A text from the 4th or 5th Dynasry tomb of
this in size, location and decoration. Penmeru (G2197) at Giza gives the arrangements that rhe
Perhaps the earliest versions of the hetep-di-nesu (literally deceased had made to establish and sustain his cui t, and the
'gifts that the king gives') offering formulae (see pp. zr-z, early rzth Dynasty tomb of the governor Hapidjefa i at
86) that are found on tomb walls are stating an actual fact: Asyut (Tomb r) contains several inscriptions that deal with
that rhe tomb was provisioned (and provided?) by the king. his properry and the provisioning of his funerary cult.
In contrast, tombs at Giza dating to later periods contain It is possible that, especially in provincial cemeteries,
inscriptions that assert that the tomb-owner paid for rhe the local government or some other municipal body carved
construction and decoration of the tomb. An inscriptio n in simple shaft tombs and sold them to potential tomb-owners.
the 6th Dynasty mastaba ofRemenuka (Giza, Central Field) This is very similar to the modern tradition of purchasing
states that he paid the artisans with bread, beer and linen. In cemetery plots. It has also been suggested by some scholars
his recently discovered tomb in Giza's Western Cemetery, that even in royal cemeteries the option of'purchasing' a
Kai asserts how he himself paid for the construction of his mastaba was offered, probably to help finance the
tomb. A similar inscription can also be found in the 6th construction of the royal burial place. In this instance, the

18 The intact burial chamber offi8 (Kha). showing t he t ypical funerary equipment (now in Turin) of an 18th D ynasty official and his w ife.

19 (above) The Giza necropolis seen from t he sout h; Islamic and Coptic cemet eries occupy t he foreground. Certainly t here is a t radition of
locating cemeteries in the same place since antiquity. How ever; t he new cemeteries do not reflect the social o rganization fo und around the
pyramids, with the clustering of tombs close to the central royal bunal.

20 (below) A reconstruction of t he G iza necropolis as it may have been around the end of the 4th Dynasty, w ith the pyramids of Menkaure,
Khafre and Khufu.The area in the right low er part of t he drawing includes modern features.

24 THE TO M B A N D SOC I ETY T H E TO MB A N D SO C I ETY 25

size of the tomb would be dependent on the wealth of the reflection of normal life and as such, the deceased would
individual, rather than his relationship to the king. continue to exist in a world that was similar in social
In later tombs, size might also depend on available space structure and cultural values to the one that he or she had
in a cemetery; as areas of good stone were used, the cemetery inhabited during life- the tomb should be in an approp riate
would yield fewer places for new sepulchres. Presumably in 'neighbourhood' . Over time, practical considerations such as
these cases the tomb-owners would establish their status lack of space, quality of stone and religious beliefs (including
through inscriptions, decoration and grave goods. the idea that certain cemeteries were more 'holy' than others
The complexities of the architecture, as well as the due to who was buried there, whether gods or kings),
decoration, are also indicative of wealth and status. In influenced cemetery organization and tomb construction.
rock-cut or built tombs, the additions of porticoes, engaged The placement of cemeteries, especially royal cemeteries,
statuary and courtyards no doubt inflated the tomb's worth. was on occasion dictated by religious considerations. The
It would seem that relief decoration was more costly than earliest royal burial place at Abydos may have been chosen
solely painted decoration as it involved far more detailed owing to its proximity to a wadi that led west into the desert
labour. The quality of the paint used, as well as the atelier, and might have been seen as a gateway to the underworld. 21 View from EI-Qurn pyramidal peak over the east ern arm of t he Valley of the Kings (at left).loo ki ng towards t he N ile, w it h t he causeways of
would also suggest a difference in cost. Use of expensive Its later association with Osiris further sanctified it and m ade Deir ei-Bahari in the middle distance, and the Ramesseum to be seen at t he edge of t he desert. ove rloo king t he Cu ltivation.

stone elements such as granite, alabaster and basalt would it a focal point for funerary rituals. The pyramids of the
again add to the price. Doors, which for the most part are Old Kingdom, solar symbols promising the rebirth and decreased and changed to fit the new social system and the tomb of their patron continued throughout almost the
missing (though the hinge fixtures and swing-back areas are resurrection of the kings, were probably positioned with dynamic that grew out of the events of the disordered First entire span of Egyptian history.
still visible) , might also have been a way of displaying reference to the main sun temple of Egypt, located at Intermediate Period. During this time the tombs of the T he choice of tomb location also depended on
wealth. Expensive woods such as imported cedar or juniper Heliopolis. The Valley of the Kings may have been chosen nobility were built in some cases hundreds of kilometres family and job. As one might expect, family tombs are
might have been used, or the doors could have been carved for the burials of New Kingdom royalty due to the pyramidal from the king's tomb; indeed, in most cases the king's very clustered together. In fact, the similarity in decoration of
and enhanced with metals such as gold, copper or bronze. peak that dominates the sky above the wadi, recalling the tomb remains unknown. Clearly the decrease in the king's chapels can be linked by the kinship of their owners, as can
T hus size, complexity and decoration all taken together solar connotations of a pyramid and the primeval mound of power and importance rendered burial next to him be seen in several cemeteries. This is especially true of the
provide some sort of indication of wealth and status. creation- as well as for its potential for security. uni mportant and even undesirable. provinces, where many positions were inherited and the
Some people seem to have made up for a lack of space, The king's importance and power are manifest in In the Middle Kingdom the king regained much of his tombs of subsequent generations can be seen in a group.' 4
or indicate a change in position, by having two tombs. cemetery organization. In the Early Dynastic Period and strength, but due to both political and religious changes, Tombs of people sharing the same major position were
Examples of this are generally found in the New Kingdom. Old Kingdom the king was regarded literally as an burial near him was apparently not as prestigious as in earlier also sometimes grouped together. It is unclear whether
Horemheb is an obvious example: his tomb at Memphis omnipotent divine being whose word was law. Thus, to periods. Indeed, his prominence was dimmed by the strong this was due to rules of official cemetery organization or
dates to his years as a general, while his The ban tomb is royal be buried near the god-king was a mark of prestige and provincial governors, or nomarchs, who governed much of to chance.
and located in the Valley of the Kings. Some attempts were possibly a greater guarantee of achieving admittance to the the country at this time. T hey built large and well-decorated The location of a tomb within a non-royal cemetery was
made to adapt the Memphite tomb to its owner's subsequent afterworld as part of the king's entourage. The closer one to mbs in the provinces (e.g. Beni Hasan), away from the also significant. In non-royal cemeteries, especially in Upper
status: a small uraeus was added to Horemheb's brow in was to the king, the more important one's position. The capital, until the government was reorganized under the Egypt, where we have a more complete record of funerary
several images. Other individuals with two tomb-chapels at same idea is manifest in the large number of graves centred 12th Dynasty monarch Senwosret Ill, whereupon large, remains than from Lower Egypt, the location of one's tomb
Thebes include User (TT6r and TTr3r) , Menkheperresonbe on cemeteries associated with ~aints' tombs in modern lavishly decorated provincial tombs vanish from the along the cliffs was indicative of status. At Beni Hasan the
(TT86 and TTrn) and Djehutynefer (T T8o and TTro4) . Egypt, among other countries. Of course, there was an archaeological record. most important people, the nomarchs or governors, had
It is unclear what use was made of the 'spare' tomb. Perhaps additional reason to be buried near a specific ruler: if the Tombs of the 26th Dynasty and later show a resurgence tombs located in the highest level of the cliff, where the best-
it allowed a duplication of the deceased's cult, with a deceased served in the royal cult then he probably had the of the power of kings; however, this is manifested not in a quality rock was located. Individuals oflesser importance
consequent enhancement of posthumous status; members of right to be buried in that king's cemetery. Although this was desire to be buried near the reigning monarch, but rather in and wealth (generally the servants and less important family
his family might also have been buried in its substructure. not always the case, it often held true. The cemetery around a desire to be buried near rulers and people who had made members) either had much smaller tombs in the same level,
The location of tombs within a cemetery can also the 6th Dynasty pyramid of King Teti is actually surrounded Egypt great in earlier periods . Thus the cemeteries of or simpler shaft tombs lower down on the slope. Broadly
elucidate social organization and mores in ancient Egypt. by a wall. Giza also had a wall, now known as the 'Wall of Giza (the site of the Sphinx and the pyramids providing speaking, the lower on the slope was a person's tomb, the
Naturally, the degree to which this was true varied the Crow' separating it from secular areas; perhaps the other attraction) and Saqqara (the location ofDjoser's pyramid lower his/her rank, until the poorest graves were located at
throughout the long course of Egyptian history, being most sides were protected by the natural geology of the site. and the tomb of his deified architect Imhotep) enjoyed a the desert edge and consisted of shallow pits dug into the
observable and formal in the 4th Dynasty and becoming Although the idea of a divine king persisted in renaissance during this period. However, it should be noted desert gravel, similar in style to tombs of the Predynastic
more flexible as time progressed. The afterlife was a subsequent periods, the actuality and limits of his power that the tradition of dependents being buried near or around Period. Of course, if a cemetery was used over time, then

26 TH E TOMB AND SOC I ET Y THE TOMB AND SOC I ETY 27

22 The hill of Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna, the burial place of many of the
highest officials of the 18th Dynasty.

later tombs would be squeezed in wherever space could be

found, and considerations of rank and status would become
secondary. Quality of rock could also reverse this hierarchy.
At Thebes, the best rock lies in the lower part of the cliffs
and valley floor, so those wishing to carve the decoration of
their chapel had to forego a prominent site in favour of one
sunk below ground surface.
Space constraints are particularly obvious at Thebes.
Tombs dating from the Middle Kingdom through to the
middle of the New Kingdom often lie high up the cliff face,
with wonderful views over the Nile. Senenmut was probably
the first to build his tomb-chapel at the summit of Sheikh
Abd ei-Qurna. H e set a trend, and his tomb, TT71, was
shortly followed by several others built during the reign of
Hatshepsut and Thutmose Ill (e.g. Ahmose [TT121],
Senimen [TT252], Re [TT72], Tjanuni [TT74] and
Amenhotep [TT73)).
The only significantly later tomb at the summit is the
diminutive chapel belonging to Anen (TT12o), Queen
Tiye's brother. It seems that by the end ofThutmose IV's
reign, the Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna hill was so riddled with
tombs that the high officials of his successor's reign
(Amenhotep III) had to establish their sepulchres at lower
levels, at the foot of that hill (e.g. TT 55), or on the low-lying
Khokha/Asasif area to the north (e.g. TT48 and TT192).
T his move may have been reinforced by the desire to access
the good stone needed for both the more elaborate tomb-
chapels of the period- which closely resemble a cult temple
with a hypostyle hall and a series of rooms - and carved
decoration.
Other considerations for the choice of a tomb's
'neighbourhood' would include the sacred power of a
particular place. As mentioned above, Saqqara attracted
tombs due to the presence ofimhotep, Djoser and perhaps
also the sacred animal cults, especially that of the Apis bull. favoured for burials as these spots would have been granted Secrets of Butchery than the O verseer of Flautists or the The types of scenes shown are generally the same for
Deir ei-Bahari, as the centre of the Hathor cult, as well as added baraka or blessings by the gods' passing in divine Greatest of Seers? both genders , except that women's tombs tend to show
possessing royal affiliations, must have attracted tomb processiOn. It is clear fro m the eviden ce that the majority of more female servants than those found in solely male
builders to both it and the adjacent Asasif and Khokha. The most obvious information found in tombs concerns Egyptian tombs were built by, an d primarily for, men tombs.
As the Festival of the Valley gained momentum- an annual names, titles and the gender of the tomb-owner. However, it who would share them with their female relatives. Elite Naturally, grave goods also provide other criteria for
event that celebrated the cults ofHathor, Amun and the is often difficult for us to gauge the relative importance of women's tombs do exist, although they are fewer than judging wealth and status. However, to mbs that can be
deceased, particularly the kings (see pp. zzo-r) - it is different titles save for very obvious ones, such as Vizier or those of men . T hey vary in size, as do men's tombs, as assessed on this basis are few and far between and beyond
probable that areas along the sacred route would have been Treasurer. How much more important is the Keeper of the well as in the amount and quality of thei r decoration. the scope of the p resent work.' >

28 THE TO MB AND SOC I ETY T H E T O MB A N D SOC I ETY 29

 23 The Roman- period cemetery at Marina ei-Aiamein.
Chapter 3 Construction and Decoration

24 The temporal spread of the cemeteries of Saqqara-North, ranging

from the Early Dynastic to the Graeco-Roman Periods. The type of tomb and how it was constructed depended There are two main types of tomb superstructure:
on a number of factors: the geography and geology of the free-standing and rock-cut, although many examples have
chosen cemetery, the tomb-owner's rank and wealth, and elements of each mode of construction. Free-standing tombs
A Old Kingdom: 5th Dynasty ~ New Kingdom: 19th Dynasty
the time expected to elapse before the tomb-owner's demise. include mastabas, pyramids and those constructed in the
A O ld Kingdom: 6th Dynasty C) Saite Period: 26th Dynasty
A O ld Kingdom: D ynasty uncertain C\) Late Period: 30th Dynasty The decoration of the tomb also reflected the occupant's form of miniature or full-size temples. All of these could
e Middle Kingdom: 12th Dynasty + Ptolemaic Period rank and wealth, as well as his or her taste, and the prowess be built of mud-brick and/or stone. Rock-cut examples
~ New Kingdom: I8th Dynasty ~ An imal cemeteries and associated sanctuaries.
of the artists who carried out the decoration of the tomb. generally comprise a set of rooms carved out of an
mainly Late and Ptolemaic Periods
The preparation of Egyptian tombs employed the full escarpment or cliff face, but there are examples of mastabas
range of construction techniques known to ancient cut wholly from the living rock.
craftsmen, ranging from mud-brick, through stone-built to Most tomb substructures are rock-cut and include
wholly rock-cut structures, and composites of some or all of simple shafts cut straight down into the rock and opening
these. Their interiors also displayed a range of decorative into a room or rooms, or stairways and passages leading to
techniques, including all varieties of relief and painting. the principal chambers. Others, however, particularly where
--.,N T he very earliest burial places were simply scooped in the local geology was unsuitable for rock-cutting (as in the
the desert surface. Indeed, this method of burial was Delta), were built from brick or stone in a cutting in the
employed for poor tombs throughout the course of Egyptian surface of the ground, which would later be filled in and
history. These might be marked with a low mound made of a superstructure erected above.
rubble and brick, with an offering place perhaps focused on
some kind of stela, the ancestor of the later false-door. HOW LONG DID IT TAKE TO BUILD A TOMB?
Tombs of wealthier people were, naturally, more
complicated in their construction than those of poorer It is difficult to determine the length of time it took to
individuals. In some instances the two principal construct and decorate a tomb. The scope and complexity
components, the burial chamber and the offering place, of both the architecture and decoration, as well as the
were differently constructed, while in others the same number of people employed on the project at any one time,
techniques were used for both. In some locales where the determined the speed with which the tomb was completed.
rock is friable, the tomb-chapel would be hollowed out of
the rock andlined with mud-brick, before being plastered 25 (above) Masons at work, from the tomb-chapel of Rekhm1re
and deco rated. (TI I00: 18th Dynasty) .

30 THE T OMB AND SOCIETY CONSTRUC T I ON AND DECORAT ION 31

26 The distinct io n between rock-cut and free-standing st ructures may become blurred, fo r example in t he case of t he tomb of Khentkaues I
(LG I00: 4t h Dynasty) at Giza.A unique cross between a mastaba and a pyramid, t he lower section has been quarried out of the nat ive rock, w ith
the upper stage built from masonry.

T he m ajority of information concerning the subject down the design of his tomb. It was thus essentially fin ished
derives from royal tombs. It should be remembered that when he died after only six years on the throne. Others, such
the wo rking week consisted of 8 days with a 2-day as Ay and Ramesses VI, took over the unfinished tom bs of
weekend.• 6 predecessors, and in the latter case (just about) finished it on
The constructio n of a king's tomb would start at his a grand scale.•8 T he decade of Sety I's reign was almost
accession . According to H erodotus, it took 20 years to build sufficient to com plete and decorate his tomb, KVr7, leaving
th e Great Pyramid at Giza - plus ten for the causeway - but just one room decorated in outline only.'9 In the tomb of
since he was writing two millennia after the event this can Ramesses IX (KV6), it is possible to see how the quality of
only be a guess. W hile apparently a credible length of time, decoration changed radically as the artists hastened to
the evidence of quarry marks on some of the four pyramids complete the monument.
built by Seneferu gives a som ewhat different picture. For It has been posited that a m odest New Kingdom
example, the Red Pyramid at Dahshur, ro ughly two-thirds tomb-chapel at T hebes could have been carved , plastered
the size of the G reat Pyramid, seems to have taken little over and painted during the 70 days when the corpse was being
a decade to build. •7Yet Menkaure could not quite complete embalmed.20 T hus, the unfinished state of m any of the
his pyramid in r8 years, despite it being only 13 per cent of smaller Theban tombs seems inexplicable, although it is
the volume of the Red Pyramid. C learly the number of m ore understandable for the larger rock-cut tombs. Perhaps
workers and resources used would, together with other financial and other considerations caused delays in the
issues, influence the am ount of time it took to build a construction of the tombs (see next section). It seems that
funerary monument. ultimately a variety of factors influenced the time it took
In the N ew Kingdom , there are instances when , because to complete a sepulchre. Until the discovery of sufficient
the king was advanced in age at his accessio n, the numbers textual evidence o ne can only speculate about the length
of workmen used were drastically increased . Ramesses IV of time necessary for building and decorating one's house
enlarged the crew from 6o to 120 men, as well as scaling for eternity.

32 CONSTRUCTION AND DECORAT I ON

I (previous page) Aerial view of the southern part of modern Luxor.ln the foreground are the temples at Karnak, while across the river is the Ill A nubis, the god of embalming and escort of the dead to the Underworld, is often shown in New Kingdom scenes bending over the deceased
The ban necropolis. Directly opposite Karnak is the most ancient part of the cemetery, El-Tarif, where lay the tombs of the founders of the I I th and carrying out the final phases of the mummification ritual, while lsis and Nephthys f lank the funerary couch .This example is on the
Dynasty. The principal cemeteries of the New Kingdom lay to the north, with the royal tombs in a valley beyond the curtain of cliffs. sarcophagus ofSennedjem (TT I , CM JE2730 I: 19th Dynasty).

11 Nakht seen hunting 1n a double scene from the north-east wall of the transverse hall of h1s I 8th Dynasty tomb chapel on Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna IV (ove rleaf) The ka was a spiritual 'double' of a person, created with them at the time of conception . lt was symbolized by a pair of raised bent
(TT52). Such a scene is typical of chapels down to the late 18th Dynasty, whose decoration focuses on the so-called 'daily life' of the deceased. arms, which are seen on this figure of the ka of King Hor of the 13th Dynasty. From Dahshur L.LXVII/ I (CM CG259).
 ~TIITIT o(l 12 ~ 0/ 0

27 Images showing the construction of the pyramid com plex w ere depicted on t he walls of the causeway of Unas. Here one can see the granite
palmiform columns that were used in the temples being brought from Aswan by boat (Saqqara: 5th Dynasty) .

PL A NNING TH E TO M B and decorated royal and noble tombs at Thebes, allow one
to reconstruct the organization of the workers and the actual
There are several sources that provide information about minutiae of tomb construction in Thebes. Other texts,
the construction and decoration of tombs. The tombs such as the Rhind Mathematical Papyrus,22 are vital to
themselves, in their various stages of completion, provide understanding the mathematics of tomb construction.
evidence for the sequence of work and techniques of the Unfortunately, there is little evidence of architectural
craftsmen . Many tombs, especially the New Kingdom plans for tombs, especially prior to the New Kingdom.
examples at Thebes, are in various stages of completion. Possibly plans were made on papyrus and are therefore lost
There are several explanations for this: insufficient funds, to us. 2 J As private tombs, especially of the r8th Dynasty,
the stopping of work by relatives if the tomb-owner died seem to have relatively standard plans, no doubt well known
prior to the completion of the tomb, or perhaps, as has been to the ancient Egyptian builders, it is probable that the
suggested, even an aspiration to delay death by not having workers needed no formal architectural drawings. Instead,
the burial apartments prepared. 21 The tomb-chapel of the builders, like many of their modern counterparts, must
Ramose (TT 55, r8th Dynasty), whose inner chamber is have worked from an oral description, periodically
unfinished, as well as the decoration of the outer room, is an elucidated by swift sketches onto pieces oflimestone and
especially telling example of the way that parts of a tomb pottery (ostraka) that were afterwards discarded. Certainly,
could be all but complete when other parts had hardly yet rock-cut tombs, with their fairly standard plans, would
been quarried. have required less in the way of architectural drawings than
Rem nants of construction aids, such as ramps, like the the free-standing built tombs that were more common in
one fou nd at the southern face of the Great Pyramid at Giza, Lower Egypt. Had more plans been found, there would be
also provide information about construction techniques. less discussion on the 'mysteries' of pyramid construction.
Masons' marks found in tombs, together with graffiti with The plans that have been found include the incomplete
instructions to builders such as the red and black example ofRamesses IV's tomb, drawn on papyrus,
construction lines found in Mastaba 17 at Meidum, as well currently in the Egyptian Museum at Turin (ill. 28), a plan
as in a number of pyramids at Abu Sir, that ofPepy I at ofRamesses IX's tomb on an ostrakon (Cairo Museum,
Saqqara and a queen's pyramid (Gla) at Giza, also shed CG25184) and another ostrakon with a plan of a noble's
additional light on the way that structures were levelled and tomb found in TT7r (Cairo JE 66262). An unusual, and
laid OUt. perhaps unique, artifact related to tomb construction is
From the New Kingdom, the extensive texts from the a limestone model of the innermost chambers of a 13th
village ofDeir el-Medina, home of the workers who carved Dynasty pyramid, found at Dahshur.'4 However, the

CONSTRUCTION AND DECORATION 37

 final depth; craftsmen working at Amarna, in particular in
TAr3 and 21, carved out the passageway for the first chamber
and then indicated the place for the next one, bur did not
proceed very far into it. The chambers were carved from the
ceiling down, though frequently not to floor level. Even in
their unfinished state, portions of the stone were dressed and
covered by gypsum plaster. It has been suggested that the
Amarna tombs were so erratically carved because there were
insufficient craftsmen to supply the demand for tombs.
Whichever craftsmen were available would work on the
tombs, som etimes with a hiatus of a few years. The only
Amarna tombs that seem to have had concentrated work
28 Detail of a plan on papyrus of the tomb of Ramesses IV showing the burial chamber, with the sarcophagus and surrounding shrines (Papyrus done on them are the tombs in the Royal Wadi. 26
Turin 1885). Once a tomb had been cut, it was dressed using chisels
and adzes. Any holes or imperfections in the rock would be
purpose of this model and the other documents (in workers would carve out a corridor going deep into the cliff filled out with plaster and gypsum, or m ud-brick, other
particular the very elaborate Ramesses IV plan) remains This later became the basis for the roof of the tomb. stone, donkey dung, or even dom-palm nuts and then 29 Unfinished fa~ade of tomb BH-XI at Beni Hasan, showing the way
uncertain and it may be that they served some ritual Evidence shows that for many rock-cut tombs and covered with mud or gypsum plaster. in which the blocks of limestone were detached from the matrix.
function, rather than an architectural one. especially New Kingdom Theban examples (e.g. Re's Rock-cut tombs could pose a problem in planning for
TT201), the main axis was marked by stretching a red subsequent tomb builders as, although their entrances might
CONSTRUCTING THE TOMB painted cord from the entrance to the end of the tomb. be known, the subterranean plans of tombs might not be
Any side halls or pillars were carved opening off the central recorded, particularly where a substructure was concerned.
Naturally, construction methods differed depending on corridor using this axis. 'In order to ensure perfectly straight In consequence, tomb builders cutting a passage
whether a tomb was rock-cut or free-standing and the walls the surveyor marked out the distance from the red axial sometimes broke through into an existing sepulchre. The
material out of which it was made: stone or mud-brick. In line in each section of the tomb by drilling holes along the best-known examples are from the Valley of the Kings; for
some instances tombs were made using a variety of materials wall until the bases of the holes were equidistant from the example, Sethnakhte's K.Vn collided with K.Vw, the tomb
and, consequently, construction methods. axial line. Completed holes were marked with a touch of of Amenmesse. Sethnakhte abandoned th is tomb and instead
black. The roof was levelled off by drawing a horizontal line took over that ofTawosret (K.Vr4). Ramesses III later took
Rock-Cut Tombs on the walls and m easuring upwards.' 2 s This would also be over Sethnakhte's abortive attempt and realigned the corridor
used to determine the height of the tomb. If the tomb had so that it cleared K.Vw and could thus continue onward.
Almost all Egyptian sepulchres have some rock-cut pillars, these would be blocked out, or left as semi-quarried Rock-cur shafts fall into two basic categories. One was
elemenrs, in particular their burial apartments, except where monoliths for later completion. The side-curtings made simply intended to give access to a chamber or chambers,
they lay in areas lacking accessible bedrock, such as the from the central corridor could later be turned into excavated at the bottom. T he other formed part of a broader
Delta. However, the term 'rock-cut tomb' is normally used chambers. This method often resulted in the front and rear construction scheme, with a stone-built chamber at the
to refer to those monuments whose chapels are carved out of walls of a room being cut our and even partially decorated bottom, or allowing (e.g.) a sarcophagus to be introduced
the living rock, with minimal, if any, built structure. while the middle part of the chamber was still embedded in into a substructure. Such 'construction' shafts were often of
The construction of a rock-cut sepulchre required that a the rock. The stone that had been extracted from the tomb considerable size and may have required scaffolding to
passage be carved out of the rock, as was done with a quarry, was, depending on its quality, either discarded, or dressed permit worker access. In some cases, a secondary shaft or
until the required dimensions of the tomb were attained. and used in other constructions. T here are, however, many descending passage was added to help with the extraction of
Rock faces would be explored to identify sites for good- variations in how the tombs were constructed. debris, which then became the definitive tomb entrance, the
quality rock, after which the stonemasons would begin to Owing to their unfinished nature, the tombs at Amarna, 'construction' shaft being filled in after its use and frequently
remove the exposed and weathered rock and rubble. Once the new capital built by Akhenaten half way between covered over by the erection of the superstructure.
the good-quality stone was reached, using pointed stone Memphis and T hebes, are very good examples for studying The aforementioned 'sand-protected' shaft tombs
30 The unfin ished tomb ofTutu (TA8) atAmarna.The process of
mauls, or metal chisels, the masons would carve the clean construction methods. Some of these show that not all (pp. 205, 276) of the 26th Dynasty usually had substantial carving from the top down is obvious here .The columns are also
face into a series of steps. Then, at the topmost step the tombs were at first carved into the rock to their proposed stone chambers constructed at the bottom of the main being shaped as the chapel's chamber is carved out of the rock.

38 CONSTRUCTIO N AND DECORATIO N C O N ST RUC T IO N AN D DECO RA T I O N 39

 and sand. Relative quantities determined the qualities of the case of that ofSenwosret II) combined with cross walls of or material) roofing of stone-built mastabas, such as that
construction shaft and then a subsidiary shaft through
brick, the material being shaped in a wooden mould and masonry creating compartments into which the bricks were ofPtahhotep i (D62) at Saqqara. Besides the actual tomb-
which the burial actually took place.
then placed in the sun to dry. When this is done, the original placed. structures, brick is frequently found forming the enclosure
mass of mud reduces by around a third. Brick size varied Bundles of reeds, or even reed mats, were sometimes wall, regardless of the material of the main monument, and
Free-standing Tombs
throughout Egyptian history. Bricks of the first dynasties laid between courses. Timber ties were also used within the mud-brick remains are often to be seen adhering to the
averaged 23 x 12 x 6 cm, although considerable variation is to structures of some tombs. The exposed surfaces of any stone surface outside a rock-cut tomb. Brick was thus
Free-standing tombs were constructed out of mud-brick
be seen, with much larger examples coming into use during mud-brick structure were usually covered with a layer of ubiquitous within cemeteries and always remained the
and/or stone and were, until the New Kingdom, usually built
the Old Kingdom, some at Giza ranging up to 42 x 21 x 15 mud plaster about 2-6 cm thick. The latter was composed of fundamental building material for the Egyptian architect.
in the shape of mastabas. From the New Kingdom on, small
cm (G2093). Bricks of the Middle Kingdom were smaller alluvial mud, mixed with sand and chopped straw. Its natural
temples provided the model for free-standing tombs, although
mastabas continued to be built at some sites. The fact that they and measured 33 x 15 x 10 cm. However, the bricks used to colour depended on the proportions of the components Building in Stone 2 9

were largely built, rather than carved into the living rock, gave construct Middle Kingdom pyramids were larger, measuring used, but it was often whitened by a final coat of gypsum
on average 45 x 22 x 12 cm. Brick size remained roughly 33 x plaster, or painted with a variety of colours and designs. It is Stone began to be used for details of funerary buildings
their plans greater flexibility and scope for variation .
The first step in constructing free-standing tombs, 15 x 10 cm during the New Kingdom through the Late thought that this final white layer, a colour associated with during the 1st Dynasty, when granite was used to pave the
Period, with larger bricks being common in Graeco-Roman purity, was sometimes intended to represent limestone. burial chamber of Den and limestone within private tombs
regardless of whether they were made of stone or mud-brick,
was to level the site. If the building was not placed straight times (38 x 19 x 12.5 cm, although further upward variations Kiln-fired bricks were uncommon prior to the Roman at Helwan.3° Then, from early in the 3rd Dynasty it became
onto the solid rock, then foundations had to be laid down, are documented). occupation, although there are a few examples from the increasingly important, until the majority of the highest
Bricks used in pyramid construction tended to be Ramesside Period onward. The tomb ofHori iii at Bubastis status free-standing sepulchres were composed of the
especially in the case of a stone construction. Generally,
for stone edifices, the foundations consisted of a trench larger than those used for nobles' tombs. During the latter (20th Dynasty) is amongst the earliest known examples, with material. Even more buildings primarily of other materials,
part of the nth Dynasty, pyramids were composed of fired bricks being used for flooring and the lowest parts of the such as mud-brick, had architectural elements, such as
filled with sand and topped with a few courses of rough
bricks averaging 45 x 22 x 12 cm, laid in sand and (in the walls. T his was presumably due to the relatively damp doorways, in a wide variety of stones. Until the New
stonework, upon which the main structure rested. The sand
may have been symbolic of purity, rather than functional , or conditions in the Delta that were not conducive to the Kingdom, limestone was most often used in building, after
perhaps both. 2 7 Once the foundations were in place, actual preservation of mud-brick. The roughly contemporary vaulted which sandstone became increasingly common, particularly
tombs 21 and 35 at Nebesha were made entirely of burnt brick. for major temples. Hard stones, such as granite or basalt,
building work could begin.
Brick structures were roofed with wooden beams and were rarely used in non-royal burials, though they were
sometimes mats, above which were built the brick and gravel frequently employed to line royal burial chambers and
Building in Brick 28
superstructures. At the end of the 1st Dynasty, however, the corridors leading to the chambers, the portcullises and
The earliest built tombs were made of mud-brick. The basic first true brick vaults appear (subsidiary graves around thresholds, as well as other portions of royal tombs.
constituents of a mud-brick were Nile mud, chopped straw Saqqara S3500), larger examples being found within tomb Occasionally, they were used as thresholds in non-royal
Kr at Beit Khallaf, early in the 3rd Dynasty. Corbelled sepulchres. In the Old Kingdom, when the use of granite
31 (right) Mud-brick-making has remained the same since the time vaulting, where the roof is spanned by successive courses of was particularly a royal prerogative, limestone would be
of the pharaohs. Mud and straw/temper are m1xed together and put bricks, each set slightly further out than the one below until painted so as to achieve a 'faux' granite look- or even
into moulds.The bricks are then left in the sun to dry.
they meet at the apex, is found from the 2nd Dynasty, the magically become granite. The type(s) of stone used might
32 (below) Scene of brick-making (TT I00 18th Dynasty) .
best examples coming from Naga el-Deir, with others at have had symbolic as well as practical value: burial chambers
El-Amra and Qau and a concentration occurring in would be constructed out of the white travertine/Egyptian
Graeco-Roman contexts in the oases. In the 4th Dynasty, alabaster, symbolic of purity, or elements would be made of
domed roofing occurs in the workmen's cemetery (p. 154) at reddish-orange quartzite, associated with the solar strength
Giza, while domed rooms are found in various later tombs and energy useful for resurrection.
(e.g. pp. 207, 282), as are vaulted ceilings.
Throughout Egyptian history the basic techniques of QU A RRY IN G 31
construction remain broadly the same as those found in the
earlies t times, vaulting being frequently employed to roof Much of the building stone employed in funerary
both above-ground chapels and subterranean chambers. monuments was quarried close by. In the Memphite
Flat roofs, made with palm logs overlaid by matting and necropolis and as far south as Esna, this was limestone, some
mud plas ter, were also sometimes used and often served as particularly good examples of quarrying activity being seen
the model for the skeuomorphic (imitating some other thing at Giza, where the landscape was fundamentally altered by

CONSTR UCT ION AND DECORAT ION 41

40 CONSTRUCTION AND DECORAT ION
the extraction of the millions of tonnes of stone needed for Finishing was often carried out in situ, a good example
the pyramids and mastabas there. At some tombs, local being the undressed and unfinished granite casing stones
quarrying was taken a step further in that parts of the on the lower portion of the T hird Pyramid at Giza.
monument itself were carved from the bed-rock, with Experimental work suggests that some finish ing may have
additional blocks added to make up the final shape. A been carried out with stone implements and sand as an
number of Giza mastabas are of this form , as are others at abrasive, although copper/bronze tools were certainly
Lahun, where the lower portion of the pyramid of Senwosret employed in some cases.
II (and much of the superstructures of other tombs at the
site) was also shaped from a rocky knoll. There are many TEC HN IQ U ES
other examples of such uses of existing rock massifs.
The local limestone so used was sometimes of fairly poor Our knowledge of ancient building techniques is almost
quality and although suitable for core masonry was not wholly derived from the examination of the structures
regarded as appropriate for the exteriors of the very highest themselves. It is certain that the use of ramps was an
status sepulchres, nor for receiving decoration. For these, as important way of raising blocks to a higher level. Remains of
well as some mud-brick monuments, the outermost layers ramps have been found adjacent to the first pylon at Karnak,
were often supplied in northern Egypt from the Muqqatam at the pyramids at Meidum and Sinki, as well as at that of 35 Und ressed and dressed gran ite in t he lower part of t he casing of
33 Rema1ns of t he quarry aro und Khafre's pyram id at Giza.The in it ial Sekhemkhet at Saqqara, a number ofGiza mastabas, and, the Third Pyram id at Giza (4th Dynasty) .
Hills, just to the east of modern Cairo, in particular the
level ling and quarrying of t he s1te created a fal se cliff into wh ich rock accordi ng to recent work carried out by Zahi Hawass, on the
quarries ofTura and El-Masara. Here, a very fine-grained
tombs were carved .The surro und ing quarry was aga1n explo ited in
white limestone can be found, that was capable of taking on southern side of the Great Pyramid at G iza. However, it is by used inside some tombs to place the sarcophagus lid atop the
the time of Ramesses 11. an d presumably aga in in t he Late Period w hen
a high polish, as well as receiving fine relief carving. no means certain exactly how they were employed, nor coffer and are still to be seen in place in (for example) the
t he necro pol is enJoyed a renaissance.
Different quarrying methods were used depending on whether the same system was used consistently, or was varied tomb ofMereruka at Saqqara (ill 196).
the location of the quarry and whether hard or soft stone over time. As well as in large-scale building, ramps were also Wooden scaffolding was generally used for the carving
was being extracted. Stone could be extracted from large and the sprinkling of water, milk or oil to ease the passage of and painting of a monument, rather than its construction.
open excavations (used for both hard and soft stone), or by the block. The building of dedicated transport roads with 34 The met hods used for q uarrying the hardest stones are we ll
For lifting and manoeuvring blocks, levers were a key tool;
removing portions of the horizontal or vertical cliff faces specially prepared surfaces provided further aid." illustrated at Aswan , where th1s 18th Dynast y o be lisk st ill lies in it s indeed, one that is still used with skill in Egypt today. In
(used for both hard and soft stone) and proceeding with an Stonework and quarrying seem to have been carried out quarry. essence, a lever (or levers) are used to raise one side of a
open quarry, or by excavating deep galleries (never used for using tools of stone, copper, and later bronze, aided by, on block, which is then chocked up. The other is raised to the
hard stones; for details see above in rock-cut tombs). occasion, levers. Tools included pointed picks or axes in the same level and chocks inserted, the process being continued
In open-cut quarries the rubble would be removed, then Old and Middle Kingdoms and then a pointed chisel used until the required level is reached.
the cleaned surface was marked with lines or a series of in conjunction with a wooden mallet was employed from The introduction of heavy items, such as sarcophagi,
chisel-cuts in order to show the stonemasons where to cut the New Kingdom onward. Until recently, it had been into deep burial chambers presented major problems. In
the blocks. Trenches (20 to 6o cm or 8 to 24 inches wide) assumed that granite was removed by cutting holes into the tomb-chambers approached via vertical shafts, two tactics
were created between the blocks so that the workers could rock, inserting wooden wedges into the holes and wetting could be used. First, the shaft could be filled with sand, the
stand in these whilst cutting. these. The expansion of the wood supposedly fractured the block placed atop the sand and the latter slowly but surely
When stone was quarried far from the building site, granite. However, this idea is no longer current as, for the dug out from around and under it, so that the block
it was transported by water. T his was aided in the case of most part, the wood would have been insufficiently strong ultimately arrived at the bottom. The other common option
granite by the upstream location of the quarries relative to split the rock and also, the wedge holes all date to the was to use ropes looped over wooden scaffolding poles:
to most building sites. It is likely that the carrying ofTura Ptolemaic Period, when iron was available. It seems that in pulleys do not seem to have been prevalent. Ropes were also
limestone across to the Memphite cemeteries on the the Pharaonic Period proper, the task was accomFJlished in employed in controlling the descent of items into sepulchres
opposite bank was facilitated by the annual Nile flood, a very time-consuming manner by using hammerstones of with sloping access passages and there are a number of
which led to the inundation of much of the river valley, dolerite to break down the granite. A fine example of a tombs with sockets in opposing walls which had held the
right up to the edge of the desert. Canals, leading from the granite quarry that is. 'frozen' in time is the quarry of the beams and could also be used as hand- and foot-holds .
Nile to the building site, also helped reduce the need for unfinished obelisk at Aswan, where the broken, half-finished A number of different approaches are found as far as
land transport. On land, movement of stone relied on obelisk still lies in situ. The detritusJJ would be removed in the masonry of stone buildings is concerned. There was a
human muscle-power, in some cases with the aid of sledges leather bags and baskets made of palm or reed. tendency towards economy, particularly in the reuse of

42 CO N STR U C TI ON AN D D ECORAT I O N CONS T RU C T I O N A N D D ECORAT I O N 43

 blocks derived from demolished or remodelled buildings, corbelled roofs at the beginning of the 4th Dynasty. They are
e.g. the causeway blocks from Giza being reused in the found in the pyramid and private tombs at Meidum, as well
pyramids at Lisht. In addition , core blocks were frequently as the stone pyramids at Dahshur and in the so-called Grand
far rougher than those towards the exterior, in some cases Gallery of the Great Pyramid at Giza. However, in pyramids,
comprising little more than rubble. When looking at the they henceforth disappear from the record, replaced by
pyram ids, the best quality workmanship is to be seen in the pointed roofs made from two massive slabs (or layers of such
j
earlier monuments, core blocks becoming smaller and less slabs) leaning against one another. Although vaulted roofs in
I
well made as the 5th and 6th Dynasties progress . This brick had been used since the Early Dynastic Period, most

f~-·/~ contrast is reflected in their states of preservation today:

despite the loss of their Tura limestone casings, the 4th
apparent stone vaults were actually carved out of the blocks
of a conventional pointed roof. Only a handful of true stone
'· ·, ~fp.~~~~~ Dynasty pyramids at Dahshur and Giza still retain their vaults are known prior to the 25th Dynasty, when examples
\
~------~u-=-~~IL '~li form; some of those of the late 5th/ 6th Dynasties are now are found in the tombs of the God's Wives at Medinet Habu
little more than amorphous mounds. Likewise, while some (pp. 277-8). Subsequently, a series of vaulted burial chambers
mastabas are solid masonry, others are, like many brick were constructed in shaft-tombs at Saqqara, Abu Sir and
examples, composed of masonry retaining walls enclosing a Giza, but they remain an exception from regular Egyptian
rubble core. practice. Flat stone roofs, constructed in the post-and-lintel
W hen building, butting planes of the stone were dressed tradition, remained popular for free-standing tombs
36 Very little information on Egyptian engineering survives in t he decoration of t he monuments. One partial exception IS the 12th Dynasty tomb before use, but ultimate finishing carried out only after they throughout Egyptian history.
of Djehutyhotep 1i at Deir ei-Bersha, showing t he transport of a colossus of the owner from the nearby alabaster quarries at Hatnub. were in situ. The blocks used were not always uniform in
size or shape. The Egyptians carved and jointed their stones PROT ECTI N G T HE T OM B
37 As well as employing ramps for heavy construction work, scaffolding also had a part to play, especially in the decoration of walls and the
to maximize the usefulness of every block. Mortar was used
carving of statues. Here, in Rekhmire's 18th Dynasty t omb TT I 00, one may see sculptors putting t he finish1ng touches to a senes of statues
belonging to Thutm ose Ill, using scaffo lding to reach the higher areas. In t he upper register (not pi ctu red) , a mason bui lds a ram p to be used sparingly; it generally provided lubrication to slide blocks Films about ancient Egypt often feature complex
in the construction of a bui lding. into position. In extremely large constructions wooden mechanisms in tombs that are meant to prevent theft.
butterfly clamps were inserted in order to hold the blocks Although such devices did exist, their number and variety are
tightly together. by no means as diverse as Hollywood movies may suggest.
T he techniques of stone building evolved from the Early
Dynastic Period onwards. A number of periods display
distinctive features, a good example being the vogue for 39 Model of the substructure of an early 4th Dynasty tomb in the
Great West Cemetery at Meidum, showing the plug-block slid down
the descendi ng passage after the funeral. Another interest ing aspect of
38 Butterfly clamps, generally made of wood, w ere used to hol d two the t omb is t he niche at the far end of t he cham ber; apparently one of
pieces of stone together. A lthough t he wood has disappeared, the the earliest known niches for a canopic chest (formerly in Bristol
plaster and cavity for the clamp remains; Elephantine . Mu seum) .

44 CONS T RU CT ION A N D DECORATI ON CONSTRUCT I ON AND DECORAT ION 45

 Basic precautions included deepening the location of the where rock falls and floods might obliterate their entrances.
burial chambeli, plug-blocks, hardstone portcullises blocking Later, however, tombs were given monumental entrances,
the passage to the burial chamber (e.g. in later Old Kingdom closed by no more than a sealed door and in full view. In this
pyramids), as well as constructing both the passage and/or case, security was in the hands of the guards who were
burial chamber out of this hard material (e.g. the quartzite assigned to protect the royal wadi. Nevertheless, all
chambers of!ate Middle Kingdom pyramids). However, precautions came to naught and plunderers entered every
tomb-robbers quickly learnt to circumvent these simply by single tomb in the Valley, although a handful, including that
excavating a parallel passage in the softer stones surrounding ofTutankhamun (KV62), escaped relatively unscathed.
the obstructions, or even painstakingly chiselling through The other major attempts to protect the burial chamber
the apparently impregnable quartzite. are to be found in the 26th Dynasty, when an innovative use
Pyramids of the Middle Kingdom show evidence for of sand succeeded in protecting a number of high-status
many of the devices that have inspired film-makers: monuments from desecration (p. 286) . This included a
reversing the direction of passages, false passages, dead ends, revival of the Middle Kingdom system of 'sand hydraulics'
dummy shafts and hidden accesses to the burial chamber all and marked probably the high point in the ancient Egyptian
feature, together with the use of sand after the manner of technology of tomb protection. The most elaborate
hydraulic fluid to lower blocks that closed the entrances to examples left the sarcophagus buried under thousands of
burial chambers (seep. 205). Sadly, despite these various tonnes of sand, almost every grain of which had to be
precautions, the royal tombs were invariably plundered. removed if anyone wished to gain access to the body:
From early in the New Kingdom, royal tombs were even working under ideal conditions, the archaeological
located in the Valley of the Kings, a distant and inaccessible excavation of such a tomb can take many weeks. A measure
valley, in an effort to stop robbers. The sites for the tombs of the success of the type is the fact that over half of the
themselves were initially in inaccessible clefts in the rock, known examples have been found intact.

40 The well room of New Kingdom royal tombs was often des1gned to look like the term1nal chamber of the tomb to prevent plundering.Thus
t he decoration would pass over the entrance to the next series of passages and rooms. Here, in Horemheb's KVS7, only part of a scene featuring
Osiris su rvives t he breakthrough into the next chamber

4 1 Horemheb's tomb in the Val.ley of the Kings (KV57) was never properly finished and is thus a source of invaluable informat ion concerning
~o mb construction and decoration. Part of the grid and the drawing, including corrections, appear on the left side of the scene of marching
eltles, while the nght s1de has already been carved away. Such examples show that the sequence of tomb decoration was not immutable, and
pro bably was the result of exped1ency rather than ritual (18th Dynasty) .

CONSTRUCT I ON AND DECORAT I ON 47

46 CONSTR UCTION AND DECORAT ION
 Curses (p. 131) inscribed on tomb walls can also be said was covered with a layer of mud plaster mixed with straw Another method that was used in some Theban tombs
to protect the tomb and its owner. 34 These, however, are and sometimes dung and applied by hand. This in turn was and is seen in the tomb of Ramose (TT 55) entailed outlining
relatively mild and try to shield the tomb from the entry of covered by a thin layer of gypsum, applied with a coarse the relief decoration in black and cutting the background
impure people, as well as those who would desecrate the brush made of plant material, which was covered by a wash away by a few millimetres. T hen the paint and chisel marks
tomb - or embezzle the endowments left to support the of lime carbonate and size to avoid the colours being were removed by abrasive stones and sand and the reliefs
dead person's cult. Curses are found inscribed in tombs of all absorbed by the plaster, after which the paint was applied." refined with smaller chisels. Details were then modelled and
periods and generally threaten the violator with punishment refined and then the completed scene might have been
in the afterlife when he or she will be judged by the tomb- The Mechanics of Decoration covered with plaster p rior to painting. A third method of
owner, as well as the gods. relief decoration is known primarily from the Ramesside
Whether a tomb was painted or carved, the basic preparation Period and is found in tombs cut in poor-quality stone.
DECORATIN G THE TOMB for the wall decoration was the sam e. First a grid was laid The stone was covered with a thick layer of gypsum plaster
down by stretching strings tautly from roof to floor and along and carved before the plaster dried. The Egyptians must
The type of decoration depended ultimately on finances as the length of the walls.J6 The strings were dipped in red ink, have applied the plaster to limited areas and worked on
well as the quality of the rock. If one could afford it, the pulled tight and released to leave the grid lines. Splatters from carving it quickly before moving on to the rest of the
tomb was carved in raised relief and then painted; if one this process are still visible in many tombs, as are, in some scene. Paint adhered very well to such plaster-carved
could not, then it was only plastered and painted. Sunk instances, the grids themselves, as can be seen in the tomb of representations.
relief became more commonly used from the end of the Horemheb (KV57) andArnenhotep Ill (WV22), to name but In built tombs, it is likely that the innermost rooms will
18th Dynasty onwards. It is probable that when choosing rwo examples. The scenes were then drawn upon the grid, have been constructed, and thus decorated, first. This is
a tomb's location, its site and the quality of rock used or generally in red paint (an exception to this is the tomb of borne out well by Ptahhotep's Saqqara tomb (D62), where
exploited, if rock-cut, also determined its price. Time Ramesses XI (KV4), where yellow ochre was used for the the entryway is unfi nished, while the main offering room is
might also have influenced the choice berween carving initial sketch) and corrected by the master draughtsman in complete. The reverse will inevitably have been the case for
and painting, as the latter type of decoration was quicker black, before being finally painted. The tomb ofHoremheb rock-cut tombs and is seen both in (e.g.) the chapel of
than the former. Some tombs use both relief carving and (KV57) is unusual in that the design was in parts drawn in Ramose (TT 55) and the tomb ofHoremheb (KV57), wh ere
painting, such as the tomb of Ramose (TT 55) atThebes. black ink and corrected in red. Many tombs were never the outer parts are far more advanced than the inner parts.
The unfinished state of many Egyptian tombs (e.g. TT55, completely finished, so evidence of the corrections is easily Logically, one would expect the decoration to start at the
TT175, KV57) allows us to see the work 'in progress' and visible. In other instances the corrected paint or plaster has top of a wall and then proceed downward, thereby sparing
so study the different techniques employed. fallen off, revealing the corrections below. Neferrenpet's tomb the lower areas from any damage. This is the case in
(TT249) shows corrections made to drawings of figures, faces Ptahhotep's tomb, but is not always so. In Horemheb's
Relief Decoration and a harp. In some instances, when the tomb decoration was 42 A grid is visible on th is female figure in t he tomb of Siren put ii sepulchre, the carving was proceeding from bottom to top
carved, mistakes can be seen in the carvings, such as are (QH 3 1) at Qubbet ei-Hawa (Aswa n: 12th Dynasty). when suspended. In some of the unfinished portions of
Tombs were generally decorated in raised (also known as low visible in the depiction of rwo crocodiles in the tomb of certain tombs sometimes only the hands or eyes are carved,
or bas) or sunk (also known as high) relief if the stone was of Kagemeni at Saqqara, or in the placement of the crocodile's became the norm for standing images. Radical changes thereby suggesting that a specialist in those areas would start
good quality. Frequently mistakes or accidental chips in the limbs in the tomb ofMereruka at Saqqara. In ancient times occurred in the 26th Dynasty when standing individuals working regardless of whether or not the rest of the scene
stone were repaired with plaster. In some instances, these mistakes would have been plastered or/and painted measured 21 and the seated figures 17 squares.JS was receiving attention at that time. Thus it would seem that
especially in Thebes, where the stone quality was relatively over and thus made invisible, but with the loss of the Different techniques were used to carve raised relief. In there were no strict rules as to how the artists proceeded
poor, thick layers of plaster were applied to the friable rock disguising painted cover, the errors are very obvious. the most common method, as can still be seen, for example, with the decoration once the initial stages had been
and this plaster was then carved. Presumably the plaster was Although not always actually drawn out, grids reflecting in the tombs ofPtahhotep (Saqqara D62- 5th Dynasty), completed and that the Egyptians decorated their tombs
carved before it had completely hardened, as it is easier to a standard canon of proportions underlay the laying out of Horemheb (KV57 - 18th Dynasty) and Nespaqashuti depending chiefly on convenience.
work when it is damp and there is less chance of it chipping key elements of a wall scene. Concerned in particular with (TT312 - 26th D ynasty]), the background is cut away,
off and breaking. the human body, the grids utilized vary over time.J7 From leaving the solid outline of the various elements of a wall's Painted Decoration
Paint could be directly applied to the smoothed walls if the Middle Kingdom onward a standing male figure decoration . These were then refined and smoothed using
the quality of stone was fine. Otherwise, holes and fissures measured 18 squares from the soles of his feet to the hairline. chisels and abrasives, with details of hands, feet and objects Once the masons, plasterers, draughtsmen and relief carvers
were filled with plaster or fitted chunks of stone and a thin Seated figures measured 14 squares. Changes in these that the figures were carrying executed with care. The reliefs had visited the tomb, it could finally be finished by the
layer of plaster was laid over the walls, which was painted. proportions begin during the reign ofThutmose Ill and were then painted, sometimes after being first covered with a artists' application of the polychrome decoration. Some
Frequently, in the New Kingdom tombs in Thebes, the rock continue into the Ramesside Period, when 19 squares very thin layer of plaster. tombs did not have the benefit of relief decoration and

48 C ONS T RU C TI O N AND D ECOR A T I O N C ONS T RU CT IO N A N D D ECORAT I O N 49

 Blue and green were the most difficult and costly colours tastes, e.g. hunting, fishing, etc. This leads us to the question
to reproduce. Blue was made of azurite, or from an artificial of how these scenes were chosen. Were there pattern books
frit made of silica, copper and calcium. Special blues were to select from, or was each scene invented and reinvemed by
also made from lapis lazuli, a blue stone imported from what an artist? Although no such pattern books survive, sketches
is modern Afghanistan. Green could be produced through on ostraka and the repetition of scenes on the walls of
an artificial frit like blue, or was made, less frequently, from different tombs suggest that certain images, vignettes and
powdered malachite, a natural ore that is found in the Sinai entire scenes were indeed copied. In some tombs new grids
and the eastern desert, frequently at copper or even are placed over older paintings (e.g. in Menena's TT69) as an
turquoise mi nes. Chrysocolla, a natural copper ore, was also aid to the copyist.
a source for green paint. O ther colours were produced by Perhaps each atelier had some sort of pattern book from
mixing together primary colours: pink was made by mixing which the patrons would choose the scenes that were to be
red ochre and white gypsum, while grey was made from pictured in their tom bs. T hus an atelier would provide a
mixing soot and gypsum and orange was a combinatio n of selection of different hunt scenes or fishing scenes for the
red and yellow. diem 's decision. Certainly groups of tombs exist where one
Egyptian paint was tempera and it is thought that can see evidence of this practice: the 6th Dynasty mastabas
different adhesives were used, including local resins and in the Teti Pyramid Cemetery at Saqqara contain hunting
beeswax. Analyses of painted tomb walls continues in an scenes that are clearly m ade by the same artist or at least
effort to determine precisely what materials were used as atelier (the tombs ofMereruka and Iunumin); there is also
vehicles for the paint, as well as to see if varnishes or beeswax evidence of certain motifs, such as the fo rce-feeding of
were used to set the colour. There is some evidence that hyenas that occurs repeatedly in that cemetery, that might
beeswax was used as a thin covering on some painted tombs
in T hebes (e.g. the tomb oflnyotef [TT155], as well as others
dating to the early New Kingdom [TT39, TT82, TT86, 45 An ostrakon showing t he head ofSenenmut t hat was drawn us1ng
a grid .The initial sketch was done in red, while t he corrections and
TT93, TT179 and T T 25r] ).••
final draw ing we re in black. This appears to be t he prototype for a
Illuminatio n was provided near the entrance by the sun. similar head found in a passage in the substructure of his tomb
As the workers descended, sunlight would be reflected into (TT35 3: MMA 363 .252).
the tomb by mirrors of polished metal, m uch as is done even
today. O nce beyond the reach of sunlight, simple ceramic
lamps with linen twists as wicks were used. T hese burned
4 3 Black ink final sketches, w ith some pre liminary carving, in the tomb 44 The well-chamber ofThutmose IV's tomb was only ever partly locally produced oils, such as sesame oil. Salt was often
of Ramose (TT55), dating to the reigns of Amenhot ep Ill and IV decorated. On the end wall can be seen the kheker-frieze and sky-sign added to prevent the lamps from smoking unduly. Despite
that was painted in advance of any further adornment
this precaution, however, workers com monly complained of
would just be painted. Paint could be applied to a variety of eye problems. A letter, written by the draughtsman Pay of
surfaces, including gypsum and mud-plastered walls. Brown was made of ochre or iron oxide, or a combinatio n of Deir el-Medina to one of his sons, importunes him to bring
Different techniques of painting are sometimes used in the red painted over black. White was either chalk or gypsum, salves and eye-paint to soorhe and im prove his sigh t. No
same tomb: in some areas, the colours are applied in a thin found in the cliffs around Egypt. Red and yellow came from doubt the smoke, dust and poor quality of illuminatio n led
layer, rather than the usual thicker layer, and colours appear to the ochre that is found in the desert in lumps. It was broken to serious eye-diseases and even blindness amongst the tomb
have been mixed differently in the same tomb (e.g. TT175).J9 up and ground to a fine powder to produce the bright workers.
Artists used very basic materials: string, vegetable fibre colours that have lasted so well on tomb and tem ple walls.
brushes (including the Egyptian rush juncus maritimus) , Red iron oxide was also used for red paint. Orpiment Scene Choice:Ate liers,Artists and Pat rons
water and different types of paim .•o T he palette of the pigment, a natural sulphide of arsenic, also provided yellow;
painter was limited. Until around the 4th D ynasty, the it has been identified in tombs dating to the Middle Although there was certainly a basic canon of scenes to be
paints used were naturally occurring ochres; thereafter a Kingdom, but is more commonly found in New Kingdom included in a tomb, the tomb-owne r clearly exercised some
greater diversity was achieved, although still using natural sepulchres. It was imported fro m Persia or perhaps Asia personal choice. Some scenes, relevant to his position would
compounds . Black was made of soot or ground charcoal. M inor, although some sources have been reported in Egypt. no doubt be included, as well as vignettes reflecting his

CO N STRUC T ION AND DE COR A T I ON 51

50 CO NS T RU CT I O N AND D ECOR A T IO N
 have been derived from the 5th Dynasty tomb ofTi (Saqqara Thutmose III (KV34) and Amenhotep II (KV35) suggest the New Kingdom The ban artists, as their work has been
6o) and a group of mastabas whose presentation scenes are that the scribe who was decorating the tomb was copying examined the most closely.47 Thus, the hands of some of the
very similar, located at Giza (G7249, 5150, 4970 and 2155). directly from a damaged papyrus roll, as at the points where artists who worked in the tomb of Sety I (KVq) can also be
This practice is also evidenced from later periods. The the text was missing he wrote 'found damaged'! discerned in the tomb ofRamesses II's sons (KV5), the tomb
18th Dynasty painted tomb ofWensu (TTA4) at Thebes There are some unusual instances where a tomb's of his queen, Nefertiry D (QV66) and the tomb of
and the carved burial place ofPaheri at El-Kab (EK3), decoration has been modified. In the tomb ofPtahemhat Sennedjem (TTI) -who was probably himself one of the
some 55 km (35 miles) away, contain identical scenes related (TT77, 18th Dynasty), a roughly drawn monkey has been team of artists working in these tombs.
to granaries . Other scenes, such as those dealing with added under the earlier, better-drawn depiction of a seated
foreigners, are also transferred from tomb to tomb. man and his wife.4 6 The reason for this addition is unknown. A RTIS T S A N D ART IS A NS
Interestingly, some vignettes, or even individual figures, are In TT 52, the Ramesside usurper of the tomb reflected
sometimes copied from one tomb and placed in another, changes in social mores by giving Nakht's naked dancing It is clear that tomb building was a major industry in ancient
irrespective of suitability. The chariot workshop scenes in girls clothes - which have since flaked off, restoring them to Egypt, although detailed information is only available on
Mery's tomb (TT95) contains an image of a carpenter that is their former glory. Other changes, however, are more those who constructed the greatest of the sepulchres- the
copied from the tomb ofRekhmire (TTwo). The figure is understandable, as is the case with damnatio memoriae. pyramids and the royal tombs in the Valley of the Kings and
typical of carpentry scenes, rather than chariot-making Apart fro m examples of animosity against tomb-owners, those at Amarna. Two large communities of pyramid-builders
vignettes, but was transferred into this sceneY This other vestiges can be found during the Amarna Period, are known, one at Giza and one at Kahun, near the Lahun
transference might also have its roots in pattern books.4J where Amun's name, together with his totemic animal, the pyramid ofSenwosret II, although others no doubt existed
The tombs ofMenena (TT69) and Pairi (TT139) also duck, was erased from several monuments. and may still yield their secrets to the excavator's trowel.
show evidence of having been painted by the same Specifi c artists' styles can be recognized in certain tombs The Giza settlement lies around a kilometre south of the
artist/atelier, or at least having been influenced by one and one cannot help but wonder if these might have been Great Pyramid and covers a very considerable area.48 It
another or the same 'pattern book'. Pairi's artist appears to requested by discerning patrons. This is especially true for contained a large industrial complex, with food-producing
have copied, somewhat crudely, many of the scenes found in
the tomb of Menena. Scenes from the Middle Kingdom 47 The area of the settle ment of th e 4t h Dyn asty pyrami d bu il de rs at G za lies south of a massive wall , kn own as t he 'Wall of the Crow' (i n the
tomb of Senet and Inyotefiqer (TT6o) at Thebes were also background), t hat se parat ed it fro m t he necropo li s. lt was accompan ied by its own cemete ry, w hich is in the foregro un d of t his phot ograph.
copied in the New Kingdom tomb of Amenemhat (TT82)
and Heqanefer's tomb at Toshka copies from Amenhotep-
Huy's T T 40, who was Viceroy of Kush, while the decoration
ofTT38 copies from TT 52 and TT75 .
The 25th and 26th Dynasties were a time of archaism in
art. Indeed, it was quite common for 26th Dynasty tombs to
contain vignettes copied from older tombs, even from some
that were found in far-distant cemeteries.44 Within the
Theban necropolis several New Kingdom scenes can be seen
repeated in Saite contexts. For example, the woman nursing
a child first occurs in TT69, the tomb ofMenena and then is
repeated in the 25th Dynasty tomb ofMentuemhat (TT34) .
The apiculture scene from Rekhmire's TTwo is repeated in
the 25th Dynasty sepulchre ofHarwa (TT37). Pabasa
(TT279) and Ankhhor (TT414) may have either mimicked
Harwa, or gone directly to TTwo's original. Another group
of Saite tombs might also have borrowed from one another:
Shoshenq (TT27), Basa (TT389) and Ibi (TT36).45
Royal tombs of the New Kingdom are decorated with a
46 a&b Differe nt parts of a single t o mb may display different styles:
th is scene (above) in the tomb of Mahu at Saqqara contrasts w ith t his number of broadly standard texts that will certainly have
e lement (below) elsewhere 1n the chapel. been taken directly from papyrus masters. The tombs of

52 CONS TRU C T ION AND DECORAT ION CONSTRUCTION AND DECORAT I ON 53

 Chapter 4 The Study of the Egyptian Tomb

A lthough closed by pious hands, few tombs have survived

the m illennia intact. In the vast majority of cases, they were
plundered within a few years- and in certain cases, hours -
of the funeral. Some burial chambers have been found
48 Deir ei-Medina: at the left is the enclosure of the Ptolemaic temple, while in the cent re is t he N ew Kingdom workmen's village. sealed, with no sign of post-interment penetration, yet with
the funerary equipment smashed and the denuded corpse
lying in pieces around the room!52 Interestingly, it was not
facilities, a metal workshop, as well as houses and store- el-Medina contingent was primarily devoted to working only gold and jewels that attracted the robbers; more homely
rooms. Senwosret II's pyramid town at Kahun included a on royal sepulchresY This is still a matter under items such as beer and oils were also stolen from tombs.
walled section containing 220 small houses, no do ubt investigation. Although robberies were endemic throughout Egyptian
intended for the workers.49 T h e m ajority of inform ation T he workers were divided into teams or gangs, the history, it would seem that they were particularly common
concerning tomb builders and artists comes from the m embership of which became hereditary: fam ilies are during periods in which central authority was weakened and
archaeological remains and textual evidence (dating traceable from generation to generation . T his was only thus necropolis guards less well organized or honest. T he
primarily from the Ramesside Period) from the New natural as sons tended to learn their metier from their most notorious episodes of this kind come late in the 2oth
Kingdom walled village ofDeir el-Medina on the western fathers and thus carry on a family tradition. A stela in the Dynasty, when a number of papyri shed a lurid light on the
bank at Thebes.5° Louvre, belonging to the craftsm an Mertisen, says that he web of corruption and greed that led to the wholesale
From the r8th Dynasty onwards, the workers in the only shared his knowledge with his son. robbery of the cemeteries at Thebes.5J At least one royal
T heban royal necropolis lived at D eir el-Medina, subsidized The basic work gang was divided into 'left' and 'right' tomb is known to have been robbed during the Amarna
if not totally supported by the state and the system of 'sides', each under its own foreman , with a single 'Scribe of Period, while it is clear that the Intermediate Periods
redistribution. In return for their work they received all the Tomb' in overall charge of administration. T he foremen saw much looting of cemeteries. For example, the roth
sorts of commodities, which, when in surplus, could be were responsible not only for their members' work and Dynasty text 'Instruction for King Merykare' alludes to 49 (top) Fa~ade of a now -destroyed tomb atAsyut, as depicted by
traded. In slack periods, they also worked on the tombs of actions, but also for the tools and other items provided by Herakleopolitan troops plundering the Abydos necropolis Bonaparte's scholars.
the nobles, as well as their own very elaborate tombs in a the administration. T he workers laboured for 8 days at a during their war with the nth D ynastyThebans.
necropolis adjoining the village. T he differences in pay stretch, 8 hours a day, unless th ere was an emergen cy and a Following the final collapse of ancient Egyptian 50 (above centre) Part of t he Leopold 11papyrus, one ofthe
documents recounting the tomb-robbery t r ials of the 20th D ynasty
scales are reflected by the workers' titles. It has also been tomb had to be completed in haste. T he skilled workers civilization and religion in the face of the forces of
(Brussels E6857).
suggested that another group of workers was responsible included stonemasons, outline draughtsmen, painters and Christianity and Islam, the old cities of the dead lost what
for decorating the majority of private tombs as the Deir carpenters. little sanctity and physical protection still remained, with 5 1 (above) Graffito in the t omb ofThutmose IV (KV43) , recou nting
many tombs falling victim to the m onotheistic iconoclasts t he tomb's restoration after robbery during the reign of H oremheb.

54 CO N ST RU C TI O N AN D DECORAT IO N T H E STUDY OF TH E EGYPT I A N T OMB SS

 in particular Abd el-Latif, who gives a good description of
the interior of the Great Pyramid at Giza. 56
52 Prince Khaemwaset, the
A few devout Christian pilgrims did, however, reach
fourth son of Ramesses 11, might
well be called one of the fi rst
Egypt, en route to Jerusalem, including Bernard the Wise
Egyptologists. Living 1n the in 870 Y Although they saw the pyramids, most failed to
Memph 1te area as High Pnest recognize their sepulchral purpose, calling them the
of Ptah, he spent a great deal 'Granaries ofJoseph', while the challenges that they 53 Directly above the burial
of time and effo rt cleaning and encountered show that casual travel to the country was chamber of the tomb of
restoring the monuments of Pedamenopet at Thebes (TT33)
difficult. Travel conditions started to improve following the
earlier periods. He left IS a cunous rock massif with
insmptions on a number of end of the Crusades late in the 13th century, increasingly so
the figures of t he protective
structures detailing his after the Ottoman takeover in 1517, but apart from goddesses at the corners. For a
restorat 1on work, in this case on repetitious descriptions of the pyramids, western travellers plan of the who le tomb, see
the pyramid of Unas at Saqqara. did little to advance knowledge of the ancient monuments. ill. 323.
The 25th and 26th Dynasties saw an upsurge in interest Gradually, however, more information is to be found:
and treasure-seekers, with others converted to become
churches or parts of monasteries. Medieval Arabic accounts in earlier monuments, the art of the period being frequently Johannes Helffrich (fl. 1570s) relates his visit to a communal
modelled on ancient prototypes. As noted in the previous tomb at Giza, as well as to the Giza pyramids and sphinx,
tell, often with wondrous embellishments, of ventures into
pyramids and tombs to recover their riches.54 However, by chapter, they even went so far as to make direct copies which were drawn in the early 17th century by George
the r6th century, the first real signs of European interest in of wall-scenes in tombs of the distant past. That Sandys (1578-1644), while John Greaves (1602- 52) in 1639
'archaeological' clearances were sometimes carried out is carried out the first real survey of the Great Pyramid, mummies called Biban el Melouc'- the Valley of the Kings.
ancient Egypt were becoming apparent, beginning the
process that would culminate in the scientific resurrection of shown by the new access passage dug under the 3rd Dynasty publishing the results in r646 as the Pyramidographia In r672, Johann Vansleb (d. r679) entered the catacombs of
Step Pyramid; the objective in this case is suggested by the (London: George Badger). A few years later, Jean de the Sacred Animal Necropolis at Saqqara.
its monuments in the 19th, 2oth and 21st centuries.
grids drawn over some of the reliefs in the substructure to Thevenot (1633- 67) explored the 'mummy-pits' ofSaqqara, The r8th century saw a number of travellers exploring
allow copying.55 Similarly, the Late Period nobleman, while in r668 Father Charles Fran'rois mentions 'the place of Egyptian tombs and leaving important accounts of these.
THE EARLIEST INTERES T
Hapymen, had a sarcophagus made whose decoration was a
The earliest explorers and visitors of Egyptian tombs were direct copy from that ofThutmose Ill. 54 A nobleman of the Late Penod, one Hapymen . had his sarcophagus made with its external decoration copied from that ofThutmose Ill,
Other ancient designs were more indirectly borrowed; created a thousand years earlier (BM EA23) .
the ancient Egyptians themselves. The monuments of their
ancestors were of interest to them and played a part in the for example, in TT33 is a curious rectangular rock-cut massif
funerary culture that was a pillar of Egyptian society. directly above the burial chamber, with goddesses with
Egyptians visited tombs to pray for the spirits of their dead, outstretched arms on each corner (seep. 284- 5). This seems
to invoke their blessings, elicit help and to pacify those who to have been directly inspired by a royal sarcophagus of the
seemed to be unquiet and vengeful. Royal tombs were late r8th Dynasty, something seemingly only possible
centres of cultic activity and were a primary focus of visitors. through direct inspection of an original- presumably either
Tombs were also visited as a source of inspiration for the that of Ay or ofHoremheb.
construction of other tombs: attractive designs, scenes and Egypt was a destination for the tourists of the Greek
vignettes were sometimes copied by artists and tomb-owners and Roman world, amongst the earliest being Herodotus
who had visited a certain tomb (cf. p. 52). ofHalicarnassus (5th century BC). He visited a number of
Graffiti help trace the path of both ancient and modern Lower Egyptian sites, including Sais, Giza and Hawara,
visitors in tombs. The tomb ofSenet/lnyotefiqer (TT6o) at leaving interesting, but often frustrating, accounts in his
Thebes contains r8th Dynasty graffiti praising its beauty and great Histories. These tourists also left their graffiti on many
recording the names of those who visited the tomb. of the pyramids, as well as in the royal sepulchres in the
Khaemwaset, the fourth son ofRamesses II, restored a Valley of the Kings. However, with the Arab conquest of
number of royal tombs, such as those of Shepseskaf, Unas AD 642, Egypt became essentially cut off from Europe.

and Senwosret Ill, leaving a carved record of his activities. The new masters of the country had little concern for the
Djoser's Step Pyramid complex still contains examples of ancient monuments, save as convenient quarries, although a
visitors' ink graffiti. number of Arab historians took an interest in the pyramids,

THE STUDY OF THE EGYPT I AN TOMB 57

56 THE ST UD Y OF THE EGYP T IA N T OMB
Paul Lucas (r664-1737) visited the country twice and and 20 pyramids . Another prelate-rurned-mapmaker was imagination of Europe and the tomb became known as the
entered the Sacred Animal catacombs at Saqqara, apparently Richard Pococke (1704-65). In 1738 he drew fairly accurate Harper's tomb, or Bruce's tomb. The Englishman William
being one of the first to enter the Serapeum (tomb of the plans of two Saite tombs on the Asasif (TT33 and TT37)- Hamilton (1777-I859), secretary to Lord Elgin of the
sacred bulls) in modern times .58 His contemporary, Claude the first decorated private tombs to be described in print- as Marbles fame, also visited Thebes and wrote about the
Si card (r677-1726), a Jesuit missionary to Egypt, was well as more fanciful maps of other sepulchres . In the Valley tombs in some detail in his r8o9 volume entitled Aegyptiaca.
perhaps the first European to identifY modern Luxor with of the Kings, he identified r8 tombs, of which nine were
the Thebes of the Classical authors. He drew a map of Egypt accessible, and drew plans of those that were open. Further THE DAW N O F EGYPTO LO GY
on which he recorded 24 monuments, 50 decorated tombs useful drawings were produced around the same time by
Frederik Ludwig Norden (qo8-42). A key event in the growth of popular interest and scientific
James Bruce (1730-94) also examined the Valley of the investigation of ancient Egypt was Napoleon Bonaparte's
Kings. Although he was really searching for the source of invasion of Egypt on behalf of the French Republic in 1798.
the Nile, he did pause on his southward journey at the In addition to his soldiers, the emperor-to-be took with
Valley. There he entered the tomb ofRamesses Ill (KVII) . him a commission of scholars to record the monuments,
At the entrance to the tomb were two harpers. Bruce copied geography, fauna and flora of the country. Nearly all the
these, but when published they appeared in a very ancient material collected soon passed into the hands of the
European-orientalized way- whether the blame lay with the British after the French capitulation on 30 August r8or.
copyist, the engraver or both remains uncertain. Despite However, the commission's multi-volume illustrated
their rather fantastical depiction, these harpers captured the account of the country, the Description de l'Egypte (r8o9-22),
57 (above) Norden's map of the Giza necropolis. was instrumental in pushing Egypt to the fore in the
consciousness of the educated elite. Amongst the standing
55 (left) George Sandys and his companions approach Giza in 161 0. 58 (below) A member of the Napoleonic commission working in the
monuments recorded were a large number of tombs. Sites
t omb of Paheri at EI-Kab.
56 (below) The Theban necropolis as depi cted by Richard Pococke in whose sepulchres received fairly close attention were Giza,
1737- 38. Asyut, the Asasif, the Valley of the Kings and El-Kab.
Bonaparte's expedition was responsible for a major
upsurge in interest in ancient Egypt amongst the general
public of Europe. The growth of the great public collections
brought things Egyptian before the educated public as never
before. Against this background, the early years of the 19th
century saw the launching of a frenzy of excavation and
plundering that was to continue into the next century.
This was facilitated by the assumption of the Ottoman
governorship ofEgypt by MuhammedAii in r8r5. Avid for
Western technology and diplomatic and commercial
relations, he was responsible for a large influx of Europeans.
Particularly important individuals were the Consuls and
Consular Agents of the various European powers. Apart
from their broader diplomatic roles, many also took it upon
themselves to gather collections of antiquities for national,
and more importantly personal, enrichment.
Two of the most prominent figures in this Consular
activity were Giovanni Battista Belzoni (r778-r823),
working for the British Consul, Henry Salt (r78o-r827),
and Bernardino Drovetti (r776-r852), Consul-General for
France. Belzoni was by far the more careful worker-
although by no means a scientific archaeologist- publishing

58 THE STUDY OF THE EGYPT I AN TOMB THE STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN TOMB 59
a very fair book on his adventures. Apart from exploring figure working in the necropoleis ofThebes was the former (1799-1863), like Wilkinson independent researchers,
communal tombs, his discoveries brought to light some of horse-dealer, Giuseppe Passalacqua (1797-1865), who much of whose material remains unpublished. In contrast,
the most important examples of New Kingdom royal discovered a number of Middle Kingdom/Second during 1828, a large team sponsored by the French and
sepulchres, including the tombs of Ay, Ramesses I and Sety I Intermediate Period tombs. He ultimately sold his collection Tuscan governments had arrived in Egypt to undertake a
(WV23, KVr6 and 17). Belzoni was amongst the first people to the King ofPrussia, becoming curator of the new Berlin major survey. It was led by Jean-Fran<;:ois Champollion
to make facsimiles of a tomb (that of Sety I). He worked in Museum until his death. (1790-I832), decipherer ofhieroglyphs, and Ippolito
Lower Egypt too, most spectacularly clearing a way into the The superbly painted tomb-chapels at Thebes were the Rosellini (r8oo-43), and brought into the public domain far
Second Pyramid at Giza. To commemorate the event he subject of visits by a number of travellers and investigators, more of the decoration of Egyptian sepulchral monuments.
scrawled his name in lamp-black across one of the walls of many of whom took up residence in some of the tombs In 1848 Maxime du Camp (1822- 94), accompanied by the
the chamber, where it can still be seen today. themselves. Their copies are of crucial importance, as so author Gustave Flaubert (r821-8o) , made a photographic 60 This plate from Le psi us's Oenkmiiler volumes illustrates the
many scenes have since been destroyed by the vicissitudes record of many monuments. continuing importance of these old works.This is a funerary scene
A military appointee of Muhammed Ali, Prisse
The r83os saw the first systematic archaeological work of the Ramesside Queen Baketwernel, added to KV I 0 when it was
d'Avennes (1807-79), also took a great interest in Egyptian of time and nature, but particularly at the hand of
reused for her and another royallady.Today, the whole scene is lost.
monuments and copied (and photographed during his 1858 plunderers. Two copyists were the naval officers Charles at Giza, by Colonel Richard Howard Vyse (1784-1853) and
except fo r part of the queen's face.
expedition) several scenes from T heban tombs that have Irby (1789-1845) andJames Mangles (r786- r867), who in the engineer John Perring (1813-69) . During 1836-37
subsequently been destroyed or stolen. Another important r8r7 also visited other sites, at Deir el-Bersha making the they opened the pyramid of Menkaure and cleared a very
first record of the famous scene of a colossus being dragged interesting Late Period tomb (LG84), which was named last resting place of one Mentusebaef, who lived under
by workmen (see ill. 36). Of others present at Thebes, such after a colleague ofVyse, Colonel Patrick Camp bell Cleopatra VII and Augustus, and the other holding a group
59 Part of one of the scale copies of the tomb of Sety I prepared by as Frederic Cailliaud (q87-r869), Yanni Athanasi (I779-1857). Perring then carried out a survey of the of r8th Dynasty princesses re buried after robbery during the
Belzoni and his collaborators.This was perhaps the fi rst known
(q98-r854) and William Bankes (r787-1855), some pyramid sites to the north and south of Giza. Despite the reign ofPasebkhanut 1. 6 •
attempt to copy an entire Egyptian monument, and gives the lie to
restricted themselves to copying the depictions, but others pair's enthusiastic use of explosives, the information that Some order began to be imposed on the antiquarian
Belzoni's long-standing reputation as a mere plunderer (Bristol's City
Museum & Art Gallery). took the far more drastic step of removing areas of plaster they gathered was sound and Perring's survey is still free-for-all in 1858, when Auguste Mariette (r821-8r) was
from the walls, as a result of which many of the finest tombs fun damental. appointed the first head of the Egyptian Antiquities Service.
were destroyed, only a few pitiful fragments surviving in The middle years of the 19th century saw Egypt swept by He had previously found fame in 1851 through his
museum collections. 59 many in search of antiquities. The great Prussian expedition, (re?)discovery of the Serapeum at Saqqara. Under his
Unfortunately, such vandalism was to continue for under the leadership ofKarl Richard Lepsius (r810-84), direction, unofficial digging was suppressed and official
some time, and to this day tombs are still being denuded covered the whole of Egypt and Nubia in 1842-45. The excavations were begun around the country. Unfortunately,
of decoration to satisfY the demands of unscrupulous elephant folio volumes of the Denkmaler aus Agypten und supervision was poor and little thought was given to the
collectors. Nevertheless, by the early r82os progress was Athiopien (1849-59) published plans of monuments and preservation of monuments once they had been uncovered,
being made in the serious study of the Theban tombs, drawings of their decorations, while collections of thereby leading to their destruction and loss. 62
particularly through the agency of (Sir) John Gardner antiquities were shipped back to Berlin. This Prussian work Mariette's tomb-discoveries were vast, but unfortunately
Wilkinson (1797-I875). He spent over a dozen years in made available the widest and most accurate digest yet of only partly published, some records being lost in a flood in
Egypt, deriving from his researches the material for his information on the structure and decoration of Egyptian 1877· Saqqara was a particular focus; the tombs investigated
celebrated Manners and Customs ofthe Ancient Egyptians tombs and remains of value, in particular where the there ranged in date from the dawn of the 3rd Dynasty to
(1837), for many years the key textbook on the subject. monuments recorded have been damaged or destroyed. the Late Period. The former was represented by the
Much of its contents was derived from the decoration of sepulchre ofHesyre, its adornment including some
the private tomb-chapels, demonstrating their value to TOWARDS TRU E ARCHAEO LOGY exquisitely carved wooden panels (pp. 144-5) . At the other
Egyptology. In addition to collecting and interpreting scenes end ofEgyptian history was a tomb that contained the
of daily life from private tombs, Wilkinson located many Unlike the great state-sponsored expeditions, the Scotsman burials of two men named Psametik and, probably
'new' tombs in Thebes and eventually made the first Alexander Henry Rhind (1833-63) worked alone. He had intrusively, the 30th Dynasty queen Khedebneithirbinet Il.
archaeological map of the area. During his researches he come to Egypt for his health, but soon became interested in Altogether, some 200 sepulchres were examined at Saqqara
lived in one of the tombs on Sheikh Abd el-Qurna, TT83 , antiquities, with a scientific approach that was ahead of its alone. Elsewhere, large tracts of Abydos were investigated
the sepulchre of Ametju, to which he added extensive time. 60 Although he undertook some work in the Valley of and, beginning in 1858, work at Deir el-Bahari revealed a
mud-brick elements, a few of which still survive. the Kings in 1855, his principal activities were on the Sheikh number of crypts constructed under the pavements of the
Others who spent their time copying the monuments Abd el-Qurna hill. Two of his discoveries are of particular temple ofHatshepsut for priests ofMentu during the
were James Burton (q88-r862) and Robert Hay interest. Both were reuses of earlier sepulchres, one being the 25th/26th Dynasties.

60 THE STUDY OF TH E EGY PT I AN T OMB T HE STUDY OF T HE EGYPTIAN T OMB 61

 AFTE R MAR IETTE
....... ..... . .. .............. .................................. ........................................ ............................. .......... . . ..................... ............ _

As Mariette's successor, Gaston Maspero oversaw the true

internationalization of excavation in Egypt, with
concessions given to a range of individuals and institutions.
Together with Egyptian official work, the next three decades
would see some of the most important discoveries in the
history of Egyptology.
Perhaps the most spectacular was the clearance in r88r of
a tomb found a decade earlier by local plunderers near Deir
ei-Bahari. It proved to be the tomb ofPinudjem II (TT320:
p. 273), which had served as the hiding place for over 50
mummies removed from their own tombs for safety during
the first part of the T hird Intermediate Period. Although
rapidly emptied of its contents, the tomb itself was not
properly examined and planned until 1999/zooo, when a
Germano-Russian team under Erhard Graefe undertook the
work. Another key find, by Maspero in r886, was that of the
Deir el-Medina burial chamber of the workman Sennedjem
(TTr), wonderfully decorated and still containing, intact, zo
mummies and their funerary equipment.
T he same decade saw the advent ofWilliam Matthew
Flinders Petrie (1853- 1942), often held to be the 'Father of
Egyptian Archaeology'. He began with a survey of the Giza
pyramids and then worked in successive seasons at a vast
range of sites throughout Egypt, many of them funerary. In
r888, at Hawara in the Fayoum he found a large Roman-era
cemetery, still of fundamental importance for the study of
6 1 The inner tomb chapel of Nefermaat at Me1dum, drawn in I878, already suffering badly from the attent1on of vandals. When found seven burial customs of the period. O ver the next three-and-a-half
years earl ier it had been all but perfect.Three decades years late~ its pitiful remains would be dismantled by Flinders Petrie and moved to the decades he would undertake work that still provides the
museums of Ca1ro and other major centres to save t hem from final destruction. skeleton for the study of the evolution of the Egyptian
tomb, from Predynastic times onwards.
After the pyramid explorations of Belzoni, Vyse and of Service workmen, Emile Brugsch (1842-1930) entered In r891, Eugene Grebaut (1846-1915), Maspero's
Perring, little was done with these great monuments until and made preliminary copies of the texts. These were sent successor, opened a pit at Deir ei-Bahari (dubbed the Bab
late in Mariette's regime. Under the (apparently justified) to France for study by Mariette, who was on leave there, el-Gasus) to find a pair of galleries filled with over 150
assumption that pyramids were 'mute' (uninscribed) and and Gaston M aspero (1846- 1916), then Professor at the coffins, placed there at the very end of the zrst D ynasty
unlikely to reveal historical/religious texts, Mariette had College de France. At the end of the year, the Antiquities (p. 273). His successor, Jacques de Morgan (1857-1924),
given little priority to the unexplored examples that dotted Service reis (head worker) Mohammed Shahin opened planned a systematic archaeological survey of the N ile
the Saqqara necropolis. Nevertheless, in early r88o, a French the nearby pyramid ofNemtyemsafi, which was examined Valley, but this was cut short after one volume had been
grant was given to the Antiquities Service for the specific and partly copied by Brugsch and his elder brother, published. His excavations at hitherto virgin sites, however,
purpose of their excavation. H einrich (1827- 94), together with the previously opened
.... ............ ................. . ............. ............ ........ ........ ............................. ....................................... ............ ........... ................ .......... . . ............ ."
In May 1880, a Saqqara villager penetrated the burial pyramid of Pepy I. They were able to announce to Mariette
62 (top right) Maspero and his workmen at the ent rance to TI320, a
chamber of the pyramid of Pepy I, a monument so that the existence of the famous Pyramid Texts was proved, photograph taken some time after the actual clearance of the tomb.
devastated that the roof of the burial chamber was exposed: shortly before he died in Cairo-Bulaq on 18 January 188r.
hieroglyphic texts adorned the walls within. With the help 63 (right) Flinders Petrie at Abydos in the early 1920s.

62 T HE ST UDY OF THE EG YP T IAN TO M B T HE STU D Y OF TH E EG YP TIA N TOMB 63

 brought to light a number of important sepulchres. At
Dahshur he devoted his efforts in 1894-95 around three of
a series of badly ruined Middle Kingdom pyramids along
the edge of the desert. The pyramids themselves were
completely robbed, but the surrounding tombs yielded
some of the finest treasures of ancient Egypt, including the
partially intact tomb of a 13th Dynasty king, Hor, and the
untouched tombs of four daughters (?) of Amenemhat II.
De Morgan also dug at Saqqara, finding the tombs of
Mereruka and Kagemeni, adjacent to the pyramid ofTeti,
rwo of the largest mastaba tombs of the 6th Dynasty.
T he earliest phases of the evolution of the Egyptian
romb were revealed during the late r89os. First, at Naqada
and Ballas, Petrie found graves dating to the Predynastic
Period. Then James Quibell (1867-1935) and Frederick
Green (r869-1949) discovered the oldest decorated tomb in
Egypt at Hierakonpolis (Tomb roo, datable to Naqada II),
which perhaps was the burial place of one of the 'pro to- 65 Petrie recleared the royal tombs of the Early Dynastic Period at
kings' of Upper Egypt. Around the same time, De Morgan Abydos, after the blundering work of Emile Amelineau.This shows
cleared at Naqada a large panelled mastaba (the so-called part of the tomb of King DJ er; with the I3th Dynasty 'Os ins bed' found
there. From the Middle Kingdom onwards, Djer's sepulchre was
'Royal Tomb') dating to the very beginning of the rst
regarded as that of the god Os iris.
Dynasty, while Emile Amelineau (r850-1915) began working
on the Early Dynastic Period royal cemetery at Abydos -
Umm el-Qaab. The latter excavation was badly executed and After Loret's resignation in 1899, Maspero returned
the full value of the site was only appreciated after Petrie to the Directorship-General of the Service, which he
re-cleared the site in 1899 under the auspices of the London- reorganized, with the installation of a new series of
based Egypt Exploration Fund (now Society), founded in Inspectors in Upper and Lower Egypt. The key appointments
r882 by Amelia Edwards (1831-1892). 61 Meanwhile, during were ofHoward Carter (1874-1939) atThebes andJames
1893 to 1907, Edouard Naville (1844-1926) cleared the Quibell at Saqqara. Carter had earlier worked as an
temples ofDeir el-Bahari, bringing to light many epigrapher at Beni Hasan (see below), Deir el-Bahari and
sepulchres, including a royal cemetery of the mh Dynasty. other sites. He now oversaw the monuments and excavations
of southern Egypt. From 1903, this included the work being
O NC E MORE INTO THE VAL LEY financed by the American Theodore Davis (1837- 1915), but
executed under the auspices of the Service. Working with
In 1897, De Morgan was replaced as head of the Antiquities him, Carter discovered the robbed tombs ofThutmose IV
Service by Victor Loret (1859-1946). Loret undertook (KV43), Hatshepsut (KV2o) and others in the Valley. He
excavations in the Valley of the Kings, where he found a was later succeeded as Inspector first by Qui bell and then by
number of tombs, both royal and noble, including that of Arthur Weigall (1880-1934), who also oversaw the discovery
T hutmose Ill (KV34) and the largely untouched tomb of of several important tombs while funded by Davis.
Maihirpri (KV36). In 1898 he discovered a second cache of T he first of these finds, in 1904, was the burial place of
royal mummies in the tomb of Amenhotep II (KV35). 64 Yuya and Tjuiu (KV46), parents-in-law of Amenhotep Ill.
Although partly ransacked, it still contained much of its
64 Jacques De Morgan lifts one of two crowns from the mummy of fabulous furnishings. Until 1922 and the discovery of the
the 12th Dynasty Princess Khnemet; her tomb was found in the tomb ofTutankhamun, it was the richest tomb found in
enclosu re of the pyramid of Amenemhat 11at Dahshur in 1894. Egypt. Another was KV 55, a curious deposit that held an

64 THE STUDY OF THE EGYP TIAN T OMB T H E STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN TOMB 65
 young Howard Carter, Newberr y continue d with the tombs
at El-Bersha, but rivalries with other members of his team
led to a tempora ry suspension of activities .
Copying re-started in 1898, when Norman de Garis
Davies (1865-1941) began work at Saqqara in the tomb of
Akhetho tep and Ptahhote p (D64). Davies and his wife Nina
(1881-1965), were amongst the finest epigraphers of all time
and over the next 40 years would produce wonderf ul records
of tombs througho ut the length of Egypt. Amongs t Davies'
greatest pieces of work was the recording of the private
tombs ofTell el-Amarn a (the publicati on of the royal tombs
was to wait until Geoffrey Martin's work in 1968 and
1980!2) . Later, working for the Metropo litan Museum of
Art, New York, the couple were to draw and paint large
numbers of the private tombs at Thebes. N ina's colour
facsimiles ofTheba n tomb scenes are still on display at the
Metropo litan Museum of Art and other institutio ns. After
66 The damaged coffin from KVSS as found: the identity of its the death of Norman de Garis Davies, Torgny Save-
occupant has long been a subject of debate (CM JE39627: Si::iderbergh (1914-98) continue d with the project of
18th Dynasty). recording the The ban tombs.
The preservation of the The ban tombs, so badly
anonymo us mummy that has been claimed to be both damaged since the time ofWilkin son, was greatly enhanced
Akhenat en and his eo-ruler, Smenkhkare. by the work of Arthur Weigall while Inspecto r-Genera l of
The final major tomb discovered in the Valley before Antiquit ies for Upper Egypt during 1905-14. He institute d a
1914 was that of the pharaoh Horemh eb (KV57). Badly program me of restoration and the fitting of security gates, a
robbed, it containe d the bones of four individuals, but these practice that had been started in 1903 when Howard Carter
remains now appear to be lost and whether any might have had held the same position. By 1908, 70 of the The ban
belonged to the king (whose mummy is missing from the tomb-chapels had been given iron gates. In 1913, along with
caches) is unknown . the philologist (Sir) Alan Gardiner (1879- 1963), Weigall
publishe d the first major listing of the The ban tombs, 66
THE GROWT H OF EP IGRAPH Y enumera ting 252 tombs. This cataloguing exercise continues
to this day, with 409 of the over 1,000 known now bearing
Alongside the explosion of excavation that accompa nied the official numbers .
Much ofWeigall's funding came from private sources, in of the tomb-chapel of Nakht at Thebes (TI52: 18th Dynasty).
end of the 19th century, there was a major growth in the 67 An example of one of Nina Davies' facsimile paintings: part of t he east wall
recordin g of standing monume nts, many having lain open particular from the chemist Sir Robert Mond (1867-1938),
who also financed the excavation and publicati on of were now in museum s and return them to the tombs. This However, new volumes appear regularly, especially under
for generations, vulnerab le to deteriora tion and destructi on.
monume nts in the area into the 1920s. As part of the scheme continues sporadically today. the auspices of the German Archaeological Institute in
The copying of individual scenes in tombs had been
documen tation process, Mond had designed a special Waiter Wreszinski (1880-1935) was an epigraph er who Cairo. The potential rewards of such work and the
common since the days of the Napoleo nic expeditio n and
carriage for the camera to enable it to move smoothly on one used photogra phy as the basis for his work. His five-volu me accompa nying cleaning and conservation of decorate d
excellent work had been done, particularly by the Prussians.
However, the idea of the copying of every part of a plane, allowing a whole wall to be photogra phed uniformly. Atlas zur Altagyptische Kulturgeschichte (published berween surfaces were shown in 2002. The removal of grime from
monume nt came to the fore only in the 1890s, when the He also experime nted with colour photography and tried to 1913 and 1936) contains copies of many tomb walls that are a doorway of the long-kno wn tomb of Sobknak hte at
match the colours of the facsimiles with the photogra phs, now lost. El-Kab allowed Vivian Davies to locate an autobiog raphical
Egypt Explorat ion Fund founded the Archaeological Survey
perhaps the earliest attempt at colour matching. Mond was The epigraphic tradition ofNewb erry and Davies text that reveals a whole new chapter in the struggles of
ofEgypt. 65Under the overall direction ofFranci s Ll. Griffith
(1862-1934), the early work was carried out at Beni Hasan by very keen on restoration as well as documen tation and had a continues to flourish, although the great majority of Egypt's the Egyptians against N ubian foes during the 17th
plan to make casts of the missing portions of tombs that known tombs are still inadequately publishe d, if at all. Dynasty. 67
Percy Newberr y (1869-1949) in 1890-94. Later assisted by a

T H E ST UDY OF TH E EGYPTIA N TOMB 67

66 THE STUDY OF T HE EGYP T IAN T OMB
Epigraphic Methods plane (as Mond had first done); artists then draw over the (TT338) in 1906 and reconstructed it in the Egyptian
photographs in ink. After this, the photographic images are Museum in Turin, where it can be seen today.
Tomb scenes had been copied since travellers started bleached away, leaving the line drawings, which are then Less spectacular, but of at least equal archaeological
visiting Egypt, although there is a marked difference copied onto paper and taken to the wall to be checked in value, are the discoveries made in a number of Middle
between artistic and archaeological copying methods, different lights. Both artists and experts in hieroglyphic Kingdom private cemeteries in Middle Egypt. In particular,
especially in terms of accuracy. The earliest copyists had to writing check the drawings for accuracy before final the labours of John Garstang (1876-1956) at Beni Hasan
accustom themselves to an unfamiliar art style and it was collation and eventual publication. T his method is very recovered the contents of nearly 900 middle-class tombs.
only once that hurdle had been crossed that greater accuracy precise and does not damage the monument, although it is Together with the decorated tombs of the nobles copied by
could be achieved. Ideally, Egyptologists strive for a extremely time consuming and expensive. Newberry, they make Beni Hasan the quintessential Middle
complete and faithful record, although they do not always Slides can also be used: the tomb is photographed using Kingdom necropolis. Other Middle Kingdom cemeteries
succeed, due to unfavourable copying conditions, including slide film and then the slides are projected onto paper and worked on during this period included Gebelein, Qau
poor light and dirt-covered decoration. the epigrapher can draw around the projected image, el-Kebir (Schiaparelli), Asyut (Ahmed Kamal [1851-1923])
However, there are some cases when mis-copying has although gauging the proportions can be difficult. This and El-Bersha (Kamal and Boston Museum of Fine Arts),
been deliberate due to ideas of propriety prevalent at the method likewise has the benefit of not touching the although these represent only a selection.
time. The tomb ofKhety at Beni Hasan (BH-XVII), as monument. For Old Kingdom funerary archaeology, the instigation
published by Newberry in 1893, shows a lacuna on a pilaster. Innovations in digital imaging are now bringing new of systematic excavations at Abu Sir (Ludwig Borchardt
However, when one visits the tomb, even today, there are no possibilities into the recording of tomb walls. Experiments [1863-1938]) and Giza was of key significance. Giza was
gaps in the decoration - rather, there is an image of a man are being carried out with devices that can scan whole areas initially split between the Italians, Austrians and Americans
and a woman lying on a bed together. Clearly this was not with minimal human involvement and damage. However, in 1902; the latter two teams , led respectively by Hermann
regarded as 'proper' subject matter for a scholarly volume on no matter the method of undertaking the basic copying of Junker (1877-1962) and George Andrew Reisner
ancient Egypt and as such was suppressed. a tomb, for an accurate facsimile the epigrapher must check (1867-1942), worked on into the post-First World War era,
T he earliest and most basic method of copying was by and re-check the images against the original. Thus, the clearing the cemeteries east and west of the Great Pyramid.
eye; this very much depended on the skill of the copyist and human eye will remain for the foreseeable future the final Between the wars, Selim Hassan (1886-1961) began clearing
his/her attention to detail. Sometimes grids were placed over arbiter in epigraphy. Giza's Central Field as well.
the wall to aid precision. In the 19th century artists also used Finally, the Early Dynastic Period and early Old
the camera lucida to help with copying. This tool consists of EX CAVATION NORTH AND SOUTH Kingdom were illuminated by the work of Qui bell at
a prism set on a stand and aimed at the tomb wall. An image 68 Epigraphy can be carried out in a variety of ways. One of t he most Saqqara, parts of the extensive early noble cemetery being
from the wall is projected onto a piece of paper, allowing the standard has been and remains placing some type of tracing paper Although by the early 20th century the copying of open cleared and recorded. Finds also, however, extended into the
directly on the wall, as IS being done here by Beth Thompson at monuments was regarded as an important imperative, Late Period, a tomb near Teti's pyramid revealing no fewer
artist to trace it.
Saqqara, and tracing the draw1ngs below. Conventions for ra1sed and
The second most common way, and one still in use conventional excavation continued apace. In the north, than nine sarcophagi, including that of the dwarfDjehor.
sunk rel ief as well as details are worked out by the artist for the fin al
today, involves placing a transparent sheet on the wall and publication. some key discoveries were made by Alessandro Barsanti Qui bell's work around the Teti pyramid continued after the
tracing directly onto it. Over time the type of the paper (18 58- 1917). At Saqqara, he found the tomb of the founder war. In 1931, although long retired, he took over direction of
(and later plastic) and the quality of pens and pencils have of the 211d Dynasty, Hotepsekhemwy and, from the other the excavation of the Step Pyramid complex, the oldest of all
changed, although the essential method remains the same. damage to the surface, first by wetting it and second, by end of Egyptian history, cleared the first example to be such monuments, and was still so engaged at his death.
While commonly used, this is often not the best way to copy removing the paint from the wall. Dry squeezes are also discovered of the great shaft tombs of the Late Period
a tomb wall, as it is difficult to fix the sheet to the wall and possible, but these still have the drawback of requiring the (see pp. 286- 7), which was found intact. A few kilometres AFTER THE GREAT WAR
both the adhesive material and the pressure of the tracing exertion of pressure on the wall. away he was the first man in modern times to enter the two
can damage the monument. Furthermore, it is difficult to The advent of photography has contributed significantly pyramids at Zawiyet el-Aryan. Excavations from 1914 onwards were greatly affected by the
decide how to depict different sorts of relief and painted to epigraphic work. Straightforward photography often In 1906, Ernesto Schiaparelli (1856-1928) found the changes that came about both as the result of the final
decoration. 68 However, this method is infinitely preferable provides a good record, with modern photogrammetric intact tomb of the architect Kha at Deir el-Medina (TT8: ill. retirement ofMaspero and the upsurge in nationalism that
to the squeezes that were so popular in the 19th century and methods enhancing its accuracy. Photographs can also be 18). The same Italian team was responsible for the finding of culminated in the establishment of a nominally independent
used by antiquaries and tourists alike. Squeezes are made by used in the 'Chicago House Method', one of the most some beautifully decorated tombs in the Valley of the Egyptian monarchy in 1922. The latter closely coincided
moulding wet paper (newspaper, blotting paper or special complicated and exact copying techniques, used by the Queens, the greatest of them being that ofNefertiry D with Howard Carter's discovery of the tomb of
squeeze paper) over a relief. Although this provides an University of Chicago's epigraphers, based at Chicago House (QV66) , consort ofRamesses II. Schiaparelli also Tutankhamun (KV62), the controversies surrounding which
accurate negative image of the relief, it causes considerable in Luxor. The walls are carefully photographed from a single dismantled the tomb of the The ban draughtsman May played a major role in a tightening-up of excavation

68 T H E STU D Y OF TH E EGY PT I AN TOMB T H E STUD Y O F TH E EGYPT IAN TOM B 69

 unfortunately, like most of the museum's work, relatively places. H owever, at Bubastis, the tomb of the Viceroy of
little was published at the time apart from high-quality Kush, Hori iii, was fo und accidentally in August 1925 by
preliminary reports in the institution's Bulletin. The need to railway workmen.?' T hen, in April 1944, La bib H abachi
work up the surviving archival records fo r the definitive (1906- 84) discovered the family tomb ofHori's like-named
publication of the pyramid of Senwosret I led to renewed father (p. z68) .
excavations in 1984-87- nearly 50 years after the previous Tanis (San el-Hagar) has been worked by a French team
season had ended. since 1929 and in 1939 Pierre Montet (1885-1966) discovered
T he Early D ynastic Period once again came under the what turned out to be the partly intact royal necropolis of
spotlight when in 1935 Bryan Emery (1903- 71) took over the 21st/22nd D ynastiesJl Unfortunately, assessment of
Quibell's old site north of the Teti pyram id at Saqqara, these tombs is marred by a robbery of the expedition
finding the first of a series of large 1st D ynasty mastaba storerooms in 1943 and inexplicable contradictions between
tombs. T he area south of the Step Pyramid also produced various written accounts of the work by Montet and his
Early Dynastic material, when another 2nd Dynasty royal colleagues.
tomb, that ofNinetjer, was found by the Antiquities Service During 1939- 45, archaeological work was unavoidably
in 1937-38; a German team has resumed work on this tomb cut back, while reduced supervision and the presence of
in recent years. Alongside Old Kingdom tombs that large numbers of servicemen led to severe damage to a
included those of the wives ofUnas was the intact Late number of monuments, particularly tombs at T hebes. Other
Period shaft tomb of Amentefnakhte, fo und by Zaki Saad monuments were pressed into use for the war effort, a radar
(19or-8z) in 1939. The English archaeologist Cecil Firth aerial being placed on the summit of the Great Pyramid at
(1878-1931) had previously found another intact example Giza. Nevertheless, the Antiquities Service made some
adjacent to the pyramid ofUserkaf in 1929.
Saad was also responsible for th e excavation of the Early 7 I Pierre Montet descends into one of the royal t ombs at Tan is,
Dynastic cemetery at Helwan, opposite Saqqara, where explored in 1939-40.
some of the earliest-known stone-built tombs were fo und.
69 (above) George Reisner and his team at the excavation of t he New excavations at the site were begun by Christiana Kohler
tomb of Hetepheres (G7000X) at Giza in 1925. at the beginning of the 21st century. Those buried at Helwan
ranged from the middle classes to minor royalty, making the
70 (/eft) Howard Carter opens the shrines in the burial chamber of
site one of very considerable importance fo r the study of this
Tutankhamun in 1923.
early period.
T he southern part of the Saqqara cem etery was the
regulations and which definitively placed the balance of subject of investigations by G ustave Jequier (1868-1946)
power on the side of the Egyptian authorities. between 1924 and 1936, during which time he cleared the
W hile opposition to these reforms led to the Mastabat Faraoun, two 13th D ynasty pyramids and the
abandonment of Egypt by Flinders Petrie, other teams complex of Pepy II, together with its associated cemeteries.69
continued work, many of the most importan t tomb-finds Alongside work on such glamorous 'national' cemeteries,
being made by the Metropolitan Museum expedition under the necropoleis oflesser individuals in Middle Egypt were
H . E. W inlock (1884-1950) at Deir el-Bahari and on the investigated by Guy Brunton (1878-1948) at Mostagedda
surrounding hillsides. Also at Western Thebes, the French and Matmar during 1928 to 193!.7° Amongst his discoveries
Institute expedition under Bernard Bruyere (1879-1971) was an untouched Third Intermediate Period lower-class
excavated both the tomb-workmen's settlement at Deir cemetery at Matmar.
el-Medina and their adjoining cemetery, including a number Most known Egyptian tombs lie in the Nile Valley;
of intact sepulchres. necropoleis were certainly present in the heavily populated
T he Metropolitan had also held a concession at Lisht Delta, but the high water table and the activities of the
since 1906, and their efforts there provided important data sebakheen who quarry the mud-brick of ancient sites for
on the royal cemeteries of the early M iddle Kingdom; fertilizer have meant that relatively little is known of many

T HE STUD Y OF THE EGY PT I A N T OMB 71

important sepulchral finds, including the necropolis of the Hawara. The years immediately following were, however, Further south at Saqqara, in 1965 French teams began A whole series of other tombs of the late r8thfr9th D ynasty
Third Intermediate Period High Priests ofPtah at Memphis, relatively uneventful, French and British work (including the re-investigation of the late Old Kingdom pyramids that have also been revealed, including that of the Lady Maya,
found by Ahmad Badawi (1905-80). A few kilometres to the Emery's continuing efforts at Saqqara) being h alted in the had hardly been touched since their opening over So years the wet-nurse ofTutankhamun.
west, Abdelsalam Hussein (d. 1949) excavated the valley wake of the Anglo-French attack on the Suez Canal in 1956, before. This work has continued to the present day, Following the completion ofFakhry's work at Dahshur
building ofUnas, part of which had later been turned into and attention then shifted to rescuing the monuments of uncovering and reconstructing the very badly damaged and the discovery there of the pyramid of Ameny-Qemau by
the burial chamber of the late Old Kingdom Prince Nubia threatened by the building of the High Dam at monuments. The pyramid of Pepy I has been most Charles Muses (r9I9-2000) in 1957,79 much of the site came
Ptahshepses.?J Hussein had begun excavating the eastern Aswan. completely investigated, including the adjacent smaller under military control, the only substantive work being
part of the Unas complex in 1940 and in following the line T he drawing to a close of this Nubian campaign in 1964 pyramids of his queens.78 D ieter Arnold's definitive examination of the pyramid of
of its causeway had come across a number of Old Kingdom was followed by an unprecedented upsurge in archaeological Another French expedition, under Alain Zivie, began Amenemhat Ill from the 1970s onwards and Rainer
tombs. H e also excavated the pyramid oflsesi, some way to work in Egypt, by teams from across the world as well as work in 1987 on the escarpment to the southeast of the Stadelmann's work at the Red Pyramid of Seneferu. Since
the south, in 1945, in conjunction with Alexandre Varille Egypt. Emery once again resumed his Saqqara excavations, pyramid ofTeti, where tombs had long been known, but then, however, much of the area has been opened up. Nicole
(1909-51). adding Late Period sacred animal catacombs to the mass of never investigated. One belonged to the Vizier Aperel, the Alexanian has worked on the Old Kingdom private tombs, so
Early Dynastic and 3rd D ynasty tombs already found. More burial chamber of which proved to be only partly plundered. and a Japanese team discovered a hitherto-unsuspected New
A NEW EGYPT recently, Paul Nicholson has returned to the catacombs,
mapping further stretches of these incredibly elaborate 72 Czech archaeo logists opening t he sarcophagus of lufaa at Abu Sir in 1997.
After the Second World War the progressive replacement of underground galleries, packed with millions of m ummified
European museum and Service officials by Egyptians, begun birds and mammals.75
in the 1920s, was completed. T he Director General, Etienne In the 1970s, long-term programmes of excavation were
Drioton (r889-196r), the last foreigner, was replaced in the underway atAbu Sir (Charles U niversity, Prague) and in the
wake of the 1952 revolution, first on a temporary basis by N ew Kingdom necropolis at Saqqara (National Museum
Abbas Bayoumi (1904-83) , Director of the Egyptian of Antiquities, Leiden/Egypt Exploration Society [later
Museum, and then by M ustafaAmer (1896-1973) . At the replaced by Leiden U niversity]). The latter revealed the
same time, new regulations came into force that stipulated long-lost tombs of such important late r8th D ynasty
that all excavations had to be on behalf of governments, individuals as Horemheb (later king - found in 1975) and
universities or learned societies and must be under the the Treasurer Maya (1987), both of which had been seen in
ultimate control of the Antiquities Service, with whom the 19th century and from which material had been
copies of all excavation records had to be lodged .74 removed, but which had subsequently been lost from view.76
During the preceding years, Antiquities Service staff had T he Czech excavations have produced a range of
made a number of significant finds. The 26th Dynasty tomb tombs and pyramids that have been crucial to the study
of Queen Takhuit was excavated by Shehata Adam (1917- 86) of the funerary monuments of the 5th and 6th Dynasties,
at Athribis in 1950, with a major study of the pyramids together with a Late Period necropolis of great shaft tombs,
initiated in 1947. T he latter, the 'Pyramids Study Project', including the sepulchre oflufaa, found intact in 1995.77
fully cleared the Bent Pyramid complex at Dahshur berween The area linking Saqqara to Abu Sir has also been surveyed
1946 and 1955, firstly under the direction of Abdelsalam by the Czechs as well as by Ian Mathieson and has revealed
Hussein and then after his premature death by Ahmed tombs not only of the Old Kingdom and Late Period in
Fakhry (1905- 73) . T he best-known Egyptian discovery in this this area, but also an unexpected cluster of Early Dynastic
period, however, was the unfinished pyramid of Sekhemkhet, burials.
located at Saqqara by Zakaria Goneim (19II-59) in 1952. T he Unas causeway area was once again investigated
After the latter's death, work in the enclosure was continued from~~hen Mounir Basta and Ahmed Moussa located
by Jean-Philippe Lauer (1902- 2001), who had been working a n:~b~;·of~ombs, including that of the manicurists
on the Step Pyramid complex since 1926 - and was still ~P and N iankhkhnum and the singer Nefer, the
engaged there as the 21st century began. latter containing one of the oldest known mummies still
Yet another royal discovery was made in 1956 when 1 act. Work carried out b a Polish mission, headed by

Nagib Farag and Zaki Iskander (1916-79) opened the intact Karo sliwiec, to thew St ofDjoser's pyramid has
burial chamber of the 12th D ynasty princess Neferuptah at revealed a arge cemet oflate O ld Kingdom tombs.

72 T H E ST UD Y O F T H E EGYPTI AN T O M B T H E STUDY OF TH E EGYPT I A N TOMB 73

 Kingdom necropolis at the northern end of the site in 1999. Other work in the 1990s identified the latest surviving have also yielded several significant cemeteries of the
In addition, re-excavation of the pyramid complex of royal tomb in Egypt. Over a century earlier, a large Graeco-Roman Period.
Senwosret Ill by Arnold, on behalf of the Metropolitan sarcophagus lying exposed in the ruins ofMendes was found Excavations are not the only way in which new
Museum of Art, has resulted in important reassessments of to contain some bones and a shabti figure of the 29th information concerning tombs has recently come to
the monument and the discovery of the intact tomb of the Dynas ty King Naefarud I. It was not until 1992-93, however, light. Lise Manniche has been engaged in the task of
Lady Sirweret. 8' that excavations by Donald Redford uncovered the remains 'rediscovering' lost tombs by studying the numerous
In Middle Egypt, Australian work under the leadership of the walls of the chamber that had once surrounded the fragments of decoration ofTheban tombs that have found
ofNaguib Kanawati at El-Hagarsa produced rwo intact First sarcophagus, bearing the funerary texts of the king. their way into private and public collections. Some have
Intermediate Period family tombs in 1989, along with other By a coincidence, only a few years earlier in 1988, been identified as parts of extant monuments, while others
sepulchres of this time and the Middle Kingdom. Another Giinter Dreyer had found at Abydos perhaps the earliest have been assigned to sepulchres now destroyed, allowing
Antipodean team, under Boyo Ockinga, documented near tomb of a named king, 'Scorpion'. Numbered U -j , it their schema of decoration belatedly to be studied.S4
Sohag in 1988-91 the important but long-ignored tomb of provided a rich harvest of material and stood at the heart Also outside the Nile Valley proper, 100 km (6o miles)
Sennedjem, an official ofTutankhamun. At Oxyrhynchus of a large cemetery that forms the vital link berween the west of Alexandria, is Marina el-Alamein. The site has been
11
(El-Bahnasa) a Spanish team has found a Third Intermediate fu nerary practices ofPredynastic times and those of the excavated~ Polish team since 1987, uncovering a wide
Period cemetery, including several high-status interments. historic era (seep. 134). Current work at Abydos under ra re-6ftombsil.aring to Greek and Roman times. Interest
Since the clearance ofTutankhamun's tomb, the Valley the direction of David O'Connor and Matthew Douglas ts currently growing in the funerary practices of the times
of the Kings had seen very little archaeological activity. The Adams is yielding further information about the earliest of the Ptolemies and Roman emperors, contrasting with
1970s, however, saw work resuming there, not in the hope royal burials. the situation in some past decades, when such 'late' levels
of finding new tombs, but with the aim of properly clearing At close to the opposite end of the social scale, however, were simply demolished on the way down to more 'ancient'
and recording those long known. Thus, John Romer cleared is a gro up of tombs found by Zahi Hawass and Mark Lehner remains. As part of this work, reassessments are being made
the tomb ofRamesses XI in 1979; Otto Schaden cleared the in the southeastern quadrant of the Giza necropolis in 1990, of earlier discoveries and more is becoming known of the
tomb of Ay and adjacent monuments in the 1970s and has which proved to belong to the workers responsible for way in which earlier tombs were appropriated and new ones
been working in the tomb of Amenmesse (KVw) since building the nearby pyramids (pp. 53-4, 154). These were constr red, fo these final examples of the age-old burial
1992. Harrwig Altenmi.iller has undertaken similar work accompanied by more elaborate sepulchres of the officials customs of Egyp .
in the tomb of the Chancellor Bay (KV13) and a Swiss overseeing their work, and their nearby settlement. Taken Fieldworky 6ntinues apace in Egypt, as it has done for
team led by Hanna Jenni cleared the tomb of Ramesses X together, the area has proved to be the source of much some rwo centuries, and the foregoing has been intended
(KV18) in the late 1990s. In 1989, Don Ryan began the important data on the administration of a pyramid site and merely to give a flavour of some of the more significant
reinvestigation of a number of the smaller tombs first those employed there. Elsewhere at Giza, in 1998, Hawass discoveries and projects that have elucidated our knowledge
discovered by Belzoni, Carter and Edward Ayrton 73 Cleaning and conserving tombs is of paramount impo rtance so managed to penetrate the lowest chamber of a tomb found of the development and meaning of the Egyptian tomb.
(1886-1914) many years previously, and belonging to t hat t hey can be accurately copi ed and preserved for post erity. H ere , by Selim Hassan during the 1930s. Formerly filled with While it is often implied that the great discoveries lie in the
Lot fi Kh aled works in KVS, t he t omb for t he so ns of Ramesses 11.
especially favoured nobles and royal retainers. 8'A Most water, it proved to be of a curious design that has been 'heroic' days of the past, it is important to recognize that
spectacularly, in 1987, Kent Weeks started the clearing and described as the 'Tomb of Osiris' (p. 291) . large areas of Egypt are still essentially unknown
recording ofKV5, the burial place of some of the sons of expedition led by Otto Schaden, who had now extended his Hawass has also been responsible for the investigation archaeologically. Although most will have long since been
Ramesses II. Well over 130 chambers had been reached by work around the entrance ofKVw. Lying some 15 metres of a series of tombs at Bahariya Oasis. Originally located in plundered, basic structures frequently survive, while some
2005, making it the biggest and most singular tomb in from the tomb ofTutankhamun (5 metres from KVw), this 1996, a huge complex of Roman Period communal burial of the discoveries described above show that major intact
Egypt. More importantly, Weeks' team has published a proved to be a simple shaft tomb with a single chamber- places has been cleared since March 1999, the decoration burials are still to be found in apparently well-known areas.
large-scale atlas with accurate plans of all the tombs in the intact! It contained seven wooden anthropoid coffins of a of some of the bodies found leading to its being dubbed The study of the Egyptian tomb is rhus still far from
Valley. Finally, the first full-scale excavations since the 1920s type apparently belonging to the latter decades of the 18th the 'Valley of the Golden Mummies'. 82 At another site in complete, with many links in the chain of its evolution
were begun in 1998 by Geoffrey Martin and Nicholas Dynasty together with 27 jars. It proved to be the burial the oasis, Sheikh Sobi, Hawass had been re-excavating missing, or but weakly formed. The delineation of the whole
Reeves, removing the last areas of untouched ancient debris place oflarge quantities ofleft-over material from the three 26th Dynasty tombs previously found by Fakhry in picture can only come about with the steady accretion of
in the Valley, finding a number ofRamesside workmen's embalming process, plus other left-over elements from the 1947 when, in October 1999, another was located. It proved data from the many teams, Egyptian and foreign, that are
huts and revealing indications that further tombs might lie outfitting of a tomb. It is as yet unclear from whose to be that of the local governor, Djedkhonsiufankh, and revealing more of the ancient cities of the dead.
in this, the lowest part of the wadi. mummification the material derives, but the tomb (KV63) during the excavations in April-May 2000 the intact
A shaft tomb was found in this very place during the was probably originally made for a member of the nobility sarcophagus of the tomb-owner was discovered and
2005-6 season by the University of Memphis, Tennessee, or royal household.s,. opened. 8J Other oases, such as Siwa, Dakhla and Kharga,

74 THE STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN TOMB THE STUDY OF THE EGYPTIAN TOMB 75
 Part 11

Chapter 5 The Decoration of the Tomb

ICO NOGR APHY destroy these images, or, more potently, the name of the
deceased, would result in annihilation or an unsuccessful
Egyptian tomb 'art' was not just for aesthetic pleasure; transition to the afterlife. Thus, by eradicating the name,
rather, like most Egyptian formal art, it served a specific tides, or image of someone would render them non-beings
purpose. Within the tomb its function was to create an ideal deprived of eternity. Examples of damnatio memoriae (e.g.
afterworld, delimited by maat, for the deceased to inhabit KVw, TT39, TT 42, TT 48, TT7r, WVz3) in tombs are a
for eternity. The images found in tombs were fundamentally powerful manifestation of this belief.
magical things, which, however, served the practical purpose The images in tombs follow the basic canon of Egyptian
of facilitating and guaranteeing the posthumous destiny of art in order to convey meaning in a certain way and have a
the deceased. This was done not only through explicit specific vocabulary that is suited to the function of these
depictions of the underworld and religious texts, but representations. Thus, as one might expect, the largest figure
even mo re through the depictions of offerings and their is that of the tomb-owner (or, in later periods, gods and
production of offerings and other 'daily life' activities. These kings), as he or she is the focus of the monument. Texts and
images served as 'insurance' for the tomb-owner in case the activities focus on the tomb-owner and actions tend to move
family or mortuary priests ceased to carry on the cult, or if towards him, especially if he is facing out to receive the cult.
the burial were disturbed. If the images survived, then all the The tomb-owner is always shown in a formal pose, standing
deceased's needs for the hereafter would still be magically or seated, with the head and legs in profile and a frontal
within his or her grasp. As these images oflife were projected torso. This is not always true for minor figures, which can be
for the afterlife, they did not always have to be a reflection of seen in more relaxed poses: three-quarters view, sleeping,
true reality, but rather, an ideal reality that fulfilled the fighting, etc. However, everyone was neatly organized into
tomb-owner's wishes for eternity. · registers, separated by lines, so that it is obvious that maatis
T he Egyptians believed that if things were represented, maintained in this world and the next.
written and spoken out loud, they actually had been created
and would be reified and exist in eternal worlds : those of the 74 (opposite) West wal l ofthe burial chamber ofthe workman
SennedJem at Dei r ei-Medina (TT I: 19th Dynasty) .The tomb-owner
dead and of the gods. Thus the images on tomb walls were
and h1s wife lynefert i are shown adoring the gods of the underworld.
actually active participants in the deceased's afterlife. Indeed,
the word for sculptor or carver, s'ankh, is translated from 75 (above) Part of a fishing scene in t he mastaba of Kagemeni at
Egyptian as 'the one who makes (it) living' . To damage and Saqqara (6t h Dynasty).

TH E DECORAT ION O F THE T O M B 77

 semi-literate or illiterate ancient viewer. Some, if not all,
of the scenes on tomb walls are metaphors or allegories, or
contain allusions to aspects of the afterworld. These are the
most difficult to interpret for the modern visitor.
The m ain genre of scenes found in tomb-chapels is
those that depict daily life; in the late New Kingdom
these were joined and, to some extent, supplanted by scenes
of divinities or vignettes from funerary texts. Unlike the
latter, the daily-life scenes found in Egyptian tombs seem
superficially to be divorced from the act of resurrection
of the tomb-owner and could be thought merely to focus
on the idea of the continuance of the best things in this life
into the afterlife and the projection of the personality of the
deceased (by showing his work and activities in this life) into
the hereafter. However, it is quite possible that the images
are not only a representation of an ideal life for eternity, but
contain encoded messages and allusions to resurrection and
spells associated with this crucial event.
One should be aware that ideas as well as icons changed
over time. In some cases there is an accretion of religious
imagery within one symbol, so that it has layers of meaning.
76 (above) South wall of t he offeri ng-room of the mastaba of 'Reading' a monument is not easy for us, as Egyptian In other instances, an icon can change its meaning and its 78 A key part of the decoration of a tomb-chapel was the owner's
Ptahhotep ii at Saqqara (D 64: 5th D ynasty) .Two f1gures of the iconography is extremely complex and difficult to message entirely over the course of time. For example, self-presentation t o posterity. In particular any links w ith t he pharaoh
deceased observe activities on his estate, includ ing harvesting of images of offering tables placed in front of the deceased were emphasized; th us, Paheri, mayor of EI-Kab, wished to highlight t he
understand. Some of our interpretations will be (more or
papyrus; dancing; games; w ine-maki ng; hunting; fi shing; ro pe-making; fact t hat he was also a royal t utm T his image shows him w ith hi s
less) accurate, while others may be very wide of the mark. and associated with the offering list are found throughout
drying fish ; catching birds; and looking after livestock. charge, t he prince Wadjmose, seated o n his lap (EK3: 18th Dynasty) .
The experience of interpreting an ancient Egyptian Egyptian history. In the Old and New Kingdoms one such
77 (below) Sunk rel ief fi gures of Mereruka f lanki ng t he entrance to monument can be likened to visiting a medieval church, a image showed the table covered with tall loaves of bread.
his tomb at Saqqara (6th Dynast y). O ver t he doo r is the imit ation of building not too far removed from modern experience. In the First Intermediate Period and Middle Kingdom, One should also take into account that several elements
a ro ller-blin d, bearing his name and t itles. Church decoration generally shows scenes from the Bible, however, the 'loaves' retained their shape, but were might be involved in the choice of which scenes were
thus anyone who has read or heard the stories illustrated sometimes painted green. Was this originally a selected for display and how they were chosen. One cannot
would most probably understand the scenes, just as they misinterpretation by the artists who thought the bread underestimate factors such as wealth, convenience, a desire
could identify some of the statues. Additionally, the images was actually representing reeds, based on similarity in shape, to 'keep up with the Joneses', as well as personal religious
are rife with iconographic allusions: lions represent St Mark, or was this due to a change in religious beliefs when the beliefs and tastes in determining the components of tomb
eagles stand in for St John, fish are symbolic of Christ and deceased went to the green fields oflaru? Some examples do decoration. It is quite possible for one image to represent a
the persecuted Christians, and lambs and shepherds allude clearly show reeds rather than bread, but it is unclear what plethora of ideas, thoughts and emotions. Doubtless, tomb
to God, Christ and all Christians. However, if one is not the Egyptians intended in each case. scenes were interpreted on different levels by different
conversant with the Bible and its iconography, much of It has frequently been argued that Old Kingdom tomb people: the more educated and literate a person, the more
what is shown will be meaningless, or could have a different scenes of'daily life' are not showing metaphors related to the allusions could be derived from one image. 86
meaning brought to it, dependant on the viewer's cultural transformation and rebirth of the deceased, but rather, just Probably some elements of tomb decoration were fairly
background. Thus, one should bear in mind that when an exaggeration of a perfect life, while the images dating to straightforward, especially those depicting the activities of
looking at Egyptian tomb decoration, what you see is not the New Kingdom are primarily metaphors. Perhaps there the tomb-owner in life (particularly in the New Kingdom)
always just what you get. is some truth in this, but it is doubtful that we will ever be so that his identity and personality would survive into the
The hieroglyphs and the images work together with the sure what the ancient Egyptians intended and thus our hereafter. The anonymous Overseer of Unguent
architecture, displaying a message or series of messages that interpretations must remain in the realm of'what is Production's TT175 had scenes of unguent manufacture
would have been understood by the literate, as well as the probable', but not necessarily 'true'. 85 painted in his tomb, while Irukaptah-Khenu, the Master

78 THE DECORATION OF THE TOMB THE DECORAT ION OF THE TOMB 79

Butcher, had a concentration of butchery scenes in his tomb in the hereafter. To some extent, the iconography of
at Saqqara and the Overseer of the Garden in the Ramesseum sexuality and fertility appears not only in the choice of
Nedgemger (TTr38) showed the temple gardens. In some imagery, but also in the accompanying hieroglyphic text.
instances, the illustrations might serve a dual purpose: they T he Egyptians were inveterate punsters, and a language
might depict a job, but the job might also include activities that was both phonal and visual gave them enormous scope
that are generally part of the schema of decoration and have for punning. Hence, the choice of hieroglyphic signs used 80 The mirror below the
religious overtones. Thus, granary officials depicted activities in certain situations could be full of double entendres woman's chair is indicative of
(e.g. p. 91) . However, the context should also be taken into re birth and resurrectio n, with
associated with their jobs, including measuring the fields
consideration, because at times a lotus is just a lotus, the mirror's disk symbolizing the
and calculating taxes, the agricultural cycle of harvesting the
sun, and the handle a papyrus
grain and processing it, its transportation and harvest rather than an erotic symbol indicative of alluring perfume,
plant, symbolic of regeneration
festivals. The agricultural cycle, however, is also part of the although it is probably always a symbol of resurrection. and creation;tomb of Reneni at
general schema of decoration and is a way in which Naturally, certain connotations and puns are lost to us due EI-Kab (EK7 18th Dynasty) .
resurrection and rebirth can be maintained. to our ignorance of the language and culture of ancient

However, other images had additional interpretations. Egypt, as well as, in some instances, the cryptographic symbolize the afterlife due to the fact that they reflect this
One should note that the Egyptians tended to avoid writing used by the Egyptians. life. Perhaps their circularity might also be likened to the
depictions of negative or harmful things in tombs, unless Allusions to sex and regeneration are particularly rounded belly of a pregnant woman, the quintessential
they had a standard cosmic role to play in the world of the associated with New Kingdom tomb scenes, although also symbol of birth? The word for mirror, ankh, is the same as
dead and the divine. Indeed, in the late Old Kingdom and proposed for vignettes dating back as far as the Old the word for life.
throughout the Middle Kingdom (and later), there are Kingdom. Some scenes show the deceased and his wife Colour symbolism must also have played a part in
myriad examples of hieroglyphs being shown in a truncated seared side by side, or clasping one another around the Egyptian art, as it did in medieval and Renaissance art and
state so that they could not harm the body of the deceased: shoulder, waist or leg. These images of closeness can be even, to some extent, continues to do in contemporary art.
birds are shown without legs, lions are featured only in half, thought to represent intimacy and reproduction. Some Thus, the yellow background colour used in the Ramesside
serpents are severed in two and the use of inanimate scholars would even go so far as to say that they symbolize period sets the activity in the divine realm as yellow or gold
hieroglyphs are favoured over the animate. Hippopotami, the actual act oflove (e.g. TT96), 87 rather than public were indicative of the imperishable or divine, or perhaps of
manifestations of Seth, were often depicted being hunted manifestations of affection. Images of beds, the tomb-owner an existence blessed by the sun god. However, it is then
with harpoons; annoying insects, such as mosquitoes, which and spouse sitting on beds, or the preparation of a bed by slightly puzzling as to how the grey-blue background of
were rife in Egypt, never feature in Egyptian tombs. After servants, have also been interpreted as suggesting the sexual some r8th Dynasty tombs is to be viewed: perhaps as the
all, why suffer such inconveniences in a perfect afterlife? act, as well as referring to Isis and Osiris who conceived crepuscular moments prior to rebirth, or the blue that was
Insects such as grasshoppers, dragonflies and butterflies, Horus on a bed, albeit a funerary one. linked to the skin of Amun and the entirety of Nut, goddess
which were harmless or even positive for life are featured in This sexual undertone might be extended to images of the sky. Black and green symbolized fertility since they
tombs, but inconvenient creatures are never shown unless of head-rests, used as pillows in ancient Egypt. However, refer to the rich, black Nile silt and the green plants that it
they are being hunted, killed or consumed. another equally or more feasible interpretation can be produced following the Inundation, itself regarded as
Images that seem to depict daily-life activities can indeed 79 A young woman sniffi ng an open lotus in the 5th Dynasty tomb of attached to them: several spells in the corpus of funerary metaphorically linked to the first act of creation. These two
Nefer. Saqqara. She is also holding a hoopoe, the significance of wh ich literature refer to fears of heads falling off. An additional colours were particularly associated with Osiris . White
be interpreted in other ways. The calf that is saved from
is sti ll not clear in ancient Egyptian iconography. it is frequently shown fu nctio n of the head-rest amulet is to keep the head of the
being devoured by crocodiles in the water might be indicated purity, joy and celebration, while red was symbolic
as a pet, as wel l as in the wi ld. Some scholars believe that the bird is
interpreted as a metaphor for saving the spirit from the deceased in place, as to lose one's head meant to lose one's of power, the desert, blood and, together with yellow, the
not a hoopoe, but a lapwing, a symbol for the common people.
perils of death, especially if taken in conjunction with texts identity. Thus, these items might be of even more basic sun. In fact, white and red were both associated with
found in the various funerary books. Images of viticulture importance to the deceased than as images of fertility. different aspects of the sun, one destructive, the other
can be interpreted simply as images showing wine-making, resurrection brought to the land by the inundation, as well Other scholars associate anything to do with wigs and productive. No doubt, the idea that white was pure also led
a product that was appreciated by all in this life and the next. as the resurrective qualities inherent in plant life that make-up as erotic, as donning these items is suggestive of to bleached linen being used in mummification, as well as to
However, they can also be seen as images associated with reappears annually after withering and dying. preparation for mating.88 Some researchers also believe that the whitewashing of tombs and false-doors. 9o
Osiris, who took the part of Lord of Drunkenness at the Many images have been interpreted as having sexual and monkeys are suggestive of erotic or sexual events, perhaps Whether or not one can completely understand the
W'tzg Festival, a celebration attached to the grape harvest that regenerative imagery inherent in them, especially in the New due to the fact that monkeys are often seen mating in the colour symbolism or the iconography of Egyptian art, one
came just before the inundation at the end of]une. As such, Kingdom. Metaphors for sexuality and fertility are indeed a wild. 89 T he sun disk, an image of regeneration, can also be can at least appreciate its beauty and the window it provides
the viticulture scenes have the added meaning of rebirth and celebration oflife and point to a desire for its continuation linked to the round mirrors depicted in tombs, which also us into ancient Egyptian life.

80 THE DECORATION OF THE TOMB THE DECORAT ION OF THE TOMB 81

THE LOCATION OF DECORATIVE COMPOSITIONS Clues as to which wall represented each cardinal direction
IN THE TOMB can sometimes be found within the scenes; these are
especially easy to read in royal tombs where the heraldic
No two tombs in Egypt are completely identical in their plants of Egypt, lotus for the south and papyrus for the
decoration; indeed, there is an almost infinite variety to be north, immediately give guidelines as to the internal
seen along the Nile Valley. However, there is generally a set geography of the tomb. In private tombs this is also the case,
of underlying patterns, subject to the exigencies of space, albeit more subtly. Frequently northern walls, representing
rock quality, wealth and time. A dynamic movement from the north of the country, are adorned with marsh scenes,
the entrance inwards was always present: in the chapel reflecting the environment of the Delta (e.g., the tombs at
towards the climax of the actual offering place - either a El-Hamamiya), while the eastern and western directions are
stela or a statue of the deceased- or the body itself where the provided through appropriate solar images.
substructure is concerned. The visitor was thus taken along
a hypothetical east-west axis from the land of the living Superstructures9'
(outside and more secular) to the land of the dead (interior
and more sacred) . It is important to emphasize the nominal The decoration of the public part of the tomb was
nature of many orientations, particularly where a rock-cut fundamentally concerned with its role as the interface
structure is concerned, with its reliance on local between the world of the living and that of the dead, with
topographical and geological considerations. It should be the area near the cult focus being the most sacred, and the
noted that the Egyptians oriented themselves facing south, more exterior spaces being more secular. Ideally, the
the source of the Nile; accordingly the left side tends to be outermost doorway of a chapel would be adorned with the
associated with the east and the right with the west, name and tides of the deceased, together with a basic
although this is not always the case if practicalities offering formula (often the hetep-di-nesu), so that the tomb
contradict this alignment. In tombs, generally speaking, and its owner could immediately be identified and be made 82,83 Mereruka as a young and vigorous man, wearing a short kilt and a long wig (above left) and as an old man (above right), whose body shows
facing towards the N ile was regarded as being along an to live in the hereafter by any passer-by who could recognize the roll s of fat indicative of prosperity (Saqqara: 6th Dynasty).
east- west axis, with the Nile providing the north-south axis. and read the name. Indeed, a visible stela might contain the
so-called 'Appeal to the Living', which explicitly asked
8 I Although there are no strict rules for the location of many scenes, anyone passing the tomb to recite the offering formula. scenes on opposing walls. Sometimes there is a dialogue position, as well as scenes showing food production and the
this diagram shows some general guidelines for the placement ofthe Images of the deceased always Bank the entryway or between walls and pillars that stand nearby, thus integrating manufacture of goodsY These production scenes are to
decoration. I Im age of tom b-owner; 2 images of the t omb-owne r or
appear on the jambs, greeting both visitors and the rising the decoration. An example of this is found in the courtyard show the orderliness of the world, to provide for the
statues of him/her in the thickness of doorway; 3 the tomb-owner
sun. This was a convention regardless of whether the tomb of the tomb ofHarwa at Thebes (TT37, 25th Dynasty) where hereafter and in some cases, are associated with the tomb-
fish ing and fowl1ng; 4 scenes of outdoor activities in non-domestic
contexts; 5 & 6 crafts and outdoor act 1vit ies in a domestiC context actually faced the sun or not. For tombs that were aligned a fishing scene on the wall carries over to the pillar that faces owner's job. As the visitor progresses inward to the cult
(e.g. agricult ure, etc), 1mages of activities directly pertaini ng to the differently due to practical constraints ideal directions were it. For the most part, images of the tomb-owner face centre of the tomb - manifested as a false-door or statue -
tomb-owner; 7 offerings; 8 cult focus (statue or false-doo r) . assumed and can be recognized by the symbols used to outwards, towards the entrance of the chapel, rather than in the scenes become increasingly concerned with funeral
decorate the different walls (cf p. 260). Following usual the direction of the false-door or chapel focus, as if waiting to rituals and the journey to and arrival in the afterlife. This
Egyptian artistic conventions, the tomb-owner is always the receive visitors and offerings, both real and metaphysical. is particularly apparent in the New Kingdom when such
largest figure in a tomb, unless the king or a god is depicted. However, in some instances, particularly at doorways, the images were commonly expressed in an obvious way (e.g.
The latter two rarely, if ever, appear in private Egyptian tomb-owner is shown going in on one side (generally the left Khaemhat's TT 57) . In earlier periods this is implied through
tombs prior to the New Kingdom. The owner is generally or western side, depending on the tomb's orientation) and the choice of motifs decorating those areas and their
shown as a young person in their virile prime, but is our the other, presumably as a reborn spirit. He might also be accompanying texts, namely an intensification in scenes of
occasionally also shown as an older, more corpulent shown facing in when he is involved in the action. offerings and the Voyage to Abydos (bold type signifies that
individual. In this case, plumpness is indicative of wealth Broadly speaking, the rooms closest to the exterior tend the motif is discussed in detail later in this chapter). Thus, as
and a successful middle age. to be decorated with scenes showing outdoor activities that the scenes move from the exterior to the interior, they reflect
The minor figures on walls are oriented towards images deal fi rst with nature in its wild form and secondly with a progression from secular to sacred. Within a tomb certain
of the tomb-owner or to the false-door. A sense of symmetry tamed nature, a world where maat reigns supreme. These are scenes, whenever possible, would be placed on appropriately
is always attempted by balancing large-scale figures and frequently followed by scenes associated with the deceased's oriented walls." Thus, there was a preference for showing

82 THE DECORATI ON O F T H E T OMB

T HE DECORAT I ON OF T HE TOMB 83
 the underworld in the company of the sun god on his Within the tomb, the scenes are arranged in a variety of
nightly voyage to his resurrection the following day. ways in the registers. Certain scenes tend to appear together
Altho ugh Old Kingdom elite tomb-chapels were not as they would occur in the same area in reality, such as
adorned with the same texts as the New Kingdom royal brewing and baking and fish processing and fishing. Some
sepulchres, the door jambs may show the censing of a statue scenes generally have a set position. For example, in the Old
of the deceased as it made its way to the burial chamber, or Kingdom, butchery scenes are always on the lowest register
images of the deceased entering and leaving (on opposite of the main offering or cult chamber. They might be very
jambs) the tomb. Perhaps his entry was in his earthly elaborate and continue up the wall, but their standard
manifes tation and his exit in his spirit guise. Thus, these location is the bottom register. They appear in the cult
were marked out as significant passageways in the voyage to centre as they not only show meat production for daily life,
the Fields oflaru. but also provide it for the continual celebration of the
A nice conceit, found on the door jambs ofTheban deceased's cult, as well as referring to the funerary feast. In
wmbs where the deceased is pictured worshipping the sun, the same way, pairs of scenes of the deceased fishing in the
is that on the east the hieroglyphic inscriptions face towards marshes and fowling in the same environment are shown on
the rising sun and to the west, the signs face towards the opposite walls, or symmetrically on one wall. They occupy
setting sun, into the tomb. These depictions do, however, an upper register- or take up the entire wall.
vary over time. In r8th Dynasty tombs, from the reign of Scenes were often contained within a border, or topped
H atshepsut (TT73) until that ofTutankhamun, scenes of by a frieze. The various types of friezes are discussed below.
the king enthroned flank the door from the transverse hall
into the passage. It is almost as if the royal image acts as a Substructures
divine guardian to the passage into the afterworld. In the
Ramesside period private tombs show scenes of the deceased The rules for decoration in the burial chamber are different
adoring different gods flanking the tomb entrance. from those applicable to the public portions of the tomb and
An 'Appeal to the Living' commonly appears in New vary considerably through time. Indeed, the vast majority
Kingdom Theban tombs in the transverse hall, where even of substructures are undecorated, suggesting that the
the mos t casual visitor can read it and thus benefit the tomb- possession of a decorated burial chamber was of considerable
owner's spirit. These texts, together with the traditional social significance. The first regularized schemes appear
hetep-di-nesu, were the standard public offering texts that during the latter part of the Old Kingdom, with the
empowered the dead through the living. Pyramid Texts in royal tombs and offering lists and images
84 The entry to the cult focus of the double tomb of N iankhkhnum and Khnumhotep, with the two owners flanking the doorway. A hetep-di- Although the east-west orientation was an important of offerings in private ones. The decoration of royal
nesu offering formula is carved on the door's lintel, while the roll, indicative of a rolled up mat, is inscribed with t heir names. Family members, at a axis fo r the lands of the living and dead, this was not always substructures is much more complex than that of private
much smaller scale, stand in front of the dominant figures of the tomb-owners (Saqqara: 5th Dynasty) . as significant throughout the Old Kingdom in the individuals as the former tend to have more rooms, while
Memphite necropoleis. In mastabas of the 4th and early 5th the latter are generally limited to one chamber.
two- and three-dimensional images of the deceased on the relating to the world-view also formed part of the basis for Dynasties, the key portion was the left, or southeastern From the New Kingdom, vignettes and texts from the
western side of a wall or on western walls in preference to the scene positioning. Scenes showing similar activities (e.g. quadrant. This is clearly a carry-over from the earliest Book of the Dead appear in certain non-royal sepulchres,
other locations in the tomb. Scenes of the netherworld and marsh scenes, agricultural scenes) are grouped together, offeri ng places of rst Dynasty mastabas, which were placed while royal tombs contain increasing numbers of the various
funerary rituals would also be placed on the west, with the with scenes depicting resulting activities: beer and bread in one of the southernmost niches of the eastern panelled Books of the Underworld that are first seen in the time of
east balancing the composition by showing scenes oflife, or production, boat-building, etc.) flowing off from them. fa'rade (p. 136) and is also seen in the Step Pyramid complex Thutmose Ill. Some typical distributions of these are set out
indeed, as it is sometimes difficult to differentiate, an ideal The doorways within a tomb (as well as in temples) are where the only working entrance is in the southeast. The on p. 262.
life in the afterworld. At Amarna, the flow of the decoration particularly charged with religious significance. Passing fi rst proper mastaba chapels were also located in this Extracts from the Books of the Underworld are later also
leads towards the east, where one finds an image of an Aten through a doorway is a metaphor for change, transitions and position. The east is understandable as it is the direction of found in private contexts, not only in their 'natural' habitat
temple. The movement of traditional tombs, especially in moving between levels. This is particularly apparent in the the risi ng sun. The south is less easily understood; perhaps it of the burial complex, but sometimes in the superstructure
the New Kingdom, not only affirmed the tomb as an eternal New Kingdom royal burial chambers where architectural bears some relationship to the fact that the sun's arc moves as well (see pp. 227-8, 255 and 284-5). In later times, eclectic
house for the soul, but also as the passageway leading to the doorways tie in to the funerary texts and correlate passing southwards in its daily journey from east to west, or that the mixes of all these sources were utilized, in particular in the
door to the underworld. However, practical considerations through the physical door with going through the gates in Nile flows from south to north. massive tombs of the Saite Period.

84 THE DECORATION OF THE TOMB THE DECORAT ION OF THE TOMB 85

 SCENE TYPES AND VIGNETTES COMMON LY offering that the King gives' . The exact meaning of this
FO U ND IN EGYPTIAN TOMBS 94 phrase is not wholly certain, but seems to be based on the
concept that all offerings ultimately derived from the king.
It is beyond the scope of this book to include every scene The formula continues to state the god to whom the
type or vignette found in Egyptian tombs. Thus, a selection offering is directed and then states that the god passes on a
of the most common types found throughout Egyptian list of foodstuffs to the ka of the deceased. A representative
history is provided below, with interpretations of their early example is given on p. 22 (ill. r6), and is based on the
iconographic meaning. There is some overlap in scene type. concept that the king would give an offering to a god, and
For example, scenes of agricultural activity that occur as part that this offering would then be passed on in some way to
of the 'daily life' sequence should be separated from the the deceased. By this a set of broadly standard 'staples'-
scenes that are part of the 'autobiographical' section of the bread, beer, beef, poultry, alabaster jars of ointment and
11 tomb. The location of these scenes is sometimes key in clothing- would miraculously be provided for the dead
; 11 making this distinction. The scenes discussed below are person.
I i arranged as they might be met with in the tomb-chapel: The precise formulation and length of the formula varies
outdoor and wilderness activities followed by controlled with time, beginning in the Old Kingdom, while the god
j
j
nature or crafts and ending with purely funerary motifs. invoked can depend on the site from which the text comes-
for example, texts from Abydos usually call upon Osiris. The
The hetep-di-nesu formula9s and 'Appeal to the Living'9 6 inclusion of different divinities is more common after the
4th Dynasty.
In many ways, the various vignettes in a tomb-chapel could The formula is linked with the 'Appeal to the Living',
be seen as a reinforcement of the magical hetep-di-nesu whereby a visitor to the tomb is confronted by a text along
formula that underpinned the whole posthumous survival of the following lines:
the deceased. It could appear on almost any object from a 0 any person who shall pass this monument in going
tomb, but was particularly to be found on the false-door or
downstream or upstream: as you love your king, as you
at the entrance to the tomb. Its name derives from the first praise your city-gods, as your children remain in your
Egyptian words of the formula hetep-di-nesu, literally 'an place, as you love life and ignore death, you shall say:
'A thousand of bread and beer, beef and fowl, all things
85 An unusual offenng scene in the 12th Dynasty tomb of Senet I good and pure on which a god lives, to the ka of the revered
lnyotefi qer at Thebes (TI60), with a red-crowned mummy rece 1vi ng N, true of voice.'
offenngs upon a papyrus boat.
Hunting

Hunting scenes of various sorts appear throughout the

history of Egyptian tomb decoration. The earliest comes
from the Naqada II-period Tomb roo at Hierakonpolis,
which shows men hunting animals with weapons as well as
trapping them. Conflict between man and nature, with man
triumphing over the wild and chaotic aspects of nature, are
an integral part of the Egyptian belief system. The
maintenance of maatand balance represented by the victory
of the ordered world over the chaos of the wild is the 86 A hippo potamus hunt in t he Saqqara tomb ofTi, showing men in skiffs spearing the snarl1ng animals that are symbolic of chaos and Seth
responsibility of the tomb-owner if a continued existence (5th Dynasty) .
is to be expected. There are a variety of hunting scenes:
hunting hippopotami in the marshes; hunting in the
desert; hunting birds and spearing fish . Minor variations

T HE DECORATI ON OF THE TOMB 87

86 THE DECORATION OF THE TOM B
occur in these scenes throughout the course of Egyptian represented by the hippopotamus?) and crocodiles wait to
history (see below) . devour the hippos' young (or possibly the afterbirth) after
the animal is born .
Hunting Hippopotami in the Marshes
Scenes of the hippopotamus hunt appear in the Early Hunting in the Desert
Dynastic Period and continue thereafter. It has been Although representations of hunting in the desert appear in
suggested that in the earliest periods, this scene represented tombs throughout Egyptian history, the types of hunting
a rite expressing the victory of the uniting dynasty over the and the involvement of the tomb-owner differs significantly
conquered people of the Delta and was associated with through different periods. This provides information
kingship. It certainly features in Old Kingdom royal concerning the dating of tombs and is indicative of changes
mortuary temples, such as that ofPepy 11 at South Saqqara. in religious and cultural attitudes during the course of
The male hippopotamus is a symbol for the negative and Egyptian history. However, the main symbolism of the scene
destructive aspects of the god Seth and thus hunting the throughout Egyptian history is the triumph of order over
animal became a symbol ofHorus' triumph over Seth and disorder, the establishment of maatover chaos. The red
the establishment and maintenance of maat. The meaning desert was the land of Seth and its denizens belonged
of this scene changed after the Old Kingdom and it became to him. Thus, capturing the people or denizens of Seth's
transformed into a symbol for the protection of the sun realm embodied Horus' triumph over chaos and Seth
god and his rebirth and, by extension, the rebirth of the himself.
deceased,97 with the green papyrus alluding to Osiris, as well Additionally, the scenes included vignettes of wild
as Horus' emergence from his hiding place in the Delta, animals in their natural habitats, which emphasized the
prior to engaging Seth in combat. continuity of the natural cycle, fertility and the importance
The hippo-hunting scene was very popular in the Old of the sun in its continuum. This promised an eternal
and, to some extent, Middle Kingdoms, but was rarer in resurrection for the deceased, just as the sun was continually
New Kingdom and later representations, when it is featured reborn and provided life and sustenance for nature.
in temples as the triumph ofHorus over Seth.'' Generally, in Delightful vignettes highlight the Egyptians' intimate
Old Kingdom private tombs, a group of men harpoon the knowledge of the animal world and provide a picture of
animal, while in Old Kingdom royal contexts this is the the different animal species found in Egypt. It has been
prerogative of the king who single-handedly harpoons the suggested that as time progressed, some of these animals
snarling beast. Very few examples come from the Middle became rarer, but, due to the convention of the hunt scene,
Kingdom, though at Beni Hasan (BH-111) and Meir the they continued to be shown. 87 (above) By the New Kingdom the tomb-owner (here Userhat, in TI56) was shown hunting from a chariot with a bow and arrow;this
scene is combined with the fish-spearing scene, with the fish In the Old Kingdom the tomb-owner is never shown emulated royal activities, and this scene is most common ly found in tombs dating to the reigns ofThutmose Ill and Amenhotep 11.
being speared and the hippopotamus appearing before the taking an active part in the hunt; he merely observes the
boat, in the same pose as is found in Old Kingdom royal results as they are brought to him. The actual hunting (or 88 (below) A hunt in a fenced area. Hu nters, equipped with bows, as is the tomb-owne~ take ai m at antelopes and gazelles in the tomb of Senbi
at Mei r (B I) .
contexts. Despite the absence of an active spearing of the collecting of animals) is carried out by minions who use
animal, the hieroglyphic legend refers to throwing the lassos and hunting dogs. A possible exception is the
harpoon on the day of 'harpooning the hippopotamus', damaged scene of Akhmerutnesut (G2184) at Giza, where
presumably a religious festival. In the New Kingdom the the deceased is hunting with a lasso. In Old Kingdom royal
scene only occurs sporadically in tombs dated to the reigns contexts the king displays his physical prowess by being the
ofThutmose Ill and Amenhotep 11, primarilyTT39, 82, 53, hunter; this motif of the king as a hunter, subduing and
125 and 164. At this time, however, the tomb-owner actively taming nature (and the metaphoric enemies of Egypt that
participates in the hunt, rather than watching the outcome. inhabited the desert margins, just as the animals did)
Small vignettes of a more general nature also form part of continues throughout Egyptian history. In Middle and New
these scenes: crocodiles and hippos struggle with one Kingdom versions, the tomb-owner takes on the role of the
another (perhaps in this context the crocodile is an image of king and becomes actively involved in the hunting, thus
the sun god engaged in battle with the dark Sethian forces embodying the forces of maat.

88 TH E D ECORATI ON OF TH E TOMB
THE DEC O RA T ION OF T HE TOMB 89
 The hunt, especially in the Old Kingdom, served tomb-owner on a papyrus skiff in the marshes, hurling hatched, the young do swim in the water, but they retreat examples are documented in Middle and New Kingdom
not just to kill animals, but also to trap them for later throwsticks at birds, once again establishing maat over the to their mother's mouth at the first sign of danger. Once the tomb-chapels. In the case of the latter, the scenes are
consumption or use. This can be seen as a metaphor for disorder of nature. These scenes, set in the verdant papyrus danger is past, the young fish emerge almost magically from generally related to the position of the tomb-owner.
capturing captives and bringing them back to Egypt for swamps where Horus was raised, also convey the idea of the mo uth of the mother. This habit fits in very well with
exploitation. The animals would have been fattened up regeneration. The papyrus and lotus plants also emphasize the ancient Egyptian idea of the sun being swallowed and Food Production and Preparation 102

and consumed (see below). this association (see below). This is further stressed by the being reborn on a daily basis.' 00 Tilapia are supposed to
fact that the throwsticks are also a visual pun: in Egyptian, protect and accompany the sun god on his daily voyage and Scenes of food production and preparation continued to be
Fishing and Fowling in the Marshes by the Tomb-Owner 'to throw' such a stick is qema, which recalls a word with a are mentioned in Spell 15 of the Book of the Dead; their included in tombs, with the odd gap, throughout Egyptian
The scene of the tomb-owner engaged in fishing and similar sound meaning to 'create' or 'beget' .99 Actual presence summons up the image of the rebirth of the history. Food was of fundamental importance as it provided
fowling in the marshes appears throughout Egyptian history, throwsticks have been found in tombs: Tutankhamun had deceased. The Egyptian word for this fish, in, relates to a sustenance for the deceased and also reflected wealth and
starting in the 4th Dynasty and continuing into the several. Ducks and geese that sometimes appear balanced word for offerings, inw. Lates nilotica, or Nile Perch, is the prosperity. The food in a tomb was especially potent as it,
Graeco-Roman Period, with occasional hiatuses. These on the prow of the boat (most common in the 18th Dynasty) other fish that shares the harpoon in fishing scenes. These like the tomb-owner, was metamorphosed into an eternal
activities extend the control of maatover water, land and air, have variously been interpreted as hunting-decoys, or fish can grow to huge sizes, often well over a m etre (3 feet) in verity. All manner of food was shown being acquired, grown,
as well as hinting at eternal regeneration, as these were symbols of the god Amun, alluding to eroticism and fertility. length and are noted for being fierce fighters. There is also a prepared and served: bread, beer, wine, meat, fish, poultry
activities in which Osiris engaged when he became overlord The fish-spearing scene shows the tomb-owner in a fu rther pun found in the word for spearing fish, seti. This is a and fresh fruits and vegetables.
of the underworld and had the use of his senses and limbs papyrus skiff with water conveniently rising up so that he homonym for 'to impregnate', '0 ' and once again conjures up
does not have to bend down and can balance the fowling images of fertility and rebirth in the most literal sense, while Agriculture
restored to him (see Coffin Texts 429 , 473 and especially
475). These scenes are symmetrical and are generally shown composition. Although a plethora of fish are shown in the all uding to the birth ofHorus. Entire agricultural scenes or portions of them appear in
together on one wall, or balanced on facing walls. From the water, the scene proper focuses on two fish: Tilapia and Egyptian tombs from the 4th Dynasty onwards, with a
Lates. Tilapia, or bulti, are mouth-brooders.: they keep the Fi shing and Fowling concentration in 5th and 6th Dynasties and again in the nth
mid-5th Dynasty onwards, they sometimes appear in the
exterior portico of the entrance. Fowling scenes show the eggs, and later their young, in their mouths for safety. Once People other than the tomb-owner are also shown catching and 18th. The scenes can have slightly different meanings in
fish and birds in different ways (traps, nets) in the course of different contexts: if they relate to the deceased's work, as
89 From the Old Kingdom onwards parallel scenes of the tomb-owner fishing and fowling are found in tombs. These indicate the acquisition of food acquisition, or for pleasure. These scenes continue to seen in his titles, they may be at least partly autobiographical
eternal life and the establishment of order over t he chaotic natural world: tomb ofSabni at Qubbet ei-Hawa (QH26: 6th Dynasty). adorn chapel walls until the 19th Dynasty and then again, in their connotation; otherwise, they are purely intended to
although less intensively, from the end of the 25th Dynasty sustain the deceased in the afterlife and to underline the
onwards. Birds are captured using clap nets and traps and rebirth motif inherent in the plant world. For example,
killed with sling-shots. Throw sticks, with their ritual Khaemhat (TT 57), an Overseer of the Granaries, has two
connotation, are used only by the tomb-owner. Fish are scenes of agricultural activities in his tomb, which reinforce
caught in nets that are either dragged between two boats his identity for eternity.
(a process that is still used very commonly on the Nile in Agricultural scenes can be broken into smaller groups:
Sudan), by linen nets laid down in the river, by cunningly the growing, harvesting and processing of grain, flax, fruit
constructed fish traps made of reeds and through angling. and vegetables and viticulture. Either entire cycles (sowing
Spearing of fish is restricted to the tomb-owner. Vignettes through harvesting) or portions of cycles (perhaps with the
of mending nets are also a part of this scene type. parts representing the whole) are depicted on tomb walls (pi.
T hese scenes not only serve to procure food for the V). The process of grain cultivation in all its stages- hoeing
tomb-owner in the afterworld, but also serve to show the (5th Dynasty onwards), ploughing, sowing, harvesting,
cycle oflife and the maintenance of maat by the Egyptians. processing the harvest (threshing and winnowing) and its
The trapping of birds and fish can be seen as the equivalent transport to the granary- is one of the most popular cycles
of trapping enemies and is also found in temples (e.g. Edfu). and appears even during time periods when there are few
The fish were generally immediately processed for daily life scenes in tombs. The rendering of the accounts also
consumption or storage (see below), while the fowl were makes up part of the final stages of this scene-type. Sowing
frequently kept in pen or poultry yards for fattening up and ·vignettes are of particular interest because pigs (e.g. tomb of
breeding. Images of poultry yards date from the 5th Dynasty Paheri [EK3] and Nebamun [TT z4]) as well as ovicaprids
onwards, though scenes of poultry-rearing in yards occur (sheep and goats) were used for this activity. Magically, these
rarely after the end of the Old Kingdom; a very few representations would constantly provide sustenance for the

90 THE DECORATION OF THE T OMB THE DECORATION OF THE TOMB 91

 lettuce, akin to a cos lettuce. This plant is sacred to the the impression that their eyes were still present. Onions
ithyphallic fertili ry god, Min. It is associated with him as it were also associated with the afterlife, perhaps because
grows straight and tall and when harvested, exudes a pale of their many layers which suggest the wrapping of a
milky sap. It is clearly a symbol of fertility and rebirth, in mummy, as well as the idea of different worlds being
addition to providing food for the deceased. hidden, one inside the other. Occasionally a canopy of
O nions, a mainstay of the diet, were associated vi nes was shown covering the vegetable gardens and
with death as well: bulbs from small onions were placed providing shade; use of this image starts in the Middle
under the eyelids ofRamesside mummies in order to give Kingdom.

90 Scene showing the use of a shaduffor lifting w at er, in t he tomb of lpuy (TT2 17: 19th Dynasty).

tomb-owner, as well as symbolizing the cycle of birth, death and lettuce. The scenes depict plots of land divided into
and rebirth that the tomb-owne r hoped to go through in small squares, each containing a plant, that were easy to
order to achieve an eternal existence. T he vignette of Spell irrigate. Men bring water in jars from a nearby pool and
no of the Book of the Dead, found (e.g.) in the burial pour it into the small divisions. In some examples, mainly
chamber ofTTr invokes this agricultural existence, with from the New Kingdom, a shadufor water-lifting device is
the dead person carrying out the cycle. pictured. Temple gardens are sometimes shown in Egyptian
tombs of the New Kingdom, but these only appear in
Gardens and Plants chapels belonging to people whose work was associated
By their very nature, plants were associated with rebirth and with these areas and are primarily found in the Theban
resurrection . Two rypes of gardens are shown in Egyptian necropolis.
tombs, vegetable gardens and gardens ofleisure. Vegetable Images of vegetable gardens appear throughout Egyptian
gardens show the cultivation of food plants, such as onions history. T he most commonly shown plant is the Egyptian 9 1 Garden and pool as depicted in t he tomb of Nebamun (TTE2, BM EA37983: 18th D ynasty).

T H E D ECOR A T I ON OF THE TOMB 93

92 THE DECORATI O N OF TH E T OM B
 Orchards and Fruit Picking Bread and Beer Production
Pleasure gardens, attached to houses, were slightly
different in character. They appear primarily in New Scenes of fruit picking occur most commonly in the Old Scenes of brewing and baking are frequently linked in both
Kingdom tomb-chapels and contain ponds and loggias as Kingdom at Saqqara, but are also known from Middle two- and three-dimensional art as they share similar needs -
well as flowers and trees. The flora and fauna found in these Kingdom chapels at Beni Hasan, where baboons are the most important and basic one being yeast. T he elements
images clearly have symbolic meaning in addition to their showing assisting in the harvest. Figs are most commonly found in these scenes include granaries, grinding of grain,
obvious identities.'0 l Flowers were also produced on a large shown being harvested; sycamore figs were attached to kneading of dough, filtering of beer, heating pots and
scale, in a similar environment to that of vegetables, for use Hathor in her guise of Lady of the Sycamores, who in New baking. Brewing firs t appears in the 4th D ynasty tomb of
in bouquets and garlands. C ertain flowers had a funerary Kingdom tombs is pictured holding out a tray of offerings Meresankh III (G 7530+7540) and is quickly picked up by
symbolism, especially the lotus. The blue lotus lies under the to the deceased. Sycamore figs are unusual as the fruit has subsequent tomb-owners for inclusion in their chapels. The
water until the sun rises. As the sun climbs higher in the sky, to have a cut administered to it while it is still on the tree scenes tend to occur in the intermediate part of the tomb-
the lotus rises up on its stem away from the water and opens so that it ripens and does not fall prey to wasps; only then chapel, away from scenes of untamed nature and closer to
up. As the sun starts upon its descent in the later afternoon, does it grow to its full extent and can be harvested for agricultural scenes or offering and banquet scenes. This
the lotus closes its petals and slowly sinks back into the water consumption. When cut, the tree, as well as the fruits, give division is logical as it is the raw material of the agricultural
to be reborn at the next sunrise. It is no wonder that there off a milky liquid, which is associated with the divine milk scenes that is used to p roduce the bread and the beer, which
was an Egyptian myth relating that the sun god was born of the goddess. Consuming the goddess' milk, or the tree's
out of a lotus flower. Lotuses are also supposed to possess fruit, helps bring about a state of divinity that becomes 92 (/eft) A man involved with papyrus harvesting. He is shown w it h
permanent in the afterlife. Some vignettes show a mother the receding hairline and enlarged genitalia that are t he typical
m ild hallucinogenic qualities, especially when they are
symptoms of bilharzia and often fo und amongst people who spent a
mixed with wine.' 0 4 This no doubt contributed to the idea and child under a tree, sitting before a basket of figs, with
great deal of time in still water where the parasit e and its snail-host
of a change in the state of consciousness that was achieved some images showing the child suckling. The figs might
are found (Saqqara, tomb of Nefer : 5th Dynasty).
by the deceased as he transitioned from this life to the next. allude to the Lady of the Sycamores who provides
There is even a spell in the Book of the Dead (Spell 8rA) sustenance to the re-born deceased, just as a mother feeds 93 (below) Bread-making in the tomb of Niankhkhnum and
to transform oneself into a lotus. Poppies, cornflowers and her newborn child. Scenes of orchards often include Khnumhotep at Saqqara (late 5th Dynasty).

mandrakes were also associated with both life and death vignettes of scaring birds (also found in grain-growing
and appear in funerary as well as daily-life contexts. scenes). Other identifiable fruit trees pictured are date and
Palm trees were associated with Re and Min, the dom palms.
bifurcated dom-palm with Thoth, tamarisks with Osiris and
Papyrus Harvest
the sycamore fig with Hathor. A particular tree, known in
ancient Egyptian as the ished-tree, is also pictured in tombs. Harvesting papyrus is a part of the sequence of marsh scenes
T he gods wrote the deceased's name on its leaves in order to that include fishing and fowling. Papyrus gatherers first
ensure his or her eternal life. Traditionally this image was appear in the 4th Dynasty and continue until the New
used in a royal context in temples, though by the 19th Kingdom. Papyrus-harvesting scenes show the workers at the
D ynasty it also appears in private tombs (e.g. TTI) . Trees edge of a papyrus thicket pulling or cutting out long stems
also alluded to the sacred groves associated with ancient of papyrus, which are bound into bundles and then carried
funerary rituals, as well as to the tomb of Osiris, which on their backs. The papyrus is transformed into paper,
was supposed to be marked by a grove. Perhaps this is why baskets, boats (pl. VII), ropes, mats and other woven objects.
groves were planted around the royal mortuary temples of Portions of the papyrus can also be eaten. Many of the
the New Kingdom. people shown who are involved with these marsh activities
The earliest depiction of a pond actually appears in the have receding hairlines; this might be to show age, or,
context of a poultry yard in an O ld Kingdom tomb. more likely is a side effect of bilharzia or schistosomiasis,
However, that is an exception as ponds are more usually a a parasitic disease caught from water snails that results in
feature of I8th Dynasty and later tombs. T h e m ajority of distended bellies, enlarged genitalia, hair loss, discharge of
ponds shown in gardens are rectangular, but many also take blood in the urine and, eventually, death. Fishermen, papyrus
a 'T ' shape, reminiscent of the shape of the New Kingdom workers and some agricultural workers who spent time in
rock-cut Theban tomb-chapels. Perhaps this shape had a slow-moving water would all have been prey to this disease
special significance, incorporating the Nile and its Delta? and are therefore pictured showing some of its effects.

94 THE DEC ORAT I O N OF THE TO M B

 are both consumed at feasts and by the tomb-owner history. The Opening-of-t he-Mouth ritual was more often
throughout eternity. In fact, beer and bread were the explicitly shown in the New Kingdom, while in the Old and
cornerstones of the Egyptian diet as well as the economy M iddle Kingdoms it was implicit in the amount of offerings
- significant amounts of pay were measured in these being produced and offered in the main cult chambers.

I! commodities. Further scenes cover the processing of the butchered

meat. This consists of either preserving the meat or cooking
Butchery and Meat Processing 005 it. Butchers' shops and kitchens frequently figure in these
Scenes of butchery were commonly shown in Egyptian images. Scenes show that after butchery, joints and pieces of
tombs. At their most elaborate, the scenes show the bringing meat were disposed of in a variety of ways: salted and dried,
down of the animal, sometimes using a lasso, trussing it, cooked with fat and salt for storage, cooked in a stew, or
slitting its throat and then jointing it, with the choice pieces grilled over the fire. These magically provided sustenance
being offered to the deceased. Their preferred location was for the deceased for specific funerary and religious rituals,
the west wall, especially in the Old Kingdom, although they as well as for eternity.
do sometimes stray. These scenes generally occupied the
Poultry
lowest registers of a wall, although in some instances they
continued upward. They also appear in the thickness of the Poultry processing is often shown with fish processing,
doors at entrances and in the most active cult areas in th e especially in the New Kingdom. In O ld Kingdom tombs
tomb. Butchery was regarded as highly religious, especially this vignette frequently appears in conjunction with clap-net
in the Old Kingdom, as it related to the funerary ritual; or poultry-yard scenes. Birds are shown being strangled,
perhaps depicting the funerary feast that was celebrated at eviscerated, plucked and then salted and dried, or else
the tomb in association with the Opening-of-t he-Mouth cooked. It is curious that there are no representations of
ceremony, when the mummy was revivified. It also ensured a birds being beheaded with a knife, although they are
constant supply of meat in the afterlife, as well as illustrating pictured thus in tomb scenes and actual offerings are also
the triumph of order over chaos, where the domesticated similarly trimmed. New Kingdom scenes show the preserved
(and in several instances, wild) animal was subjected/tam ed birds being placed into amphora-style jars; such jars and
to man's will and maat. The importance and meaning of this con tents have been recovered from contemporary tombs,
sequence of scenes changed over the course of Egyptian such as that ofKha at Deir el-Medina (TT8).
is strangled,
95 Fish and fowl being processed for storage and late r consumption .The fish are beheaded, gutted and washed.The poultry
and dried before be ing placed in storage jars; tomb of
Fish eviscerated and plucked. it is probable t hat both the fish and the poultry were salted
94 An ox being slaughtered; from the tomb of lt1at Gebelein (Turin Paheri (EK3: 18t h Dynasty).
Sup pi. 14 354h: First Intermediat e Period). Fish are shown being gutted, cleaned and then dried. T he ................................ ................................................. ................................ ..... .......................................... .................... ................................... ........
......................... ....................................................................................... ......... ............................... ................ ................. ............. . .............. ..

workers are most generally found seated at the edge of the

water on a mat or low stool, wielding a knife or scraper. The the New Kingdom tomb ofNakht [TT52]) and then only who was identified with Osiris as a god of resurrection and
proximity to water ensures the freshness of the fish and an species symbolic of resurrection, such as tilapia and bulti rebirth. This association then carried over fu rther into the
abundance of water to wash up during the processing. After (e.g. in TT52). Christian era, with Christ being associated with vines, their
gutting the fish are opened up, sometimes with their heads fruit and their product. The red of the wine identifies it with
Vitic ulture blood and drinking wine makes one's blood flow, as is
and sometimes without, salted and air-dried. Mullet roes,
perhaps the earliest form of caviar, were also dried using salt Wine presses appear in tomb-chapels of the 4th Dynasty at arrested by the resulting flushed cheeks. Furthermore, the
and air and are shown in fish-processing scenes, especially in Meidum, but a complete viticulture scene does not appear alcohol in wine alters one's perception and in many cultures
the O ld Kingdom Saqqara necropolis. Scenes of fish being until the 5th Dynasty at G iza. A complete scene shows the this altered state is associated with divinity and existence on
cooked are extremely rare, although they were consumed grape arbour, collecting the grapes and putting them in a different plane, a state of being quite in keeping with a
enthusiastically in antiquity. Certain fish are not shown baskets to take to the treaders, treading on them, extracting reborn and therefore semi-divine soul. Vines probably
being consumed, such as the Oxyrhynchus fish, which was the m ust and then bottling the wine. became so closely identified with rebirth because they turn
supposed to have eaten Osiris' penis, following his Viticulture becomes a popular motif and one that brown and dry in the winter and then miraculously become
dismemberme nt and was rhus deemed taboo in funerary appears to have carried over through the Graeco-Roma n green and put out fresh shoots and tendrils and another crop
situations. Fish very rarely appear on offering tables (e.g. in Period with its association with the god of wine, Dionysus, of grapes in the spring. The clusters of grapes that hang

96 T H E DECO RAT ION OF THE T OMB T H E DECOR A T IO N OF T H E TOMB 97

 97 (above) A wall in the t omb of Nefer at Saqqara; amongst the
scenes is a depiction of mating animals, at t he left-hand end of t he
upper register.

98 (right) The monkey under the chair of Paheri and his wife not only
indicates its owner's wealth and status (the monkey is imported from
sub-Saharan Africa), but also suggests sexual activity (EK3) .
96 Grapes being harvest ed and the n trampl ed and the JUi ce being coll ected du ring the w ine-making process;Tuna e i-Gebel, to mb of Petosiris.
(Dynasty of Macedo n).
likely to eat the young and probably give no or little thought
Animals to the afterbirth.
down stress the idea of plenty. Occasionally, clusters of
grapes are used in alternation with pendant lotus blossoms
All sorts of animals are shown in tombs in different contexts. Pet s
in friezes (TT249). Faience grape clusters were also
suspended within the garden kiosks at Tell el-Amarna. They appear as part of the m arsh scenes, in the desert hunts, Pets are shown under the chair of the tomb-owner, as well as
One scholar has suggested an alternative allegorical in scenes of agriculture, livestock and pasturage, as offerings being walked by a servant, who is frequently a dwarf. Dogs,
interpretation of the wine-making scene: the wine god and as pets. monkeys and birds (particularly hoopoes) are shown as pets
Shesmu protecting the justified dead. In order to eradicate from the Old Kingdom onwards. From the Middle
Hunted and Trapped Creatures Kingdom onwards they are joined by cats and water-fowl,
their enemies and those of the sun god, he used his wine
press to squeeze the head of his murdered enemies. Thus, Scenes of hunting, fishing and trapping often contain the fo rmer being useful for catching vermin, as well as
trampling on grapes and putting them through a press wonderful vignettes of animals. These representations alluding to several divinities (Re, Hathor, Sekhmet, Bastet,
might be equated with the victorious rebirth of the sun god illustrate the Egyptians' intimate and detailed understanding Mut), and the latter being associated with Amun, potentially
and the successful arrival into the afterlife by the deceased. 106 of the natural world, as, for the most part, accurate animal with erotic overtones (seep. 90). Gazelles (e.g. TT73 and
behaviour patterns are shown. Hunt scenes show hedgehogs TT78), geese (e.g. TT18, 100, 112, 155) and monkeys (e.g. are depicted in herds, in poultry yards, sometimes being
Apiculture emerging from burrows, antelope and gazelle mothers EK3 and LSz7) appear from the New Kingdom onwards, used to pull a plough , trample in the newly sown grain
Although honey was the most highly prized sweetener, scenes fleeing with their offspring, lions fighting with the hunting altho ugh there is a decrease in representations of pets during (ovicaprids and pigs), threshing, mating (cattle and
of bee-keeping and honey production appear infrequently in dogs, otters awaiting fish, birds protecting their nests, scenes the later Ramesside period, when fewer secular or secular- ovicaprids), giving birth (with dogs waiting to eat the
Egyptian art. The first such scene appears in the 5th Dynasty of copulating animals and the resulting births. The mating seeming scenes featured in tombs. In some instances pets are afterbirth), cows being milked and herds of cows fording the
sun temple ofNiuserre at Abu Ghurob. One of the most scenes emphasize the aspects of tomb decoration connected nam ed so that they can be clearly identified in the afterlife . river. The fording scenes are particularly interesting as they
famous scenes dates to the New Kingdom tomb ofRekhmire with fertility and ensure the continuation of the natural This is especially true in the case of dogs, most famously also show images of crocodiles lurking below the surface,
(TTroo), which was copied in tombs of the 25th and z6th world. Occasional vignettes show animals giving birth with Inyotefii 's hunting hounds from his tomb. trying to seize the cattle. The cattle are cleverly m anoeuvred
Dynasties (e.g. TT279 and TT 414) . Some scholars regard jackals or dogs hovering nearby. It is more probable that the by a herdsman, who takes a calf across in a boat, thus forcing
carnivores are waiting to eat the afterbirth, rather than Livestock and Offering Animals its mother and the rest of the herd to follow.
bees as being symbolic of kingship, although the insect that
appears in the nesu-bity title ( :),~) was more probably the consume the newly born creatures. Hippopotamus birth Scenes oflivestock (poultry, cattle, sheep and goats) prior to Often such scenes or other riverine scenes also feature
wasp that is often found hovering near papyrus plants. scenes show crocodiles lurking nearby- these might be mo re their being offered show animals in several situations. They spells to repel the crocodiles that lurk beneath the water's

98 THE DECORATIO N O F THE TOM B THE DECORAT IO N OF T HE TO M B 99

 surface. These spells are just supposed to be simple Rows of animals are also shown being led to the tomb-
repelling/protection spells; however they are reminiscent owner. These are offerings for eternity. Sometimes they
of the later Coffin Text Spell 342 and Book of the Dead appear independently, in single file, or driven by a herder.
Spell31, which repels crocodiles to prevent them from It has been suggested by several scholars that the word ren,
stealing magic from the deceased. Perhaps the simpler meaning 'name', written above the animal, together with
protection spells are precursors to those found in the Book the name of the animal (e.g. ibex, bull/cow, oryx) means that
of the Dead? the creature in question is being consecrated as an offering;
Pigs are rarely featured in tomb art. In their infrequen t however, this idea has not been conclusively proven.
appearances they are shown both as domestic creatures that
Fighting Bulls
are used to trample in the grain as it is sown, as well as wild
creatures that emerge from the marshes. Certainly the rarity The scene showing two bulls fighting, presumably over a
of their depictions is no reflection of their popularity as a cow, is generally found in tombs in provincial cemeteries
(e.g. Meir, El-Hagarsa,w8 El-Hawawish,'0 9 and Aswan)
iI food in ancient Egypt.' 0 7
Force-feeding animals prior to consumpt ion is also a dating to the 6th Dynasty on through the Middle Kingdom .
part of this genre of scenes. In the Old Kingdom scenes Generally, a nearby vignette pictures a bull and cow mating,
showed both wild and domestic creatures being fattened after which the cow is shown giving birth. This sequence is
for table. Force-feeding involves first tethering the animals at clearly tied in to the rebirth and fertility motif that is an
their troughs, then feeding them by hand. Oryx, gazelle, inherent part of tomb decoration and also might link the
hartebeest and even hyaena were fed with delicacies to deceased to Hathor. The text accompanying some of these
improve their flavour. No doubt consumin g such animals scenes (e.g. El-Hawawish) indicates that the tomb-own er
was a delicacy due to their rarity. Eating them also gave and others are clearly watching a planned bull-fight. An
the consumer dominion over chaos and was a metaphor unusual vignette in a New Kingdom scene of cattle
for establishing maatand control. Poultry of all sorts, inspection shows a pair of fighting bulls (TT123). The bull
from ducks to cranes, were also shown being force-fed. was the quintessential symbol of male fertility, associated
Perhaps the ancient Egyptians were the original inventors with Min and the pharaoh; indeed, one of the king's tides
of foie gras. was 'Mighty Bull'.

of Kagemeni (5th Dynasty).

99 Captured cranes in a poultry yard being force-fed prior to consum ption; Saqqara, tomb

100 TH E DECORAT ION O F THE TOMB

 in
V (previous page) East wall of t he bur ial chamber of SennedJem at Deir ei-Medina (TI I : 19th D ynasty). This shows the deceased and his w ife
the Fields of laru, the agricultural paradise that played a large part in the posthumous destiny of the dead Egyptian .The w ho le scene comprises
the vignette to Spell I I 0 of the Book ofthe Dead.

VI (opposite) In the O ld and N ew Kingdoms offering tables may be shown covered with t all loaves of bread. In the First Int ermediate Period and
Middle Kingdom, however, t he 'loaves' retained their shape but were sometimes painted green .This may have been as a result of artists mistaking
t he bread for reeds, based on similarity in shape, or was perhaps due t o a change in religious bel ief South wall of the t omb of Khety at Beni
Hasan (BH-XVII: 12th Dynast y).

VII(above) Detail from the wall seen in fu ll in ill. 76, showing of the construction of a papyrus canoe in t he tomb-chapel of Ptahhotep ii (Saqqara
064: late 5th D ynasty).The register below includes the trapping of birds in a clap-net.
 I
!I

unusual in its extensive

VIII (previous pages) The burial chamber ofthe tomb ofSennefer on Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna (TT96A: 18th Dynasty) is very
t aking advantage of the rock's natural
and eclectic scheme of decoration.This includes the adornment of part of it s ceiling w it h grape-vines,
undulations to give a realistic effect.

BM EA37986:
IX (above) Part of the lower registers of a banquet scene from the t omb-chapel of Nebamun on Ora Abu'I-Naga (TTE2,
18th D ynasty).

have stood before the

X (opposite) Mereruka's stat ue shows him as a young man, strid1ng out of his niche. In antiquity a pair of doors would
prior to making offerings to Mereruka (Saqqara:
image, and these wo uld have had to have been ceremoniously opened by t he funerary priests
early 6th Dynasty) .
 Workshops and Crafts"o selection feature in tombs, sometimes dependent on space
and/or the taste and status of the tomb-owner.
While the substructure of a tomb would be equipped with
many manufactured items, it was also felt necessary to Jewelry and Metal Workers
depict such items being made in workshops. No doubt, in Jewelry-making scenes show the weighing our of the gold,
some instances it was financially not viable to place all that its working and the end products. D warfs are frequently
one might want in the tomb; paintings were thus magical shown labouring in these workshops; presumably their
substitutes. Or the images may have served as 'insurance'. smaller and nimbler hands were particularly skilful in
Although some of these images occur in 4th D ynasty tombs, producing jewelry. Even in the Western tradition dwarfs are
they only become common from the 5th D ynasty onwards. associated with jewelry-making, as well as with acquiring the
They are not all shown in every tomb; frequently only a raw materials necessary for its manufacture.

XI The ceiling of the outer corridor of the tomb of Sipt ah (KV47: 19t h D ynasty) was, as in a number of Ramesside royal t o mbs, adorned with
vultures, t heir wings o utspread in prot ection.

I 00 A scene of jew elr y production, depicting t he measunng and melting of the gold before making t he broadcollars and other adornments for
the tomb-owner. D warfs w ere frequently depicted as jewellers, perhaps as their diminut ive size made their fingers part icular ly dextrous (Saqqara,
tomb of Mereruka: 6th Dynasty).

THE D ECORAT I ON OF TH E TOMB 109

 Other types of metalwork are also shown, including the Spinning, Weaving, Leather-Work, and Rope- and Mat-Making
weighing of the metal, hearing the fires with bellows, using Although making mats and rope from papyrus is shown
blowpipes, using moulds and hammering vessels out over from the 4th Dynasty, spinning and weaving scenes are
forms. Engraving or otherwise enhancing vessels is also rarely found in the Old Kingdom. They only become
depicted. popular in the Middle Kingdom and later. The scenes, in
their most complete forms, show the processing of the Bax,
Boats, Boat-Building and the Transportation of Goods spinning it and then weaving on looms. The Middle
Navigating the Nile was a normal part of life and is Kingdom looms tend to be horizontal ground looms, while
frequently depicted on tomb walls. Additionally, boats were the New Kingdom ones are vertical. Although the linen
regarded as highly important in religious contexts as they is primarily intended for clothes, the sub-text suggests that
were the main means of transport for the sun god. Several the mummy bandages are also being fabricated. Wrapping
references and spells relating to boat-building can be found things in pure white linen indicated their holiness and
in the Coffin Texts (e.g., 189, 194, 113), as well as in other separateness from this world. The cultivation of Bax for
religious and funerary writings. linen (and perhaps oil) is also shown, albeit infrequently.
Boats are shown in several contexts, including funerary, Flax can be identified as it is green at the time of harvest and
ritual and practical. Their connotations depend on their is collected by pulling, rather than cutting. Leather-working
placement, as well as the larger scene in which they feature. is shown in tombs from all periods, but rarely.
Boats are often shown carrying the deceased on his voyage
to the afterworld (in these instances, they are frequently Carpenters, Stonemasons, Potters and Brick Makers
shown travelling in a westerly direction, or appear on the Carpenters are shown fashioning shrines and coffins, as well
western wall), or to make a pilgrimage to Abydos (below). as mundane objects such as beds and chairs. They are also
They are also shown as craft being used practically (although sometimes shown making oars. Oars were obviously
the scenes generally have religious undertones) in fishing necessary for the boats shown in the chapel, but they also
and fowling scenes, scenes of picnics on the river and the refer to texts in the Book of the Dead, which mention the
general transportation of objects and livestock. 'four rudders of heaven' , so these images have a sacred
Boat-building is also a typical feature of Old Kingdom undertone and images of rudders often appear
tombs from the 5th Dynasty onwards. Both papyrus (pi. independently, especially in the 19th Dynasty. ofTepemankh, now in the Cairo Museum (CG 1556), I0 I (above) Craftsmen making rope and using a bow drill (TI I00:
VII) and wooden boats are shown being manufactured. Stoneworkers, depicted from the Old Kingdom on, make shows a baboon being used by the authorities to 'police' 18th Dynasty).
the market. .
Sometimes a baboon is shown helping the boat-builders; vessels, as do potters (who are rarely shown and then most
I02 (below) Nebenmaat ii playing senet with his w ife, Meretseger In
this might be an allusion to Re since baboons were sacred to frequently from and after the Middle Kingdom). Masons are
later representations t he deceased is shown playing against an invisible
also shown carving sarcophagi, shrines, the false-door or even Games m
the sun god and appear in later funerary texts on his boat. opponent w ith the stakes be ing eternal life (TI2 19: 19th Dynasty).
However, baboons and other monkeys are used in several a portion of the tomb. They are thus engaged in sacred work
cultures to help with tasks, including sailing and fruit for eternity. Scenes of brick-making are extremely rare and Games of different sorts are depicted in Egyptian tombs
harvesting, particularly coconut collection. Papyrus boats tend to be found in New Kingdom chapels. from the 5th D ynasty onwards. The most commonly
also connote Osiris, as the green papyrus is one of that god's depicted game is the board game senet, akin to draughts.
symbols. Boats also allude to the sun god as his daily journey Trade This appears in offering rooms starting in approximately
was accomplished by sailing his boat through the sky. the mid-5th D ynasty and generally shows family members
Perhaps this is why, as well as for practical reasons, many Although the ancient Egyptians did not use money until the playing the game, or most often, especially in the New
Old Kingdom burials (primarily royal) were accompanied Persian 27th Dynasty, trade was carried out through barter. Kingdom, the deceased playing the game with an invisible
by boats. Scenes of bartering of goods appear in both royal (causeway opponent. This suggests that at least in the New Kingdom
T he river was the main 'road' through Egypt (and was ofUnas) and non-royal contexts, starting in the early 5th and later, when the deceased is shown in a pavilion playing
mirrored in the afterlife). Thus, boats were the main method D ynasty. T he Old Kingdom scenes all date from the 5th senet against an invisible opponent, the game is a metaphor
of transporting goods and people and are shown carrying Dynasty on and come from the Saqqara/Abu Sir area. for the voyage to the afterworld; emerging victorious from
livestock, produce and goods from the Old Kingdom Scenes in later periods are distributed more widely. the senet match is equated with a safe arrival and acceptance
onwards and particularly in the New Kingdom. One charming O ld Kingdom vignette from the tomb into the afterlife.

110 THE D ECO RAT IO N OF T H E T OMB THE DE CO RAT IO N O F THE T OMB Ill
 Senet boards have 30 squares, representing the different Carrying Chairs" 3
regions in the realm of the dead, while the throws ticks
(precursors of dice) are compared to the jackals that pull the The tomb-owner is often shown being transporte d to
sun god's barque. References to this game appear frequently inspect the tomb in a carrying chair or palanquin . The idea
in the Book of the Dead (e.g. Chapter q). 112 In Thebes, from is that the owner is going to inspect his tomb, so the notion
the 21st Dynasty onwards, an offering table is substitute d for of repeated visits is encapsula ted on the wall through this
the senet game. Other board games, such as the snake game image. These vignettes start in the 4th D ynasty and
(mehen), are also depicted in tombs, especially during the continue until the end of the Old Kingdom. A rare example
Old Kingdom and then in the 26th D ynasty. Snakes are of a carrying chair placed on a donkey appears on the door-
frequendy depicted as enemies, as well as friends of the jamb of the 5th Dynasty double tomb ofNiankh khnum and
deceased during his journey to the afterlife. Khnumho tep at Saqqara.
More physical amusements are also shown, such as
acrobatics , ball games (generally in the Middle Kingdom), Bed-Making and Beds
leap-frog, stick fights, shooting arrows (mainly New
Kingdom, e.g. TTw9 and 143), or rug-of-war. A game akin Scenes of bed-makin g and beds in tombs appear
to an elaborate fo rm ofleap-frog called khuzza !awizza in intermitte ntly in tombs from the 4th Dynasty onwards,114
Arabic and still played today is also shown in tombs of but remain rare in Egyptian art. T hese are not only records
the O ld Kingdom . Sometimes boxing would be shown as of daily rituals, but are also loaded with significance
well, occasionally associated with the celebration of a royal implying rebirth. Beds are places where one sleeps, and, one
festival, such as the sed-festival, as can be seen in the tomb hopes, reawakens. In the mythological realm, Osiris was laid
of Kheruef (TT192) and wresding, which is found at Beni on a bed that doubled as his bier prior to his resurrection.
Hasan. It was also where Isis came to him to conceive Horus, thus
A specific vignette, one showing duelling boatmen in underlyin g the sexual and procreative elements in its
papyrus skiffs, might also be considered part of the 'game' symbolism . This might be why couches such as the ones
group of scenes, although these men were probably found in Tutankha m un's tomb were included as part of the
responsible for transporti ng provisions for the deceased as funerary equipment. Also, coffins are sometimes shaped as
well. T his scene is common from the 4th Dynasty onwards, though lying on beds and in the later periods of Egyptian
through the Middle Kingdom and perhaps into the very history, mummies were frequently laid on beds and buried.
early New Kingdom and is one of the liveliest scenes in the Beds are shown being prepared in tombs of all periods, albeit
tomb. Perhaps these scenes of struggle and victory related to not commonly. Frequentl y mirrors, kohl pots and unguents
the ultimate victory of maat, as well as the desire for the are placed under the bed (see also toilette, below). All these
deceased to enjoy and be entertaine d in the afterlife. are elements of beautifica tion and erotica, which might be

I03 (left) Leatherwor kers and

carpenters producing goods
(TI I00: 18th Dynasty).

I04 (right) Fighting boatmen are

found in a number of O ld
Kingdom tombs, in this case on
the lower register of a wall of
the Saqqara tomb of Mereruka.

THE DE CORAT I ON O F THE TOMB 113

 more impedimenta of office. Such statues are depicted as are further augmented by texts and images that relate to
parr of the focal points of the funerary cult, so time depth the tomb-owner's work and position in society that he
can be achieved through images of statues being produced, (or she) chooses to show. In New Kingdom 'T' -shaped
transported and revered. n7The transportation and revering tombs they occur in the transverse hall and continue into
of statues is most commonly shown in O ld and Middle the passage. T hese texts and scenes provide an insight
Kingdom tombs, while New Kingdom tombs focus more on into the tomb-owner's wealth and the responsibilities
their production. Often, in the latter context the statues are attached to certain positions, as well as telling us about
of kings who the tomb-owner served, rather than of the the particular people who owned the tom bs. Due to their
com b-owner himself (e.g. TTwo). nature some of these images are very specialized and appear
in only a few tombs. This personalizatio n of tombs was
(Auto) biographical Elements more common in the New Kingdom than in any other
period.
All tombs contain elements that might be called Depictions of overseeing taxation and the rendering of
autobiographical: names, titles, familial affiliations. These accounts are amongst the first 'professional' scenes to appear

105 Ipi carried in a palanqu in, accompanied by attendants and carriers of sunshades; from South Saqqara (C M CG 1536-7: 6t h Dynasty) .
................................................................................................................................
.................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................

tied into the idea of resurrection, as well as erotic moments appear at the end of the 4th D ynasty.115 Statues are often
on earth, as is attested by several love poems. shown being taken into a tomb, with a ritual of incensing
taking place before them. This ritual serves to animate the
Statuary statue of the deceased and is similar to that used for statues
of divinities. In the Old Kingdom they are shown being
Images showing statues of the deceased occur frequently in transported on sleds and appear mainly on door-jambs
tombs, either on door-jambs or in the tomb proper. T hey and near doorways, i.e. points of transition and
are shown being made, dragged and censed. T hese images transformation.n 6
probably depict the statues that were placed in the tomb, Different aspects of the individual can be embodied by
either in the serdab (mainly in the Old Kingdom), or in the the statues: some are shown as young, wearing short kilts
tomb proper as a focus of cult practice or as insurance for and elaborate wigs, while others depict individuals in their I06 Tax defaulters are be at en in t he upper register of this wall in the 18t h Dynasty to mb of the O ve rseer of t he Fie lds Menena (TI69), whi le
the ka should the mummy be damaged. T he images start to more mature years, shown as plump and carrying many winnowing cont inues below.

11 4 THE DEC OR AT I O N OF T H E T O M B THE D ECO RATI ON OF T HE TO M B 11 5

in tombs, starting in the Old Kingdom. They are most In addition to these 'real' autobiographies there are
commonly found in the tombs of viziers. When taxes are certain formulaic 'quasi-autobiographical' texts, found in
in arrears, vignettes within the larger scene show the most tombs, including the 'Negative Confession' (a list of
punishment of the laggards. Vizier Rekhmire's tomb-chapel evil things contrary to maateschewed by the deceased), or
(TTwo) also includes a long text that explains the duties of the inscription recounting all the good deeds (e.g. 'I gave to
the vizier, and is fundamental to our understanding of the the hungry', etc.) of the deceased.
responsibilities of that position in the 18th Dynasty. His
duties included receiving tribute, with images of foreigners Warfare
bringing diverse items ranging from giraffes and elephant
tusks to Cretan vessels being shown thus in TTwo. Images of warfare are rarely depicted in tombs, perhaps as
Foreigners are rarely shown (except at Beni Hasan) in the con tinuation of a violent struggle throughout eternity,
tomb-chapels prior to the New Kingdom. Then they are carried out by private people, was unappealing. Exceptions
invariably featured when the tomb-owner's duties in life t() this do, however, occur in a handful of 6th D ynasty
necessitated interaction with foreigners. tomb-chapels, as well as a group of sepulchres at Beni
Officials responsible for provision, such as Userhat Hasan, and at Deir el-Bersha. Soldiers are depicted, but
(TT 56), show the registering and branding of cattle, in generally in peaceful contexts: being rewarded, waiting as
addition to scenes of grain production. As Userhat was the recruits, etc. Inscriptions from the tombs of individuals who
equivalent of a quartermaster for the army, soldiers are also defined themselves by martial prowess, such as Ankhtif)r of
featured in the tomb, awaiting their rations. The sub-scenes Moalla (First Intermediate Period), tell of military exploits,
show them lounging around, as well as getting their hair which provide us with historical data. T he early r8th
barbered- presumably these were the recruits. M ilitary Dynasty tomb of Ahmose, son of Ibana, at El-Kab is also
scenes are rarely shown in tombs (see below) . rich with texts concerning naval battles that took place at
In some instances, extraordinary acts or services to the start of the dynasty and are an invaluable source of
the king were commemorated. T hus, Harkhufhad the information concerning the events of that period.
text of a letter sent to him by King Pepy II reproduced on
the exterior of his tomb at Aswan. He had completed a Images of the Deceased
successful mission to Central/Western Mrica and brought
the king a pygmy (or possibly dwarf) as a companion, for Images of the deceased dominated the tomb. He (or she) is I 07 lt is not always clear why certain motifs w ere included in a tomb. Fo r example, a scene of circumcision is depicted in t he 6th D ynasty tomb
whom the then child-king expressed his gratitude. The shown entering the tomb, fishing and fowling, carrying out of A nkhmaho r at Saqqara.

architect Ineni (TTSr) records how he constructed a tomb duties in life, overseeing various events, relaxing, seated in
(the first in the Valley of the Kings) for his monarch, gardens or houses, participating in religious festivals, state, would look his best throughout eternity. Perfumes and of her manifestations is goddess of beauty, as well as being
T hutmose I. Amenemheb (TT85) records in text, but hunting, attending banquets and receiving offerings. A oils also have sacred fun ctions in mummification and cult 'Mistress of the Sycamore', providing sustenance to the
without illustrations, how he sliced off the trunk of a curious scene-type shows the toilette of the deceased. This rituals, as well practical applications: they have a pleasant deceased and a personification of the western mountains of
marauding elephant that was attacking Thutmose Ill. occurs infrequently in the O ld Kingdom and then slightly smell, and, in some cases, have insect-repellent properties T hebes. Some mirror handles bear her likeness, while others
O utstanding personal events commemorated include more frequently in subsequent periods, especially in the (see below under 'Banquet Scenes'). There is also a spell in take the form of papyrus plants, symbolic of the resurrective
D jehutyhotep ii's transportation of a colossal alabaster statue m h Dynasty. The scene appears in tombs of both men and the Coffin Texts (CT282) that states how the deceased can powers of Osiris and also allude to Hathor's residence in the
(Tomb 2 at El-Bersha). O n a different tack, Hapidjefa ii, in women, though it is more commonly found in female use seem to drive off the harmful serpent Rerek. marshes where she safeguarded the young Horus.
his tomb at Asyut (Tomb 2), records ten contracts setting chapels of the Middle Kingdom. Mirrors, which become common in representations
out the wages received for his various offices. Ankhmahor's The toilet scenes show hairdressing, anointing with oils from the First Intermediate Period onwards and are placed Families
Saqqara tomb contains a curious scene of circumcision, as and unguents, as well as applying make-up. Make-up under chairs and sometimes appear as funerary goods, also
well as other surgical procedures, none of which are directly exaggerates ones image, creating a new, improved version, have a symbolic meaning. T heir circular shape alludes to the Images showing the deceased and his wife (generally on a
linked to his principal titles of priest and Vizier. Thus, very and also has religious overtones. For example, kohl or galena solar disk and the fact that they provide a reflection suggests smaller scale) start in the O ld Kingdom and appear
personal narratives not only elucidate the culture and history were symbolic of the divine eye that judges, as well as being the afterworld, which is a mirror image of this one. The throughout the course of Egyptian history. Children are also
of ancient Egypt, but also bring the personal history of the associated with several divinities." 8 The make-up in the word for 'mirror', ankh, has the same sound as the word for frequently shown, accompanying their parents, attending
deceased to life. toilette scenes ensured that the deceased, in an idealized 'life' . Mirrors are associated with the goddess Hathor, as one banquets, offering to their deceased parents, as well as acting

11 6 TH E D EC ORAT I O N OF T H E T O M B THE D ECORATI O N OF THE TOMB 11 7

as the sem or funerary priest and therefore, heir. A Various elements used in the scenes, including puns,
proliferation of images of the extended family occur during serve to underline the rebirth/resurrection motif. The word
the New Kingdom, when the idea of ancestor cults became for the garlands that are placed around the necks of revellers
linked with the idea of royal ancestor worship. is ankh, which sounds the same as the word for life. The
Egyptian word for 'to pour', seti, is spelled in the same way
Banquet Scenes as the word meaning impregnate. As Lise Manniche writes,
' (t]he .. . banquet scene . . . hinted again and again at the
Scenes of feasts are a key decorative element in the tomb- proper atmosphere for creating new life'. '20 The presence of
chapel of rhe New Kingdom,"9 although they do appear the blue lotus also serves to remind us symbolically of
throughout Egyptian history (pi. IX). Iris difficult to rebirth. Small cones, resembling party hats, also appear on
separate images of funerary banquets from other festivities, the heads ofbanqueters in New Kingdom tombs. These
so they will be treated as a group here. Banquet scenes show h ave been identified as cones of fat, impregnated by perfume
rows of richly dressed and bejewelled men and women, or incense, which gradually melted during the course of the
sometimes on separate registers and sometimes grouped festivities, releasing a pleasing aroma. Recently, however,
together, attended by servants and being entertained by some doubt has been cast on whether these were actually
musicians and dancers (see below). This event can allude to ever worn, or if they were merely an iconographic device, to
the funerary festivities, akin to a modern wake, with the show that these people were perfumed and oiled .n• Although
added message of celebrating the rebirth of the deceased in oils and perfumes were an element of everyday life, they had
the other world. T hey can also represent religious and religious overtones since gods and rulers were anointed (see
secular festivities attended by the deceased and others, Pyramid Texts 879-881 and 936-37), and of course oiling the
especially the Festival of the Valley (see below, p. 220). body was an important part of the mummification process.
T he motif stresses the message: eat, drink and make merry. In fact, the Pyramid Texts state that oils were necessary
H airstyles, clothes, jewelry and furn iture help provide for the resurrection of the deceased , as they knitted the
dating criteria, as well as indicating rank. bones together and re-clothed them with flesh. Presumably
A curious feature of most of the banquets is that food is the seven sacred oils that were part of the tomb equipment
not the focus: rather, the concentration is on drinking. Some were for this reanimation process. In mythology, the oils had
late 18th Dynasty tombs even show men and women divine origins: some came from the eye ofHorus, while the musicians are of both genders, the majority of the I09 (above) A harp1st, lutist and singers ent ertain guests in Re khmire's
others came from Re, or from the sweat of the gods. A sweet dancers are women, although there are also dances exclusive t omb atThe bes (TT I00: 18th Dynasty).
suffering the ill-effects of overindulgence in a corner of the
room and being carried away afterward (e.g. TT 53 and 49). odour was thought to be a sign of divinity. Indeed, many to men (muu) and stick dancing at Beni Hasan. Dancing
I I0 (below) Dancing and t ug-of-war we re popular entert ainments
people commented on Alexander the Great's sweet smell, was both secular and sacred, and certain dances, performed
(Saqqara, to mb of Mereruka: 6t h Dynasty).
I08 Part of certain banquet scenes is a dep1ction of a female guest which was interpreted as a manifestation of his godhead. by the muu dancers (see below), were a part of the funerary
vom iting, presumably through a surfe it of alcohol (Western Thebes: Additionally, several N ew Kingdom Theban tombs include ritual.
18th Dynasty). scenes or references where the anointing of the deceased is M usic, song and dance provided entertainment
an important part of the celebrations at the end of the year through eternity, as well as providing imagery that would
(e.g. TTso, TT82 and TTn2) Y2 Did these celebrations aid the deceased's voyage to the Fields oflaru. Certain
merely entail bringing ointments as offerings, or involve lyrics, especially in the N ew Kingdom, such as the Song
actually entering the burial chambers and pouring oils and of the Harper,"' praised the afterlife, while instruments,
unguents over the coffin or even the body of the deceased? such as the sistrum, were associated with Hathor. Musicians
Certainly in modern Coptic monasteries the carefully and dancers are also depicted celebrating festivals, such
preserved bodies of their founders are annually anointed. as the king's heb-sedjubilee (TT192), or in religious
processions. In some instances the tomb-owner or his
Musicians, Singers and Dancers wife are shown with m usical instruments of a ritual
nature, notably the sistrum. These vignettes generally
Entertainers appear in different contexts in Egyptian tombs underline a priestly role, or a dedication to a particular
of all periods, most commonly at the banquet scene. W hile divinity.

TH E D ECO RAT ION O F T HE TO M B 119

118 T HE DECORAT I ON OF THE T O M B
 deceased, as well as offering formulae . The tablet above
Divinitie s
~ Cavetto cornice ~
the central section was usually inscribed with an image of
the deceased sitting before an offering table with the
Althoug h divinities are a natural part of the decoratio n of Upper lintel
offerings listed above him or below the table. There are wide
funerary monume nts, they rarely figure on the walls of elite
variations in the details of false-doors over time and between
tombs until the New Kingdom . In royal contexts gods and
Offering slab sites, such as the number of jambs, types of offerings listed,
kings are shown in offering scenes, scenes of giving life
presence or absence of other family members on the door,
(ankh) to the king, watching the king, etc., as well as being
etc.; these can also provide daring criteria for the
protagon ists in the Books of the Underwo rld in both royal Lower lintel
I I I A diagram ""Torus monume nt.
and private contexts.
showing t he mou lding
From the New Kingdom on, especially starting in the ~
different parts of a
O fferings: Bearers, Estat es, Priests an d Family Members
19th Dynasty, gods and demi-gods regularly feature in false-door T hese
I private tomb-chapel decoratio n, either alone or in vignettes doors were the Inner Out er
jamb jamb Bringing the deceased offerings of food (both processed
I! of the Book of the Dead, in particula r those associated with focal point of the

I
the judgmen t of the deceased. The deities shown include the
stock funerary gods: Osiris, Isis, Neith, Nephthy s, Selqet,
cult. and sometime s
an individual had
-
Door
and raw), drink, cloth, incense, perfumes, oils, flowers,
bouquets , furniture, jewelry and other objects were some
more t han one
of the most, if not the most, importan t images inscribed in
the Four Sons ofHorus , Hathor, Maat and Thoth. Certain false-doo r in the
tombs. This scene type is most common in the Old and
gods, includin g Amun, are not shown in tombs, but hymns t omb. Occasionally
and offerings are addressed to them, so that their presence is some were extern al
for ease of offering
j Offering table
\ Middle Kingdoms, as well as the Saite Period. It is present,
but less promine nt, in New Kingdom funerary monuments.
implicit in the tomb-ch apel.
O ffering scenes can be separated into different groups: I I 2 Est at es bring1ng their produce fo r the use of the tomb-own er in
Harvest deities are also shown in tombs of the New
often repeated in tombs, was a key scene througho ut products of marshlands, products of fields and farms, the 6th D ynasty tomb of Merer uka at Saqqara.
Kingdom . No doubt they stressed the idea of fertility and
Egyptian history, although it enjoyed the most promine nce Opening -of-the-M outh offerings, and offerings and
plenty in this world and the next. The most frequently
in the Old Kingdom when other ritual or religious scenes libations made directly in front of the deceased or his objects might have had additiona l significan ce, such as linen
depicted goddess was Renutet in her serpent form (e.g.
were rarely depicted . Offering scenes and false-doors appear statues. The most significant offerings are those made by offerings which would provide clothing for eternity and also
TTrn, 143, 172, 217, 256, 261, 284), who was often shown
in both sub- and superstructures. priests who were responsible for the continue d celebrati on suggest the idea of mummy bandages and the practice of
close to scenes of viticultu re as well as grain producti on and
process m g. Offering lists appear at the start of the Old Kingdom , of the mortuary cult, especially the sem priest, a role that was wrappin g sacred or precious objects in linen. Food would
but a standard ized form is first found in the 5th D ynasty and traditionally assigned to the eldest son. naturally provide sustenan ce, as well as underline the fact
consists of over 90 items, each shown together with its name T his scene type tends to occupy several registers, bur that the chaos of nature had been h arnessed to the rule of
O ffering Ritual an d t he False-Do or
within individu al cells of a grid. Many of the items listed are is most frequentl y placed in the lower register, with a order and productivity imposed upon it by man's will.
foodstuffs, bur include material required by the cult of the preference for the west wall. Often, with multi-ch ambered Bouquets provide allegorical offerings in the flowers that
The scene of offering is the most sacred image in the Old
deceased, includin g incense and the seven sacred oils. 12 4 tombs, these rows of offering bringers form a link between they contain, as well as make a pun: the word for 'bouquet',
Kingdom non-royal decorative repertoire and is a standard
feature in tomb decoratio n througho ut Egyptian history. The false-door was, from the 4th Dynasty, the focal rooms. The offerings are always taken in the direction of the mes, shares the same root as the word for 'birth'.
point of the cult, developing from the slab stelae of earlier deceased. They are brought by a variety of individuals, Althoug h most of the scenes of offerings show the
In its iconic form, it consists of a table of offerings being
rimes. It was generally located in the superstru cture, as including offering bearers, friends, family members and deceased as the recipient , there are a few occurren ces wh ere
presente d to the deceased and appears on the false-door, as
directly above the burial chamber as possible, so that the human figures represent ing personified estates. By the the deceased makes offerings. Generally these are made to
well as on the walls of the tomb proper. This ensures that the
deceased 's ka could -access the offerings directly. It comprised Middle Kingdom the latter abstract personifications were kings, deities or ancestors (semi-deified, due to their
deceased will be well provided for in the afterlife. T he ritual
several discrete elements mirrorin g the elements of a real replaced by figures of real servants.us Most of the items being deceased status). However, there are rare depiction s of the
accompa nying this scene is one that is supposed to have
been carried out on a daily basis - indeed, perhaps more door, including jambs, lintels and bolts, and was generally brought to the deceased feature in the offering list inscribed tomb-ow ner offering to the architects and artists who
ornamen ted with torus mouldin gs and a cavetto cornice. near the false-door or tomb focus. Occasionally some construc ted and decorate d the tomb, as well as to a sculptor
than once a day. This is similar to temple rituals, where the
image of the divinity would be given offerings, after which The door was almost always carved in sunk relief, a unusual offerings, such as the caged hedgehogs in the tomb who produced the statues that were placed in the tomb
technique most frequent ly employe d in carving exterior ofMerer uka at Saqqara, are presented to the deceased . (TT82). Although it is relatively rare to find named
the offerings would revert to the priest. Presuma bly this was
spaces so that the images would be visible even in bright, The offerings magically ensured the permane nt individu als other than family members in tombs, those who
also the case for the actual offerings given to both royal and
direct sunlight. This charmin g conceit emphasized how provisioning of the deceased in the afterlife. In some are named are frequen tly priests or artisans who were
non-roya l individu als. As insurance, if offerings were not
provided on a daily basis, the images in the chapel would the door was exterior to the afrerwor ld. The door was instances a scroll, inscribed with offerings or lists of goods, is presumably quite well known and were responsible for
extensively inscribed with the name and rides of the shown being presented to the deceased. Furtherm ore, some producin g some of the grave goods (e.g. A2 at Meir).
magically provide the necessary sustenance. This scene,

T HE DECORAT ION O F THE TO MB 12 1

120 THE DECO RAT IO N OF THE TO M B
Fu nerals, Mourning and the Funerary Procession Part of the funerary rite refers to the 'Buto Burial' and
the trip to Sais. This was an ancient ritual supposedly
Although there are 4th Dynasty examples of elements taken derived from one performed for the Predynastic rulers of the
fro m the mourning cycle of the dead (e.g. in the tomb of Delta at the sites ofButo and Sais, consisting of stopping at
Meresankh Ill at Giza), funerals and funerary processions do these sites and the performance of certain ritual acts there.
no t become common until the 6th Dynasty. The funerary Later, these towns became symbolic religious destinations
cycle in full (good examples of which are found in TT20 and rather than literal ones. After the 4th Dynasty these rites
29) includes mourning, the funerary procession (by land were taken over by the elite and stopped being the sole
and/or water) and rites performed before the mummy. preserve of royalty. They are difficult to understand as their
In tomb-chapels from earlier periods, only the last stages origins are shrouded in the mists of time. They include
of the funeral are shown. The cycle is most complete in the purification rituals and the dance of the enigmatic muu
r8th Dynasty, when it becomes a significant scene in the dancers, incarnations of the ancient kings ofButo. Censing,
decorative schema. As one might expect, the preference is offerings, the tekenu and the erection of two obelisks are also
to place such scenes on the west wall, or whichever wall has part of this ritual. "' The final stages of the funeral were
been designated as the ritual 'west' if geographic orientation meant to take place in front of the tomb (shown most often
cannot be followed due to practical constraints. In some in the New Kingdom), including the Opening-of-the-
cases, such as in the tomb of Ramose (TT 55), the funeral Mouth ceremony.
scenes are shown directly over the entrance to the
substructure. These representations are frequently linked The Opening-of-the-Mouth Ceremony
to those depicting the Voyage to Abydos (see below). This funerary ritual was performed either on the mummy
The mourners are depicted fainting with grief, weeping, itself, or on a statue of the deceased at the tomb's entrance or
wailing, pulling at their hair and heaping dust on their head. courtyard, as it faced the land of the living for the last time.
Some are professionals, although many are family members In its full state, it consisted of 75 separate episodes. These
and friends . New Kingdom scenes tend to be more dramatic included purification, censing, butchery and offering and
than those of the Old Kingdom, although a woman in the the recitation of specific funerary texts, with accompanying
tomb of Mereruka at Saqqara is shown fainting with grief . gestures and accoutrements that restored the five different
The procession, from the embalming house to the tomb, senses to the mummy, thereby enabling its rebirth and
shows the coffin or the mummy on a bier that is placed on a resurrection. This was carried out by the sem priest, clad in a
sled pulled by oxen. The parade includes offering bearers leopard skin, a role that was generally taken by the eldest son
carrying grave goods, priests, priestesses in the guise oflsis and/or heir of the deceased. This scene, which is most
and Nephthys and the deceased's friends and family. An commonly shown in r8th Dynasty tombs, becomes rarer
enigmatic object called the tekenu, which is pulled on a sled, after the end ofTutankhamun's reign, although it enjoyed a
is also a part of the procession. The tekenu is shown in renaissance in the 26th Dynasty.
representations dating from the Old Kingdom onwards and
looks like a man in a foetal position, covered by an animal Voyage to Abydos
skin or fabric. However, its origins remain obscure. Some
scholars believe that it was a representation of the dead body, The pilgrimage to Abydos to visit the burial place of Osiris
wrapped in an animal skin that was used prior to the use of was one of the most important religious duties for an
coffins, while others have thought it might refer to human Egyptian because the trip symbolized their own resurrection
sacrifice, or even the wrapped placenta. and rebirth. This image first appears in tomb-chapels of the
Old Kingdom and continues throughout Egyptian history.
The scene develops out of a funerary journey carried out
I I 3 (/eft) The to p register of this wall of the I 8th Dynasty tomb of
Pairi (TT I 39) had offering-bringers above a depiction of the fun eral from Buto to the Re temple at Heliopolis that is pictured in
procession. Below we see the Opening-of-the-Mouth ceremony and 4th Dynasty tombs. As the importance of Os iris increased
the Voyage to Abydos. in the 5th Dynasty, the pilgrimage to his temple replaces the

T HE DECORAT ION OF THE TOMB 123

 earlier prototype . A boat or flotilla of boats is shown motif, occurring even when the constructi on is actually of
wending its way to Abydos and back, the direction of travel stone or brick, rather than of reeds.
clearly indicated by the sails: downriver the sails are furled as In the Old Kingdom it is used predominantly in royal
the current is being used for momentu m and up river the contexts, although an example has been found in the
sails are unfurled to use the 'sweet breeze of the north'. The mastabas ofSeshem nefer (LG53) and T jeti at Giza. 128
scene is generally shown on the west side of the tomb. N ew It becomes increasingly common in the Middle Kingdom,
Kingdom variants show the trip to Abydos with a coffin on a time when other previously royal motifs have been taken
board one of the boats; on the return trip there is no coffin, over by the elite. The Old Kingdom upper frieze areas
intimating that the deceased has been accepted into the tended to be enhanced by trident-lik e shapes that are also
realm of Osiris. The boats emphasize the rebirth motif: derived from flora. In addition to the kheker frieze, Middle
towards Abydos they face into the tomb, while on the return Kingdom tombs also used decorative bands made up of
journey they face outwards, to the land of the living, with different colours to frame scenes.
the emphasis on a successful rebirth. This scene is sometimes Friezes from New Kingdom contexts are the most
shown in association with the funeral procession . Rites diverse, with examples of different frieze-motifs being used
associated with it might actually have been re-enacted in the in the same tomb (e.g. TT43, 78, 151, 189, TT272). T his
necropolis on special occasions. According to Lise probably reflects personal choice associated with religious
Manniche , 'the symbolic significan ce of the representa tion is beliefs, as well as an aesthetic decision. T he shapes of the
emphasize d in the rites performed during one of the annual khekervary during the course of this period, with the
1 1
festivals in the necropolis, when model boats were placed in addition of a sun disk to its centre during the reign of

! I the tomb to help the deceased undertake his journey. At

midnight the boats were turned round so that he could
Amenhot ep Ill.
Other motifs used to decorate friezes include lotus
travel home again.' 12 7 flowers (these increase in popularity during and after the
reign ofThutm ose IV) and Hathor heads, first introduced in
Decorativ e Motifs TT71, the tomb of Senenmu t and appearing in several other
Theban tombs (e.g. TT45, 58, 163). A unique frieze
In addition to the specific images of activities and appearing in TT72 consists of the cartouches ofThutmo se
individuals, other decorative elements feature in tombs of Ill, topped by one of the tides of the deceased. In the tombs
all periods. T hese include friezes at the top of walls, ceiling at Amarna apt symbol, the hieroglyph ic sign for the sky
decoration and engaged statuary that is carved as part of the ( ~ ),or coloured bands adorn the frieze area. Ramesside

tomb itself. T hese elements change somewha t over time; a tombs have particularly elaborate friezes: Anubis couchant
synopsis of their types and occurrences is given below. (e.g. TTr4, 58, 149, r66), snakes (e.g. TT99, 284 and 354),
djed pillars and tytamulets (TT65), and combinati ons of all
Friezes these motifs. C learly Egyptians in the Ramesside period saw
The most common element used as a frieze is the kheker, an increase in the need for explicit religious protection for
resembling tassels of a carpet and used as a decoration on the the tomb, as manifeste d in the frieze.
highest part of a wall. Particularly common from the Middle
Ceiling Decoratio n
Kingdom onwards, it is actually known from the 3rd D ynasty
complex of King Djoser. T he term khekeris derived from the The soffits of tombs were also enhanced. The few that have
word for ornament in Egyptian and is just that: a decorative been found from Old Kingdom mastabas were carved and
motif that is used as a frieze to fill up awkward wall spaces. Its
origins, however, are surprisingly practical. It is thought to
I 14 (right) Images of t he Voyage to Abydos by boat were common in
have its genesis in the knotted tops of reeds that were used for tombs of all periods.When Egyptian boats t ravelled no rthwards they
constructi on during Egypt's earliest history, including the are shown w ith their sails furled as t hey used the current to move;
temples associated with the Buto Burial, as well as funerary when they are going south t heir sails are unfurled so t hat they could
constructi ons, and to have evolved into a purely decorative take advantage of the north wi nd (TT I00, Rekhmire: 18t h Dynasty).

124 THE DECO RATI ON OF T H E T OMB

 ]I

Engaged Statuary
:I

11 11
tiAIN Statues of the tomb-owner were part of the standard tomb
equipment since these served as focal points for the cult, as
jl 11 11 1
.""'..........,
IJ
well as insurance for the ka, sh ould any mishap befall the
actual corpse. An additional statue type was also introduced
a b c d e f into tombs, possibly from the 4th D ynasty onwards (LG9o):
images that were carved from the rock that formed the
tomb. This genre of statuary naturally appears only in rock-

~
cut tombs from all periods thereafter throughout Egypt,
although they are more commonly found in certain
IDCJD[ cemeteries, especially in Upper Egypt where the rock is
most suitable for such images. The presence of such figures
11 1111 1111 \Ill 11 did not preclude the additional inclusion of free-s tanding
statuary.
g h k m
Frequently not just one, but several im ages were cut
I 16 Detail of the ceiling of the tomb-chapel of Nakht (TI52: 18th from the living rock. T hese included images of the deceased
Dynasty).
and his/ her ka; several images of the deceased, perhaps
showing him m anifest in his different positions; statues of
painted to look like the roofs of houses that were made of the whole family; statues of the deceased and his wife. T he
palm logs (e.g. D64 at Saqqara). Middle Kingdom tombs tomb ofKakerenpta h (Giza G 7721) contained as many as 29
that are better p reserved show brightly coloured textile statues and only one wall adorned with two-dimensio nal
patterns on the ceiling; different designs sometimes appear decoration .
in different parts of the chapel. These might also have been In the Old Kingdom most of these im ages are standing,
- --- -- ---- - -- - -
p q r present in Old Kingdom sepulchres. This mode of although there are a few variants showing seated figures.
n 0
decoration continues into the New Kingdom, with other A handful of unusual images appear during this time,
motifs also being present. primarily in the Memphite necropoleis. G iza has the largest
T he tomb-chapels ofNakht (TT 52) and Userhat (TT 56) number of such engaged statuary. The 5th/ 6th D ynasty
11
are inspired by the ceilings of private houses as they are tomb ofldu (G 7102) shows the deceased, fram ed by his
painted to show imitations of wooden beams and mats. false-door, emerging from the ground (the area of his burial
This also underlines the identification of the tomb as a chamber), with his arms opened in a position to accept
house for eternity. More variations date from the time of offerings (ill. r86). He is shown as a plump mature man,
Amenhotep Ill onwards. No doubt this change mirrors royal rather than as a youth striding forward, as is the case with
taste, as can be seen in the painted ceilings of Amenhotep the statue in the false-door of Mereruka (pi. X). T h e image is
s t u V III's palace at Malqata and the later changes that are so reminiscent of the 'Reserve Heads' found in the M emphite
apparent at Tell el-Amarna. Birds, butterflies and plants cemeteries and the truncated statue of An khhaf from Giza.
appear (TT6, 30, 31, 49, 65, 159), as do ox-heads supporting Squatting statues appear in the tomb of Ankhmare
1 15 Friezes developed overtime, with simple coloured borders appearing throughout Egyptian history:
11 11 I I 11 n 11 11 11 the sun disk and separated by spirals, akin to the motif (G 7837+7843).129 Certain false-doors from the Abu Sir/
a. Ptahhotep i (Saqqara D62: late 5th Dynasty); b. Mereruka (Saqqara: early 6th Dyri~sty); c. lb1(De1r ei-
found at the palace of Amenhotep Ill at M alqata. Saqqara area show fully frontal standing im ages of the
Gebrawi 8: 6th Dynasty); d. Baqet i (Beni Hasan BH-XXIX: I Ith Dynasty); e. Baqet Jll (Ben1Hasan BH-XV:
11th Dynasty);f lnyotefiqer (TI60:t. Senwosret I); g. Netjernakhte (Beni Hasan BH-XXIII: 12th Dynasty); h. Unfortunately few preserved ceilings have been found from deceased em erging from the door portion of the false-door
Khnumhotep iii (Beni Hasan BH-111: 12th Dynasty); i- j. Ukhhotep (Meir C I:t. Senwosret 11); k. Djehutynakhte other N ew Kingdom cemcteries, so it is difficult to (e.g. that ofNetjernefer, now in Cairo).' 30 Engaged statues in
vi (De1r ei-Bersha 1: early 12th Dynasty); I. Puiemre (TI39:t.Thutmose Ill); m. Qenamun (TI93:t. determine if this tradition varied in other locations. the rock-cut tombs at El-Hamamiya h ave offering basins cut
Amenhotep 11); n. Djeserkeresonbe (TI38:t.Thutmose IV); o.Amenhotep-sise (TI75: t.Thutmose IV); p-~
into the chapel floor near the statues so that the offering
Nebamun (TI90: t.Thutmose IV/Amenhotep Ill); s. Nebamun & lpuky (TI 181 :t.Amenhotep 111/IV);t. Huy
(TI40: t.Tutankhamen); u. Userhat (TISI: t. Sety I); v-w. Nefersekheru (TI296: 19th Dynasty). focus was constructed together with the rest of the chapel. 'J'
C learly the Old Kingdom was a time for experimentati on.
w

I
I· 126 THE DECORAT IO N OF THE TOMB
T HE DECORAT I O N O F T H E TOM B 127
 Engaged statuary is common ly found in the Middle to appear on the heads of statues only from the 19th Dynasty Engaged statues of the deceased and various deities are
Kingdom rock-cut tombs of Middle Egypt. These, however, onwardss, although there might be a few random especially popular in tombs of the Graeco-Roman Period.
tend to be seated rather than standing. For the most part occurrences prior to that time, e.g. TT49). There the deceased is generally shown in a conventional
they are located in the small cult room at the back of the In the Ramesside Period statues of (generally) seated standing position, as well as reclining. This tradition is
tomb, deep in the cliff. gods also appear (e.g. TTw, 23, 32, w6, 263, 296), complem ented by the Hellenistic tradition of funerary busts.
New Kingdom tombs containe d this genre of statuary, frequently taking the central position, with engaged
although in Thebes it was more common in the Ramesside statues of the deceased and his family carved on walls Fu nerary Books' 32
Period than the earlier part of that era, which favoured free- that were at right angles to the central axis. Usually the
standing statues, sometim es placed in especially construc ted deity featured is Osiris, often flanked by two goddesses. Pyram id Texts

niches, over the engaged variety (e.g. TT71, which shows the This god even appears on the tomb fa<;:ade in the Ramesside The Pyramid Texts represen t the oldest known Egyptian
tomb-ow ner and his royal ward and in TTwo) . One of the Pseriod (e.g. TT26, TT35, TT41, TT158, TTq8, TT263, corpus of religious texts. They do not form a continuo us
reasons for this might be the relationship between the etc.). A few tombs, such as TT356 and TT296, also narrative, but comprise over 700 individu al elements.
location of the earlier tombs and the quality of the rock. contain images ofOsiris , that mirror the images found While all relate to the posthum ous destiny of the dead king,
Certainly this statue type was very common at el-Amarna. in the burial chamber s ofRames ses II (KV7) and his sons they contain many divergent or even blatantly contradi ctory
The statues appear not only in the tomb-ch apel proper, but (KV5) in the Valley of the Kings and are also found in the concepts , many of which were clearly of considerable
in its court (e.g. TT56, 66, 82, 123). They tend to be located Saite TT33 and 34- A few tombs even have Osiride pillars antiquity even at the time they were first inscribed, on the I 18 Detail of t he Pyram id Texts in t he substructu re of t he pyramid of
in niches cut into the deeper and more sacred part of the (TT157, 156). walls of the pyramid ofUnas at Saqqara. Many spells speak Unas at Saqqara (5th Dynasty).

tomb, facing the entrance , as they are the focus of the cult. One particularly Ramesside image, found in tombs of of the king joining the gods in the sky and journeyi ng with
Texts of the hetep-di-nesu formula jostle with Opening -of- that era both at Thebes (TT387) and at the tomb of the sun god across the sky. that bridge the gap between the royal-focused Pyramid
the-Mou th texts, as the latter might have been carried out Netjerwymose at Saqqara (Bubasteion I.16) show the In the burial chamber s of the pyramid s of the late Old Texts and later compilations, such as the Book of the Dead.
on these engaged images during key religious festivals. Hathor cow protectin g the image ofRames ses II. T his Kingdom the spells are organized for the convenie nce of the They are usually found on the interiors of coffins, but also
Subtle stylistic changes, as well as changes in dress and focused part of the tomb's cultic activity on the king, rather dead king. Those around the sarcophagus chamber protect occur on canopic chests, papyri and other items of funerary
adornme nt help in dating these statues (e.g. fat cones tend than the tomb-owner. the body of the king, while the north wall of the sarcophagus equipme nt.
chamber is inscribed with the Offering Ritual with libation, The Coffin Texts by no means form a consisten t set of
I 17 Anonymo us females stand as rock-cut statues in the O ld K1ngdom tomb
of Meresankh Ill at Giza. censing, Opening -of-the-M outh, provisions for a meal and formulae, spells, prayers and other elements, varying in
his toilet, all things necessary for the king's renewed content from site to site and even between coffins within
existence. The antecham ber and corridor spells are written the same burial. For example, coffins from Deir el-Bersha
so that the king's spirit can use these to aid his passage to the feature a composi tion known as the Book ofTwo Ways,
next world: the king emerges from the underwo rld (duat) which includes what is in essence an annotated plan of the
and gains access to the gateway of Nun, with the texts underwo rld. The idea of providin g the deceased with
relating to his travelling through the pre-dawn sky. Thus the intelligence needed to successfully attain the next world runs
king goes from the sarcophagus chamber, equivalent to the through many parts of the Coffin Texts, a feature that
Duat, located in the west, eastwards to the akhetor horizon continue s on into many later funerary compilations.
between dawn and night and out through the north, where
his soul was guided by the north star to the heavens, where Book of the Dead
he became an akh. '33 More correctly called the 'Book of Coming Forth by Day',
Subsequ ent to the Old Kingdom , the Pyramid Texts are this composi tion is first found during the Second
fo und in private contexts as well and feed into many of the Intermed iate Period and starts to become common in the
subseque nt funerary texts. They undergo somethin g of a 18th Dynasty, particularly under Thutmos e III. Initially
resurrection during the Saite Period, when they appear in restricted to private contexts, certain parts are found in royal
fairly pure form in many tombs. tombs from the time ofMeren ptah. As with the Pyramid
Texts, it does not form single narrative, but has spells which
C offin Texts
allow the deceased to prevail through the various ordeals that
Although not generally inscribed on the walls of tombs, the face him or her on the way to face the judgmen t of Osiris and
Coffin Texts form an importan t corpus of mortuary material undergo the various transformations required by the spirit.

THE DECOR A T I O N O F T H E TOMB 129

 Ramesses IV (KV2). Only parts were generally used in and KVn. As preserved in the last three tombs, it relates
the 2oth Dynasty, the fullest versions being in the Sety how Re resolved to destroy humanity, but changed his mind
cenotaph, the tomb ofRamesses VI (KV9) and in the after his Eye (H athor) had begun the mission. To stop the
Saite TT33 . Once again, the Caverns is concerned with blood-crazed goddess, red ochre is mixed with beer and
the sun's nightly voyage, but with greater prominence given spread over the world. Hathor drinks this, thinking it to
to O siris. be blood and becomes too drunk to complete her work.
The rest of the Book (the only part found in KV62)
Book ofthe Earth: Parts of what became this book are seen for comprises complex explanations of the origins of deities,
the first time in the tomb ofMerenptah (KV8), the fullest places and customs.
version being found in Ramesses VI's burial chamber in
KV9. The basic concepts are similar to the Caverns, Curses
altho ugh a journey through the body of the earth god Aker
is now incorporated . Tombs were carved and decorated to protect the deceased's
soul and body. In addition to the practical measures of
Litany of Re:The first elements of the Litany, which is wholly closing and guarding the tomb, religious means were also
unrelated to the structure of the other Books of the used in the form of apotropaic tomb decoration and 'curses'.
underworld, appear in KV34 and TT61. From the 19th Contrary to popular belief, curses were not overly common
Dynasty it becomes the standard decoration of the outer in tombs and when they appeared, they were clearly not that
part of royal tombs. It also has quite extensive use during the terrifYing, as most Egyptian tombs were looted in antiquity.
Late Period. The text begins with the repeated invocation of The 'curse' texts that do appear generally promise
the sun god in his various forms, after which the inhabitan ts punishment for desecration in a fairly standard manner, as
of the netherworld are exhorted to prepare the way for the can be found in the mastaba ofKhentika-I khekhi at Saqqara
deceased in the following of Re. (6th D ynasty):

All who enter my tomb in an impure state, having eaten

Book of the Divine Cow: This composition stands apart from
abominations ... they shall not be pure to enter into [it] or
the true Books of the underworld in being in part a
there will be judgment against them in the Council of gods
I 19 The fourth hour of the Amduat text was found in royal burial chambers of the 18th Dynasty- and of one private
person (tomb of mythological narrative, but is found in KV62, KVq, KV7
. .. I shall seize his neck like a bird . .. I shall put fear of
Thutmose Ill: KV34).
myself in him ... so that the living may fear those who go
120 Portions of the Book of the Earth, showing different forms of t he to the West .. . .
During its development, the Book of the Dead acquired Book ofAmduat: First found in the tomb ofHatshepsu t sun god and other divinities, in t he tomb of Ramesses VI (KV9: 20th
vignettes to accompany many of its spells and these (KV2o) and shortly afterwards in those ofThutmose Ill Dynast y). At Giza, the tomb of the Overseer Petety contains a similar
frequently appear as part of tomb decoration as well as the (KV34)- and most unusually the Vizier User (TT61) - the curse, which is intensified in his wife's tomb. She threatens
bare text. One of the more popular ones is the image of a Amduat describes and illustrates the journey of the sun god the violator of the tomb with being attacked by crocodiles
pair oflions, back-to-back. These represent yesterday and through the twelve hours of the night. and hippopotami in the water and serpents and scorpions on
tomorrow, spanning significant lengths of time between land. Tutankhamun's tomb was rep uted to contain a clay
worlds. Others include images of the sun god as a cat killing Book of Gates:The earliest example of the Gates is found in tablet inscribed with a curse, but there is no evidence for its
the serpent Apophis and scenes of gods and demi-gods the tomb ofHoremheb (KV57). It has a similar structure to existence, the whole story having been apparently made up
questioning the deceased. the Amduat, but gives a more significant role to the king and by journalists soon after the tomb's discovery. As one might
also, uniquely for one of the Books of the underworld, point out, had the tomb been cursed, Howard Carter, the
Books of the Underworld incorporates a scene of the judgment hall ofOsiris. The king tomb's excavator, would surely have been struck down
These texts originate in New Kingdom royal tombs, is not, however, subject to judgment here. immediately, rather than over a decade-and-a-halflater
although elements subsequently became incorporated into (in 1939). Moreover, the anatomist Douglas Derry, who
private sepulchres as well. They are mainly concerned with Book of Caverns: Introduced under Merenptah in the dismembered the mummy to examine it, lived on for a
the sun's nocturnal journey and rebirth, in which the dead cenotaph ofSety I at Abydos (the Osirion: p. 256) , the three and a half decades, dying in his 87th year, having
would participate. Principal examples are as follows: first use on the walls of an actual royal tomb comes under been working in his garden until the previous day!

130 T H E DECO RAT I O N OF T HE TO MB THE D ECOR A TIO N OF T H E TO M B 131

 Part Ill

Chapter 6 Predynastic and Early Dynastic Periods

The centuries surrounding the unification of Egypt at the two compartments by a wall. Amongst these is the first-
beginning of the Ist Dynasty saw the transition from simple known decorated tomb in Egypt, Hierakonpolis 100. '34 The
graves in the sand to elaborate stone-built monuments with mud-brick walls of the tomb were covered with a layer of
substructures cut in the living rock. They thus laid the mud plaster and then by a coat of yellow ochre. Only one
foundations for the outstanding achievements of the wall was wholly covered with decoration, although hints of
succeeding Old Kingdom. decorated areas survive on the other walls. A dado separated
the decorated from the undecorated zone. T he scenes
PREDYNASTIC PERI OD depicted therein contain elements of what later became part
of the Egyptian iconographic canon, such as hunting,
The burial places of the Predynastic Period are generally very smiting enemies and a series of bound prisoners. The overall
simple and marked by little more than low mounds of sand theme depicted is one of combat and victory, perhaps
or gravel above the burial pit. The latter comprised a images that fo reshadow the victory of maat over chaos. T he
scooped hole in the desert gravel, in which the flexed corpse majority of the scenes show hunting through various means,
was laid on its side, surrounded by various possessions. combat between humans and scenes of boats. The battle
Graves of the Badarian and Naqada I Periods are generally depictions might reflect actual historical struggles or perhaps
oval or circular, with the body placed in a foetal pose, often were merely stereotypical images of martial prowess. Such
wrapped in goat skins or mats and facing east, with the head scenes of overt hostility between individuals were not the
to the south . Funerary equipment is largely restricted to norm in Egyptian funerary art.
pottery vessels, together with some examples of ivory and Hierakonpolis appears to have been the focus for the
bone combs, slate palettes and perhaps pottery figurines. grouping of southern Egyptian polities that seem to have
By Naqada 11, the design of the grave becomes more begun to coalesce around 3300 BC. Later chieftains moved
rectangular, with the locations of the more plentiful and their cemetery of brick-lined tombs z km (I Y. miles) to the
varied funerary equipment more standardized. However, the
orientation of the body is generally reversed to face west, in
122 (opposite) Osiris as shown on a wall of the burial chamber of
historic times the location of the home of the dead. The
SennedJem at Deir ei-Medina (TI I : 19th Dynasty. reign of Sety 1).
head remained at the south end. T he graves are sometimes
elaborated with wooden linings and roofs, while some very 12 1 (above) D rawing of part of the main decorat ed wall of
high-status examples are lined with brick and divided into tomb I 00 at H ierako npolis (Cairo Museum).

PREDY N AS T IC A N D EARLY DY N AS T IC PERIODS 133

 Cemetery U

124-5 View and plan of the Umm e i-Qaab cemetery at Abydos, the
burial place of Egypt 's earliest kings.

constructed directly above the roof of the substructure,

perhaps representing the primeval mound upon which the
Creator first manifested himself when the mound emerged
from the waters of Chaos. ' 37 This mound may not have been
visible above the ground surface and the only certain
markers of the tomb were a pair of stelae, each bearing the
name of the king, between which were presumably placed
offerings to the dead king's spirit.
123 Reconstructed burial of a naturally-mumm ified male of t he Naqada 11Period, from Ge belein (BM EA3275 1). In addition to these modest memorials back in the
desert, a new element was added from the reign ofHor-Aha
west of tomb 100, up the Wadi Abu'l-Suffian, where had former lies at Umm el-Qaab; now designated U-j, it dates in the fo rm of large rectangular brick enclosures nearly 2 km
lain an earlier (Naqada I) cemetery. The tombs here were to perhaps up to a century prior to the unification of
considerably larger than earlier examples and occupied areas Egypt.'l6 T he tomb measures 9.1 x 7·3 m (30 x 24ft) and
probably belonged to a ruler whose name is written with a 126 The earliest
of between 9 and 22 sq . m (100- 240 sq. ft).'l5 One tomb,
stelae marking burials
number 23 ofNaqada Ila/b date, is the largest of its date drawing of a scorpion (King 'Scorpion' I) . It comprises a
were ve ry simple
anywhere in Egypt and preserved traces of a superstructur e dozen rooms, including a large burial chamber; material round-t opped stones
of wood and reeds. It is entirely possible that other such recovered included an ivory sceptre (or adze handle?), a with the name ofthe
superstructure s existed, although they have not survived. wooden shrine and examples of some of the very earliest deceased (here
Tombs with very similar substructures lie in Cemetery known hieroglyphs in Egypt. Queen Meryetneith)
carved in bas relief
U at Abydos. They form part of the Umm el-Qaab
(CM JE34450: Ist
necropolis, first used in Naqada IIIIa times, with elite EARLY DYN AST IC PER IOD
Dynasty). BI0/1 5/19 HorAha
tombs beginning in Naqada Ild2 and running through until I st D yna sty Bl7/ 18 Narmer
0 Djer
historic times. These were almost certainly the tombs of the P Peribsen
men whose immediate descendants would unite the country Superstructur es Q Q aa
T Den
for the first time. Roya/Tombs:The tombs of the earliest kings at Umm
U Semerkhet
T he succeeding Naqada Ill culture saw a more general el-Q aab at Abydos preserve limited evidence regarding U-j 'Scorpion' I
their superstructures. What stood directly above the V Khasekhemwy
elaboration of burial places, the rectangular fo rm now
XAdJib
becoming standard. There was also far greater distinction burial chamber remains uncertain, as any structure had Y Me ryetneit h
between the sepulchres of the highest status individuals and been destroyed before the first scientific excavation took Z Djet

those oflesser folk. One of the most impressive of the place. However, it appears that a low mound was

PREDYNAS T IC AN D EARLY DY N AS TI C PER IODS 135

134 PR EDYNAST IC AND EAR LY DYN AST IC PERIODS
(1 Y. miles) away, close to the desert edge.'J8The outer walls IQ] IQ] IQ IQ] IQ]
Substructures The royal tombs and their great mortuary enclosures
IQ] IQ
of these mortuary complexes were decorated with brick
panelling and at least some had a small chapel in the
[l] ' [l]
Royal Tombs: T he design of the sepulchral chambers of the
royal tombs at Umm el-Qaab followed the earlier pattern of
being brick-lined cuttings in the desert gravel, roofed with
were surrounded by smaller brick-lined compartments, used
for the burial of minor members of the royal household.
southeast quadrant. They may have contained temporary From their positions, some had certainly been occupied at
ritual buildings - although no traces of post-holes have been 101 [)] wood. The substructure ofHor-Aha (Bwh 5h9) took the the same time as the king had been interred; in other cases,
identified- and formed the prototypes for a long series of form of three roughly equal separate compartments, but by this is less clear. Comparable instances of the king's followers
royal mortuary chapels that continued through the New 10] 101 the next reign, a basic standard had been established . The dying with their monarch are known in a n umber of
Kingdom and beyond. On the other hand, the enclosures do I I
sepulchre ofDjer (tomb 0) was approximately square, with cultures, but in Egypt are restricted to the Early D ynastic
R IQ IQ [g) IQ IQ IQ IQ
not seem to have been intended as permanent monuments, a wooden central chamber surrounded on three sides by Period, in particular the middle years of the Ist Dynasty,
as at least some show signs of having been dismantled within store-rooms. A major step forward came with the tomb of after which their numbers decline rapidly.
a fairly short time of the funeral. a·.:::::·.::·.::~ Den (T). Earlier tombs had no means of access other than It appears that the interiors of the royal tombs may have
Twelve wooden boats, found in individual mud-brick through the roof of the substructure; that of Den, however, been adorned with patterned reed mats hung on their walls,
tombs, appear to have been associated with the enclosure
1J' u- added an entrance stairway, together with a sliding portcullis fragmentary remnants of which survived.'42 Doubtless, such
ofDjer, third ruler of theIst D ynasty.'J9 Actual boats are slab. T his was further elaborated under Q aa, last king of the mats were hung on the walls of houses at that time, just as
intermittently associated with royal burials until the Middle dynasty, with store chambers opening off the descending they are in Egypt today, thus stressing the identity of the
Kingdom. stairway of his tomb Q. tomb as the eternal house for the deceased's spirit.

Private Tombs: Analogous panelled monuments were also

being built as parts of the sepulchres constructed for great
officials at Saqqara, near the new capital at Memphis.
H owever, here they lay directly above the burial chambers,
the first manifestation of the 'mastaba' . Within the mastaba,
a mound was erected directly above the burial chamber,
in at least one case with a stepped casing. Private tombs
thus combined the two separate Abydene elements in one
monument. ---:-.·------------·······-·:·····:
The earliest such superstructures, at Naqada and --4 ·-==""""~

Saqqara, '4° have a thick, panelled outer retaining wall,

within which was constructed a network of lower walls
delimiting wood-roofed store-chambers. Rubble was 127 Plans and cross-sections of large private t ombs of the I st
subsequently piled atop the roofs up to the level of the Dynasty at 5aqqara: 53503 (unknown:t 1me of Queen Meryetne1th)
and 53505 (Merka: reign of Horus Qaa).
retaining walls. T he full roofing of the tomb could not be
carried out until the burial had taken place, since the earlier
tombs lack any form of entrance other than through the roof of the dynasty, into the reign of Qaa, that a stela is to be
of the burial chamber. Funerary equipmen t was stored in fo und at an elite tomb at Saqqara (S3505). It shows the
both the sub- and superstructures. tomb-owner, Merka, seated, with his name and tides carved
Probably owing to concerns as to the security of the above him.14' This was embedded in the southern niche on
above-ground magazines, later Ist Dynasty superstructures the tomb's east side, a location that became standard for
became devoid of chambers and comprised a thick brick mastaba offering places.
outer section enclosing a mass of rubble; funerary In addition, the tomb had an extensive building at its
equipment was thus now restricted to the substructure. T he northern end, which preserved the feet of a pair of statues,
problem of admission to the latter was solved by adding a the earliest evidence for cult-figures in an Egyptian tomb.
stairway accessed externally from the tomb's east side. Although the plan of the building anticipates some aspects
Little is known about the offering arrangements at the of the 3rd Dynasty mortuary temple ofDjoser, there are no 128 The tomb of Den at Umm ei-Qaab (T) is the first royal tomb to have an entrance stairway, allowing the superstructure (of unknown fo rm)
earliest ISt Dynasty private tombs. It is not until the very end known parallels from the Early Dynastic Period. to be completed prior to t he king's interment.

136 PRED YNAS T IC AND EARLY D YNAS T IC PERIODS PR EDYNAS T IC AN D EARLY DY NASTI C PE RI ODS 137
Private Tombs: Private tombs also grow in size and elaboration there a major step forward in the architecture of the royal in fact illusory, as the ancient approach to the cemetery was
during the 1st Dynasty. The smaller tombs continue Naqada tomb, but the number of high-status tombs known increases alo ng a wadi from the northwest. From this direction, the
Ill norms, with wood and brick linings and wooden roofs greatly, with a new cemetery established at Abu Rowash enclosures lie en route to the royal tombs.
and sometimes one or more subsidiary chambers behind (Cemetery M), '44 and others atAbu Sir and Helwan. The While the Gisr el-Mudir is stone-built, the other example
partition walls. An alternative approach, also beginning latter necropolis included a vast number of tombs of the (known as the 'L-shaped Enclosure') is composed of desert
in Naqada Ill, comprises a shaft culminating in a chamber middle and upper levels of Early Dynastic Period society. gravel scraped up to form embankments. It is likely to be the
cut into the side. The opening of the chamber was closed A number of the tombs have tunnelled substructures, while earlier of the two, on the basis of both its constructio n and
with wattle, brick or stone and this tomb type marks stone-lining is a feature of three tombs of the 1st Dynasty its position. This would seem to have placed any
the beginning of a long series of such shaft graves in at Helwan.'45T his marks important progress in the southeastern entrance in line with a rock-cutting that runs
I 30 (left) Stela from the
locations where the local geology permitted structures architectural developmen t of private tombs, albeit east-west and defines a platform upon and within which the lost tomb of King Reneb
of this form. representing less than 0.05 per cent of the burial places tom bs ofHotepsek hemwy and Ninetjer were built. (MMA 60.144: 2nd
The substructures of the sepulchres of the great officials at the site. Although Saqqara had now been established as the royal Dynasty).

were also originally open brick-lined and wood-roofe d cemetery for over a century, the sixth king of the dynasty,
I3 I (below) T he Shunet
cuttings; funerary equipment was stored in the sub- and 2ND DY NASTY Peribsen, abruptly abandoned it in favour of the ancient
ei-Zebib, t he funerary
superstructures. However, changes appear with the ending necropolis ofUmm el-Qaab at Abydos. Like the earlier enclosure of King
Superstruct ures tombs there, the superstruct ure of his tomb is totally
of the practice of placing store-rooms in the superstruct ure Khasekhemw y at Abydos
and the addition of an access stairway on the east side of the Royal Tombs: At the beginning of the 2nd Dynasty, the royal obliterated, only the pair of stelae that had Banked the (2nd D ynasty).

tomb. Where the stone was suitable, as at Saqqara, some or cemetery moved from the ancestral Umm el-Qaab to
all of the substructur e might be tunnelled, rather than cut as Saqqara, albeit to a location remote from the noble cemetery
an open pit. Further refinements included the addition of a that had begun early in the 1st Dynasty. The superstruct ure
portcullis-block in the descending passage and on occasion a of the Saqqara tomb ofHotepsek hemwy, founder of the
degree of decoration, for example the tides of the deceased 2nd D ynasty, had been wholly demolished when the 5th
on the lintel of the burial chamber in tomb S3506 of the Dynasty funerary complex of King Unas was erected on the
middle of the dynasty. 14l site. However, enough has been traced of that of N inetjer,
The reign of Den marks an important point in the lying 150 m (500 ft) due east, to show that it had two distinct
developme nt of Egyptian funerary practices. Not only was parts. The northern part seems to have been an open,
d ay-paved, court some 20 m (65ft) deep, lying above the
outer passages and chambers of the tomb. This was bordered
129 To mb 3504 at Saqqara, probably belo nging to SekhemkasedJ,
showing t he store rooms in t he super structure, and the wood-roofed
to the south by a rock 'step', which may mark the place
subst ructure (reign of Djet) . behind which rose the main part of the superstruct ure.146 It
is possible that a complete 2nd Dynasty royal superstructu re
survives a little to the north, where a huge (c. 400 x room
[1300 x 330 ft]) tripartite cased-rubbl e structure covers what
may be the tomb of a king of the dynasty. This building was
later incorporate d into the 3rd Dynasty Step Pyramid
complex.'47
The great rectangular enclosures that formed a key part
of the Abydene royal tombs may also be present at Saqqara,
albeit in a translated form. Two extremely large enclosures
lie to the west, in the desert behind the znd Dynasty royal
sepulchres. T he larger, known as the Gisr el-Mudir, covers
some 25 hectares (6o acres). Although they have not yet been
fully excavated, they have revealed material that suggests
that they are of the 2nd Dynasty.'48 Although apparently
behind, rather than in front of their associated tombs, this is

138 PR EDYNA ST IC A N D EARLY DYN ASTI C P ERIODS PREDYNA ST IC A N D EAR LY DY N A ST IC PER IOD S 139
 offering place survive. However, the second eleme nt of
the enclosure's subseq uent use as an ibis cemetery. The traces
s
king's tomb, the monum ental enclosure, can be traced close of one of these were for a time misint erprete d as the remain
alongside the 1st Dynas ty monum ents. The reason s behind of a brick-s heathe d mound .'"
s
Peribsen's move are obscure, but may be linked to tension
north and I 34 (left) Plan of the
ing his demise . Private Tombs: The idea of cult install ations at both
that led to civil war in the years follow took tomb of Hotepsekhemwy
The final king of the 2nd Dynasty, Khase khemw y, was south ends of the supers tructur e seen in Merka's tomb
a, at Saqqara (2nd Dynasty).
also interre d at Abydos: his monum ents are the bigges
t of on a standa rdized form in 2nd Dynasty tombs at Saqqar
each end of the eastern fa'rade . A
their respective types there. His funera ry enclos ure, known with a panell ed niche at 135 (below) Plan ofthe
today as the Shune t el-Zeb ib, is by far the best preserved
of good examp le, from the reign ofNin etjer, is the tomb of tomb of Peribsen at Umm
ed
its genre at Abydos. Its panelled walls still stand nearly
II m Ruabe n (S2302).1s0 Interestingly, the mastab a was enlarg ei-Qaab,Abydos (2nd
Dynasty).
(35 ft) above the desert surface and enclose an area of some during constr uction , the original niches being hidden
4,500 sq. m (48,oo o sq. ft). A small buildi ng, probab ly
a behind new brickw ork and fresh ones created on the new
ast quadra nt of front/fa'rade. Aroun d the end of the dynasty, these niches portcullises, lowere d on ropes from above throug h the
chapel, has long been known in the southe
in the began to develop into a crucifo rm shape, a typical feature supers tructur e. A substr ucture of the sam e type, but m uch
the enclosure, corres pondin g to a simila r structu re J
the of the succeeding 3rd D ynasty. The first databl e examp
le less regular and deeper, lay under the tom b ofNin etjer.'5
enclosure of Peribsen. Unlike earlier examp les, most of

I I
exterio r wall still survives, as do traces
togeth er with a series of basins of uncert
of buildin
ain use,
gs within
which
, is S3043, which contai ned a sealing ofKha sekhem wy,
king of the 2nd D ynasty. Panelled mastabas, albeit on a
last A sim ilar, but smaller, tomb was later adap ted as
substru cture of the late 18th D ynasty tomb ofMeryneith
the
I I I I
the much smalle r scale, are also found above tombs of this (H 9, p. 232);154like N inetjer's it had becom e a comm unal
might be intrusive 26th Dynas ty features associ ated with l
dynasty at Helwa n.1'1 catacom b in the Late Period. Unfor tunately, the origina
owner remains uncert ain, while anothe r rem arkabl e
The offerin g niches were increasingly equipp ed with
stelae showin g the tomb- owner in front of a table with complex of galleries, whose supers tructu re now lies under
offerings, the stela becom ing generally wider than it was the wester n side of the Step Pyram id com plex, has never
high and mount ed roughly at the eye-level of the viewer
. been properly cleared. However, they may represent the
Such 'slab-s telae' remain the basic eleme nts of tom b-chap el tom bs of the other 2nd D ynasty kings known from
decoration into the 4th Dynasty, when they becom e inscrib ed material to have been buried at Saqqara: Reneb
and Sened.
incorp orated into more elaborate false-door stelae.
T he Abydos burial place of Peribse n is wholly unlike
Substr ucture s these tunnel led tom bs and follows the basic pattern of rst single- roome d tombs were also built, althou gh generally
the
T he substru ctures of 2nd Dynas ty tombs are generally Dynasty royal tombs , built of brick and sunk in a pit in with a stair-entrance and a double-n iched supers tructur
e.

I 32 (right) Plan of the Shun et wholly differe nt from those of 1st Dynas ty tombs , featuri
ng desert surface . Similarly constr ucted is the underg round Such structu res are also fo und in such so uthern Egypti an
nt
ei-Zebib, Abydos . compl ex tunnel led constr uction , rather than the extens ive tomb ofKhasekhem wy, although its form is wholly differe cem eteries as N aga el-Deir. In these, however, corbelled

~ i'l
and is by far of
open trench ing seen earlier. One of the best examples is from that of earlier Abydene royal sepulc hres roofing is someti mes found in the substr ucture in place
I 33 (below) The 2nd Dynasty
Ruabe n's S2302, whose burial compl ex is approached by
a the largest, being no less than 68 m (225ft) long, by 12 m woode n roofs, needed where a fully-t unnell ed burial
tomb of Ruaben (52302: reign (40 ft) broad. Yet these dimen sions are insigni ficant compl ex was not possible.
of Ninetje r). stairway and has no fewer than 18 chamb ers. It has been
suggested that som e of these were intend ed to replicate compared to those of the tomb of Hotep sekhemwy, whose The H elwan necrop olis contin ued in use through the
elements of a house, includ ing a latrine .''' The body appear
s substru cture occupies an area of 123 x 49 m (400 x r6o ft). 2nd and 3rd D ynasties and includ ed the burials of a numbe
r

to have been placed in the room at the right-h and side of the On the other hand, the rows of store chamb ers that are of royal children . Designs range from simple stairway tombs
last vestibule of the tomb, the whole sepulc hre being such a feature of both sepulc hres clearly suggest a to more elabor ate structu res, including a handfu l of stone-
s
protec ted by two portcullises.
commo nality of concep t. lined mon uments. Certai n tom bs confor med to a curiou
Such elabor ate substru ctures are also found in the royal Most Saqqa ra private tombs of the 2nd D ynasty ten ded design in which a narrow shaft, parallel to the m ain one, led
albeit
tombs of the new dynasty. Comp ared with the fairly simple to follow the patterns seen in the sepulc hre ofRua ben, down throug h the ceiling of the burial cham ber, at which

Umm el-Qaa b tomb of Qaa, that ofHot epsekh emwy has

a on a more modes t scale. Distin ctive features are a m ulti- point a stela showing the deceased in front of a table of
in a
slopin g passageway that leads to an extrem ely complex
series room tunnel led substr ucture, approached by a stairw ay offerin gs was placed . Other tombs had stelae placed on
the
mastab a. Of course , in le in tomb 480
of galleries and chamb ers. The outer passag eways were trench cut in the top of a two-ni ched west side of the burial chamb er, for examp
smalle r
roofed with limestone blocks and protec ted by stone additio n to such relatively elaborate monum ents, and tomb 8I0.155

PER IODS 14 1
PREDY NAS T I C AND EARLY D YNA ST IC
C PE RI ODS
140 PR ED Y N A ST IC AN D EA R LY D Y N ASTI
Chapt er 7 The Old Kingdom

137 (above) Reconstru ct ion of the Step Pyramid complex at Saqqara, of the enclosure and was topped with what became the
revealing the earliest phases of the central monumen t lowest of the six steps of a pyramid . The reasons behind
this transform ation remain unknown , but the result
138 (below) The ent rance colonnade of the Step Pyramid complex,
opening from the left-hand end of the eastern e nclosure wall in t he formed the first link in a chain of pyramids that, large
same way that the chapel of a mastaba o pened fro m the and small, would be built along the Nile for the n ext
corresponding end ofthe mastaba's eastern fa~ade . three millennia.
embrace a wide range of forms, with their purposes the Against the inner face of the southern enclosure wall
The Old Kingdom marked the consolid ation of the
subject of much debate. Many of their columns and lies a long, narrow, limestone mastaba, decorate d with the
Egyptian state following civil war towards the end of the 2nd
architectural details were clearly modelled directly from niched palace fa<;:ade motif and surmoun ted by a row of
Dynasty. It was also the pivotal epoch for the evolution of
wood and other plant prototypes. It seems clear that these uraei on the east side, perhaps to greet the rising sun. Known
the Egyptian tomb. During this time, all the classic forms of
structures are linked with the rituals of kingship , including as the 'South Tomb', this structure is the prototyp e for a
Egyptian sepulchre came into existence, as did their modes
the heb-sedjubilee and might be a skeuomo rph of buildings long series of such miniature sepulchres, in this case with a
of decoratio n, producin g monuments that continue to
associated with this ritual that existed at the capital city central chamber too sm all to hold a body. Later topped by
define the popular perceptio n of ancient Egypt.
of Memphi s. The heb-sedwas a ritual associated with the small pyramids , these subsidiary tombs always lie to the
renewal of kingship, indicating that the king would south of the main pyramid or its temple and are of obscure
3RD DYNAS TY
continuo usly renew his rulership and dominio n over Egypt significance. None of the suggestions for their use are
Superstr uctures througho ut eternity. convincing; for example, the proposal that they were
Little decoratio n survives from these buildings. T he few intended for the royal viscera is disproved by the large
Royal Tombs: The great innovati on of the 3rd Dynasty was the
carved motifs adorning the buildings include kheker friezes number of pyramids that have both a subsidiary pyramid
construc tion of the very first pyramid: Djoser's Step
and djed pillars, symbolic of Osiris and the union of the and also a canopic chest in the main burial chamber. A
Pyramid at Saqqara, the earliest monume ntal stone building
dead king with that god. In addition , a number of items of cenotaph alluding to the king as ruler of the south as well as
in the world.•56 It took the mud-bri ck panelled enclosure of
statuary were placed with in the complex, most of them the north of the country has also been suggested, bur with
the Shunet el-Zebib and transform ed it into stone. Likewise
carved from the block against which they appeared to stand. no accompa nying evidence.
transform ed were the tempora ry buildings that may have
It is not known if any of the buildings within the complex The patterns established by Djoser were followed during
been placed within the Shunet,' 57 to judge from the way in
were painted, as no vestiges of paint remain. the immedia tely subsequent reigns.'58 However, while
which many of the Step Pyramid's buildings imitate organic
Aside from the sheer scale of the Step Pyramid complex stepped pyramids continue d in use until the early years of
materials. The royal burial apartmen ts and the mound above
-at 15 hectares (35 acres), it covers 360 per cent of the Shunet the next dynasty, the great rectangu lar enclosures are no
them were moved into the centre of the enclosure, thus
el-Zebib's area, although only 6o per cent of that of the Gisr longer certainly attested beyond the middle of the 3rd, the
combini ng the elements previously found separated in royal
el-Mudir - and the massive embrace of stone technology, latest certain example being Sekhemk het's, which covers
tombs, both at Abydos and Saqqara. The mound was
the most radical innovatio n oflmhotep, Djoser's architect, IO hectares (25 acres). Sekhemk het's likely predecessor,
regularized into a square stone structure.
concerned the burial place itself. It was placed in the middle Sanakhte, may h ave reverted to brick for a little-kno wn
T he size of the stone blocks employe d in the Step
enclosure at Abu Rowash, known as El-Deir. It measures
Pyramid complex clearly recalls those of mud-bri cks,
136 (above) Doorjambs from the rock-cut tomb of Debhen at Giza 330 x 170 m (ro8o x 560 ft), with a 20 m (65 ft)-square
marking its place close to the beginnin g of the history of
(LG90: late 4th Dynasty). central massif of the same material. '59
stone masonry. T he buildings included within the enclosure

TH E O LD KI NGDOM 143
142 T H E OLD KINGD O M
I 39 T he huge mastaba K I at Be it Khallaf, dating to the reign of Djoser

The size of the blocks used to build pyramid complexes hitherto-unknow n features. Originally, its cult installation
increases over time, although the last ruler of the dynasty, comprised two panelled niches in the northern part of the
Huni, seems to have switched back to mud-brick for his east face. However, these were replaced by a new, wholly
sepulchre. He has been tentatively identified as the owner of panelled, fac,:ade, enclosed by a wooden roof and a curtain
the Brick Pyramid at Abu Rowash, a monument intended to wall opposite it, thus forming a narrow corridor and entered
be some 215 m (700 ft) square- as big as the much better-
known Second Pyramid at G iza. However, it may never have
140 Plan and sectio n of the tomb of Hesyre (52405: reign of Djoser);
been completed: the last remnants of brick were removed in t he final fo rm of the t o mb was the result of a series of enlargements
the 19th century, leaving nothing more than the rock core.'60 t hat seems t o have been common w ith tombs of the ear ly O ld
Kingdom.

Private Tombs: Brick mastabas continued to be the favoured

form of private tomb-marker, although a panelled exterior 141 View of the tomb of H esyre under excavation; t he 'corrido r' in the centre is the walled-in original fa~ade w ith t he wooden panels.
gradually fell out of use. A group of tombs at Beit Khallaf,
north of Abydos, dating to the reigns ofDjoser and
Sanakhte, include two gigantic plain mastabas, Kr and K2, by a doorway at its southern end. The panelled niches were the first, with access via a group of antechambers at the
whose dimensions once led to suggestions that they might made of the same mud-brick as the rest of the mastaba and southern end.
actually be the burial places of these monarchs.• 6• The plastered and painted with various geometric patterns in Although internally elaborate, the exterior ofHesyre's
identities of the true owners remain uncertain, but they may bright colours. Embedded in the back of each niche was a tomb seems to have been plain, except probably for a coat of
have been of the local gubernatorial class - or possibly of the wooden panel, bearing an image in raised relief of the whitewash, as were most sepulchres of the dynasty. However,
royal family.' 62 Their construction employs solid mud-brick, deceased, of which the six southernmost survive (pl. XIII) . examples of the old fully panelled mastaba exterior are still
rather than the rubble core faced with brick, as had been The opposite wall of the corridor was also plastered and found, a good example being tomb Tat Giza. No special
the case with the earliest mastabas. Solid brickwork had painted with framed images of domestic items set against a offering place is identifiable, but the 'corridor-chapel' of the
appeared in the 2nd Dynasty and became common in the background imitating matting. As well as such objects as type found in S2405 was used in a n umber of other tombs of
3rd, although both techniques survived alongside one furniture, barrels and gaming items, the outer corridor also the 3rd Dynasty and early 4th D ynasty, both at Saqqara and
another into the late Old Kingdom. Nothing of the cult boasted images of people and animals, creating a unique elsewhere, an example of the latter being R7o at Reqaqna.•64
elements of the Beit Khallaf tombs is known, but at ensemble. Two most interesting tombs at the former site are S3518 and
Saqqara a number of new approaches are to be seen in the T he preservation of the paintings and wooden panels S3073, belonging respectively to an anonymous noble of
contemporary tomb ofHesyre (S2405).• 6J owed much to a further change of plan that resulted in the Djoser's reign and Khabausokar who lived around the end of
Like many tombs of the era, S2405's superstructure had corridor being entirely filled with solid mud-brick. Another the dynasty.' 65 Both show developments in the form of the
undergone a number of alterations and includes some corridor, with only two niches, was constructed parallel with offering place, S3518 having a remarkably com plex chapel at

144 THE OLD K IN GDO M THE OL D KI NGD OM 145

. i

South Tomb. Their adornment featured simulacra of reed

mats formed of faience tiles set into limestone, carved in the
form of the rope that held the reeds together. Some of the
rooms also had additional decoration in the form of carved
doorjambs and lintels and limestone djed pillars. Most
impressively, one room had carved limestone panels set into
the walls depicting the pharaoh running the heb-sed race -
I\ the first depiction of a king in the substructure of a tomb
and the last until the middle of the 18th Dynasty, over a
millennium later.
This part of the substructure is clearly the final
142 (above) Tomb S3518, pot ential ly the tomb of lmhotep, architect development of the znd Dynasty concept of including
of the Step Pyram id. rooms imitating the deceased's home in his tomb, while the
inlaid imitation of matting on the walls presumably recalled
14 3 (/eft) A wooden panel from the tomb of Hesyre. Such items
were probably a more common feature of Egyptian tombs than t he
the 1st Dynasty tombs at Abydos. These rooms make the
current level of preservation would suggest (CM CG 1426: 3rd Step Pyramid unique amongst royal tombs of the first
Dynasty).

the southern end of the mastaba, plus a southern niche of

cruciform shape. In view of its complexity and massive size
(52 x 19 m [170 x 6oft]), the tomb clearly belonged to a
particularly prominent member of the court, conceivably
the great lmhotep, architect of the Step Pyramid, whose 144 (above) Image ofDJoser taking part in the heb-sedfestival, from
orientation it shares. one of the t iled rooms under h1s South Tomb; the tiles (see also
pi. XIV) imitate hangings of mats.
Khabausokar's mastaba includes a niched corridor very
similar to Hesyre's, but has a pair of cruciform chapels
opening from it, into the core of the mastaba. The central
niche of each was stone-lined and decorated in relief, thus
initiating a move away from simple stelae to far more
elaborate carved decoration. The following dynasty would
see a massive expansion in such figurative elements.

Substructures 145 (left) Substr ucture of the South Tomb

of the Step Pyramid, in many ways a
While 3rd Dynasty tombs continued to employ extensive
reduced version of the apartments under
tunnelled subterranean galleries, approached by stairways, Chambers with the pyram id itself.The South Tomb was a
increasing use was made of open shafts for the construction reliefs and faience ti les dummy of unknown meaning.
of the burial chamber. Such a shaft was employed in Djoser's
Step Pyramid, whose substructure centred on a burial
chamber 28 m (90ft) below ground level, approached by a
Dummy burial cham ber
stairway and tunnel from the north. Until the Middle
Kingdom this was to be the standard orientation of a royal
tomb entrance. Around this lay a number of galleries; most
were store-chambers, but those on the east included a set of
11 four decorated rooms; near duplicates were found under the

14 6 T H E O L D KING D OM TH E OL D KI NGDOM 147

 six-and-a-half centuries of Egypt's unity in having a via a shaft in the floor of the antechamber. Similarly, Giza
decorated substructure; it is not until the very end of the tomb T has an elaborate set of rooms reached by a stairway,
147 (right) At Meidum, a
5th Dynasty that another example is known. supplemented by a furth er room at a lower level. S3518,
pyramid was begun as a step
Private sepulchres were generally approached by however, is interesting in having a much simpler design for pyramid, but was ulti mately
stairways from the top of the associated mastaba. This one of its two burial complexes, •66 both being approached by converted to a straight-sided
arrangement is found at Beit Khallaf, where K2 is interesting a shaft only. However, stairways to link up with them had one .The partial collapse ofthe
been begun, but were soon abandoned. This transition from outer part allows the original
in having two separate, but similar, substructures, clearly for
structure to be seen. In additio n,
husband and wife. The substructures of both Kr and K2 stairway to shaft substructures is an important motif of the
the pyramid marks the
were protected by a series of portcullis-slabs, lowered from transition from 2nd/3rd Dynasty tomb types into those of abando nment of the rectangular
the top surface of the superstructure, a scheme also found in the 4th Dynasty and it is instructive to find it as early as this. enclosure in favour of one with a
the pyramid of Sekhemkhet, whose unfinished galleries smal l temple and causeway on
T HE 4T H DYNA STY the east side (4th Dynasty) .
show a number of affinities with the Be it Khallaf tombs.
This pyramid and the Layer Pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan 148 (below) The mortuary
Built Superstructures
have tunnelled corridors and chambers, plus an extensive temple of the Meidum pyramid
I ! set of store-rooms; the latter elements were abandoned for Royal Tombs: The earliest of Seneferu's many pyramids'67 was centred on a pair of stelae to
subsequent royal tombs. In contrast, the substructure of the begun as a seven-stepped structure at Meidum; this was later bear the titulary ofth e ki ng.
probable last pyramid of the dynasty, the Brick Pyramid of enlarged to eight steps and then converted, late in his reign,
Abu Rowash, comprised a simple corridor and burial into a 'true', straight-sided pyramid. This change seems to In parallel with his construction work at Meidum,
chamber. have resulted from a shift in religious beliefs, whereby the Seneferu had commenced building the first true pyramid
The substructure of the tomb ofHesyre is also of the king ceased to ascend to heaven by a stairway, but rather to be designed as such, at Dahshur. Failure of the bedrock
stair-approached type, with a set oflower rooms accessible mounted a ramp laid down by the sun's rays and made seems to have resulted in changes of plan, most crucially
concrete by the sloping sides of the pyramid. the construction of a whole new set of burial passages and
146 Sectio n and plan of t he Layer Pyramid at Zawiyet ei-Aryan. The monument also marks the first certain move away a reduction in the whole structure's height, changing the
The 'dog-tooth' storage galleries are a feature shared with the from the great rectangular mortuary enclosure that had angle half-way up and giving it its modern name, the 'Bent
immediately preceding pyramid of Sekhemkhet. been a key feature of royal tombs since the beginning of Pyramid'. Further consideration clearly led to an assessment
the rst Dynasty until at least the middle of the 3rd that the pyramid was still unsafe, since yet another pyramid
Dynasty. r6s Instead, at Meidum we find an enclosure that (the 'Red Pyramid') was begun at Dahshur and completed
is approximately square and lies only a modest distance with the same lower angle as the upper part of the Bent
beyond the perimeter of the pyramid itself. Pyramid.
The mortuary temple was placed on the east side of the The spectacular pyramid-building of Seneferu, which
pyramid, a location that may have solar significance. Its focus also included one and perhaps another six, small pyramids
consisted of an offering table, flanked by a pair of stelae, of uncertain purpose along the Nile,' 6 9 is unmatched.
placed against the face of the pyramid. From the mortuary However, to his son, Khufu, belongs the credit for the
temple, a causeway led down to the edge of the desert, where construction at Giza of the most massive free-standing
lay the valley temple, which formed the ceremonial entrance structure ever built, universally known as the 'Great
to the whole pyramid complex. Many valley temples had Pyramid' .'70 Its enclosure marks an evolution from the
one or more quays, providing boat access via a canal and/or prototypes provided by Seneferu, with a considerably
during the annual Nile flood - the Inundation- which enlarged mortuary temple, but also a set of pits for boat
covered everything up to the desert edge. burials,'?' reminiscent of those found near the Shunet
All these basic features became standard in subsequent el-Zebib. Another change was the placement of the
pyramids, as did the placement of a miniature, 'subsidiary' subsidiary pyramid just south of the mortuary temple, a
pyramid to the south of the main monument, which is location that was to become standard during the 5th
found for the first time at Meidum. This is clearly a Dynasty. Adjacent to the subsidiary pyramid stood three
development of the 'South Tomb' ofDjoser's complex further miniature pyramids, intended for the interment of
and is just as obscure in purpose. Khufu's womenfolk. These are the first pyramids to belong

148 THE OLD KI NGDOM THE OLD KINGDOM 149

 ~ a In contrast to the mortuary temple, the valley tem ple of
Seneferu's Bent Pyramid was decorated with extensive reliefs
of offering bringers and of the king in the presence of the
gods, as well as scenes showing the king running the heb-sed,
together with the additional celebration of the 'Running of
the Apis Bull', a ceremony associated with the fertility of the
herds and fields. Three-dimensional im ages of the king
himself were also found here. The same may also have been
the case for the valley building of Khufu, fragm ents possibly
deriving from which contained reliefs of the bringing of
c
offerings by personified estates, a procession of oxen being
brought to the king and inscriptions relating to him. One
curious scene that comes from Khufu's complex and which
survived through its re-use in Cairo's Bab ei-Furuh gateway,
shows a ritual involving the king and a white
hippopotam us. T he adjacent causeway also seems to have
been decorated from the reign of Khufu onwards, with
scenes related to offerings executed in painted raised relief
The royal pyramids that followed that ofKhufu mark
d a further move towards the 'standard' pyramid complex.'?'
The widely differing forms of mortuary chapels seen
previously were replaced by much larger mortuary and
valley temples, which provided prototypes for the standard
149 (above) As in the slightly later Meidum complex, the mortuary to persons other than kings and are of simple design, with a Pll!!lll!!l. plans that developed later in the Old Kingdom. These
temple of Seneferu's Bent Pyramid also featured a pair of stelae (one small chapel on the eastern side.
- - - -.. " cJ buildings, in particular the valley tem ples, were provided
on either side of the structure in the centre), now broken. . .... " cJ
The Great Pyramid and the two large pyramids with large numbers of statues. T he tem ple attached to the
ISO (below) The queens' pyramids at the foot of the Great Pyramid at
subsequently built at Giza by Khafre and Menkaure, show " cJ Bent Pyramid had a n umber of statues with their own
Giza, with one of the boat pits that lay adjacent to Khufu's mortuary
temple; Cemetery G7000 lies beyond.
the continual development of the mortuary temple,
causeway and valley temple. By the end of the 4th Dynasty,
.!6lll6ll.
" cJ specific cults, while the main hall ofKhafre's had 23 statues,
each apparently with its own identity.
the stelae in the inner part of the mortuary temple had been e
replaced by a single stela and additional elements were Private Tombs: The Meidum pyramid has a number
added beyond the innermost apartments. Typically, a room of associated cemeteries. The tombs of the main private
with five niches for statues lay just outside the sanctuary, cemetery at Meidum, situated to the north of the pyramid,
as did various corridors and store-rooms. A courtyard, mark an important stage in the development of the mastaba,
surrounded by a peristyle, fronted this inner complex. In in particular that of the offering place. ' 73 Leaving aside the
front of the courtyard stood a solid walled entrance hall as 'experimental' 3rd Dynasty tombs such as those ofHesyre
the gateway to the temple. and Khabausokar, the standard approach since the znd
Owing to the destroyed state of the royal monuments Dynasty had been based on niches close to the ends of the
of the period, it is unclear when and how royal funerary eastern tomb fa<;ade. At Meidum o ne finds important
monuments of the 4th D ynasty were decorated. Apart from examples of the further developmen ts that occurred early
their stelae, the mortuary temples of Seneferu appear to have in the 4th D ynasty.
been plain, while those of his successors apparently relied for T hese are to be seen in particular in two of the largest
151 The evolution of the royal mortuary temple: a. Seneferu
their adornment on the various coloured building stones tombs of the cemetery, which underwent alterations that
(Meidum); b. Seneferu (Dahshur - Bent Pyramid); c. Seneferu
employed- granite, basalt, limestone and calcite (also (Dahshur- Red Pyramid); d. Khufu (Giza- Great Pyramid); e. Khafre completely changed the form of their cult areas. M I6
known as travertine and Egyptian alabaster)- and statuary. (Giza - Second Pyramid);f Menkaure (Giza - Third Pyramid). (Nefermaat) was the largest in the wh ole necropolis,

ISO T HE OLD KIN GDOM

THE O L D KI N GDOM 15 1
measuring no less than 120 x 68 m (390 x 225ft) in its final pieces surviving from ancient Egypt (pi. XVI), making it the
form. Before reaching such dimensions, however, it had earliest known private serdab (closed statue room). Serdabs
been enlarged twice. In the first phase, each of the two became an integral part of tomb-chapel design as the 4th
offering places consisted of a recess, the back of which was Dynasty continued.•74
faced with stone and from the middle of which a short The decoration of these Meidum tombs in many ways
stone-lined decorated corridor led back into the brickwork, set the principal patterns for tomb-chapel decoration seen
ending in a false-door. The first enlargement added an extra through the remainder of Egyptian history.•?> During the
layer of brickwork, necessitating the construction of a 4th (and to some extent, 5th) Dynasty the decoration
passageway to allow the stone-lined elements to be reached centered on the active service of the tomb-owner with regard
from the exterior. This resulted in the creation of two
cruciform chapels, a design used sporadically since at least
the beginning of the 3rd Dynasty. Although superbly
decorated, the entire chapels were made inaccessible when
the mastaba was enlarged for a second time, new niches
being constructed and an external court added outside the
northern one. A similar, but even more elaborate series of
alterations occurred at the tomb ofRahotep (M6) . H ere, the
sealed southern chapel housed painted limestone statues of
Rahotep and his wife, Neferet, two of the finest portrait

152 (right) Section of decoration from the chapel of ltet in Meidum

16 (Nefermaat), showing the inlaid pigment (Ny Carlsberg IEIN I 133
154 The three main pyramids at Giza (the Great Pyramid of Khufu at left), with the Western Cemetery on the right.
a-b; Munich Gl.l 03 e- f).

153 (below) Plan and section of the mastaba of Rahotep and Neferet to the monarch, while also introducing daily-life scenes into tombs seen from Early Dynastic rimes down to the reign of
at Meidum (6).The tomb was enlarged a number oftimes, the the repertoire. The tombs were decorated with paint as well Khufu's father. N ow, rather than the pyramid standing in
penultimate one blocking off the original stone-lined funerary chapels as raised and sunk relief. The tomb ofNefermaat and his splendid isolation, the members of the court huddled
at e ither end of the fa~ade. ln its final form, the tomb had a southern
wife ltet also displays a unique decorative technique, around its base, in many ways emphasizing even further the
chapel against the face of t he mastaba and a northern one within the
out ermost layer of the mastaba.The substructures we re reached via comprising blocks of pigment let into the surface of the gulf between the ruler and ruled.•n
shafts in the top of the superstructure. Rahot ep had a corbelled burial stone. The tomb-owner seems to claim credit for this The tombs in these cemeteries had all been laid out and
chamber, w ith reliev1ng chambers const ructed above (4th Dynasty). innovation, which was nor, indeed, used in any other tomb. their cores built as part of a single project. Known as
At Dahshur, private cemeteries were established at 'nucleus cemeteries', their cores were allocated to and
considerable distances from the royal pyramids, comprising finished by, their ultimate owners. As originally built, these
a mixture of brick and stone mastabas, the latter being cores were solid, initially composed of rubble, but soon

l=o ~
amongst the earliest of their kind. The time-hallowed
arrangement of offering places at either end of the eastern
fas;ade continued, the surviving examples being of a simple
niche plan.'76 In contrast, at Saqqara, stone cruciform
succeeded by large blocks of stone. The tombs in the nucleus
cemeteries had been envisaged as accommodating single
burials only. However, some mastabas had been extended to
embrace a second shaft for the deceased's spouse and, in the
$t ~ chapels, embedded in a brick mastaba, had become standard Eastern Cemetery at Giza, pairs of individual masrabas were
early in the 4th Dynasty (e.g. M erjen [LS6], Akhethorep joined together by a single casing and appropriate cult
I :..:.I [Ar=S3076], Akhetaa, Pahernefer and S3078).
........ i
structures created for couples. The original cores had no
East ofK.hufu's pyramid at G iza was a m assive cemetery internal or exterior provision for offering places, other than
intended for lesser members of his family. O ther cemeteries a small 'slab stela' towards the southern end of the east side.
were placed west and south of the pyramid and mark an As a minimum, a m ud-brick chapel would have been built
important shift from the wide separation of royal and other to protect this modest interface between the worlds. Some

152 T HE OLD KIN GDOM 153

THE O LD KING DOM
 In addition to the offering place itself, serdabs (see
opposite) now began to be placed behind the false-doors.
Statues played an increasingly important part in the
mortuary cult during the Old Kingdom, although the
presence of such images of the dead is arrested as far back
as the end of the rst Dynasty in the tomb ofMerka (S3505)
(p. r36, above). Serdabswere often connected to the main
155 The tomb of Kawab (G71 I0+ 7120); it comprised two of the body of the chapel by small slits through which the statue
nucleus mastabas t hat were built by Khufu for subsequent allocation. could 'see' the offerings and incense could reach it. It was
The internal'L' -shaped chapel was supplemented with a built external in these statues that the ka was believed to manifest itself
section. Substructures were once again accessed via shafts from the
to receive offerings.
mastaba roof, although an unusual sloped passage was subsequently
At the opposite end of the spectrum from these noble
added to Kawab's bunal chamber (4th Dynasty).
tombs are the mastabas of the skilled artisan class found in
the so-called 'Workers' Cemetery' at Giza. Their
tombs subsequently received a proper casing, together with a superstructures comprised rwin-niched mastabas of the
stone chapel and a fully fledged false-door, but others were usual form, but constructed on a much smaller scale,
rebuilt with much more elaborate chapel structures.
In certain cases, a thick casing was placed around the
mastaba core, with a chapel within it or in an annex built
on one end; in others, the core was penetrated and new
structures constructed inside. These were generally based
upon anT-shaped arrangement, with false-door(s) placed
in the long rear wall. Although many variations are known,
this shape of offering place is the dominant type down to the
time ofNeferirkare, with two false-doors usual by the end of
Menkaure's reign. Compared with those begun under
Khufu, overall chapel designs in the later part of the 4th
Dynasty were more elaborate and innovative and paved the 157 (above) Detail ofthe 'Workers' Cemetery' at Giza; in the
way for further developments in the following p eriod. foreground are mud-bnck miniature mastabas of the artisan class.
The adornment of such chapels at G iza include large
figures of the tomb-owner and family viewing the 158 (bottom) Amongst other tombs at t he site are some unusual
presentation of offerings and animals. Other scenes are often domed or conical examples.The doorway in the east side ultimately
gives access to the burial pit.
linked with the funerary meal, as well as a limited repertoire
of daily-life scenes.

156 Plan of the tomb of Meresankh Ill (G7530+ 7540) at Giza,

showing the unusual subterranean chapel at its north end.

159 The serdab- a closed room containing statues - of Akhethotep held fo ur images, including one of the tomb-owner and one of his wife
(Saqqara: 6th Dynasty).

154 T HE OLD KINGDOM THE O LD KIN GDOM 155

perhaps only a metre or so high. Another type of tomb the very unusual Giza tomb of Queen Khentkaues I
found in the same area is of domed or conical shape, perhaps (LGroo) of the end of the 4th Dynasty- the vast majority
intended to be a model of one of the pyramids upon which of such tombs conformed to the simple pattern.
the community laboured. A large number of rock-cut tomb-chapels were built in
The majority of substantial tombs dating to the 4th a former quarry area between the pyramid complexes of
Dynasty have been found in the Memphite necropolis. Khafre and Menkaure and are probably the earliest examples
However, a number have been identified at more remote of such sepulchres. The forms of the chapels of rock-cut
sites. One example is El-Tarif, at the northern end of the tombs follow the same patterns as those of contemporary
Theban cemetery, where two brick mastabas have been mastabas, but with at least two rather larger rooms.
found.•78 They are of simple form, with an offering niche Externally, their eastern elevations are reminiscent of that of
at the southern end of the east side, although their internal a mastaba and at some sites built elements were also present.
structure reveals a somewhat complex building history. The new tomb-type was used at Giza for a number of
Another Upper Egyptian site with 4th Dynasty mastabas members of the royal family, including both royal wives and
is El-Kab,'79 in this case with panelled exteriors and simple sons. A composite form is G7530+7540, the massive double
offering places on the east side. mastaba of Queen Meresankh m, which had an additional
subterranean chapel quarried out below it (ill. 156). In
Rock-cut Superstructures and Offering Places contrast to the limited repertoire seen in mastaba chapels at
Giza, a significant number of'daily-life' scenes appear in
Until the middle of the 4th D ynasty, the offering place of a rock-cut chapels, with the chapel ofMeresankh m
wealthy tomb was a built structure, either free-standing, or providing important examples of a number of vignettes.
set within the core of a mastaba. However, the cemeteries Texts, pertaining to the deceased's life or the building of his
that date to Khafre and Menkaure's reigns contain a mixture tomb, also start appearing at this time, for example in the
of free-standing mastabas and rock-cut tomb-chapels. tomb ofDebhen at G iza (LG9o, 4th/5th D ynasty). Another
Hitherto, cemeteries had typically been built on flat areas of feature of this tomb is the ranks of three-dimensional figures
desert; other sites, however, including the central part of the carved into the walls. Similar images are found in a range of
Giza necropolis, shelve fairly steeply and in such cases it is contemporary and later rock-cut chapels, for example those
generally most practical to cut the offering place out of the oflrukaptah-Khenu at Saqqara and Kakerenptah (G7721,
rock, with the superstructure otherwise limited to an 5th D ynasty) and Idu at Giza (G 7102, 6th D ynasty) .
ornamental fa<;:ade. While there are examples of whole Rock-cut tombs appear in Upper Egypt at around the
mastabas having been cut out of the living rock - including same time as they do at G iza, some of the very earliest being
the so-called 'Fraser Tombs', at Tihna.' 80 Their designs vary,
I60 Cemet ery MQ at Giza, containing rock-cut tombs of the late that ofNikaankh having a mastaba containing a chapel with
4th Dynasty false-doors and niches and behind it, in what is now the
cliff-face, three doors leading to small rooms (ill. 183d).
However, all centre on a transverse passage, with offering 16 1 (top) The two rock-cut mastabas ofTihna (the 'Fraser Tombs'), as
seen from the east (early 5th Dynasty).
places located on the same side as the entrance doorway, as
these tombs are on the east bank and thus face away from
162 (above) The tomb of Nikaankh (Tihna 13), the right-hand tomb
the realm of the dead in the west. This somewhat awkward in the previous image. Its western fa~ade faces into t he cliff from
arrangement is found in other east-bank tombs as well, for which it is cut, and thus access to the chapel w ithin is via what is little
example that oflymery at Gebel el-Teir,'8' and those of the more than a trench in the rock.
Middle Kingdom at Beni Hasan (p. 193) .
163 (right) Ceiling of the burial chamber of the pyramid of Meidum.
Tombs at the site were amongst the first to employ such corbel ling.
Substructures
The early part of the dynasty m ay be distinguished by the
extensive use of corbelling in the roofing of chambers and

156 TH E OLD KINGDOM

164 (above) Tomb 17 at Meidum (4th Dynasty: reign ofSeneferu).

165 (right) Granite sarcophagus in the burial chamber of tom b 17, the
earliest of 1ts kind.

corridors. All three of Seneferu's burial pyramids employed

~
,----,
the technique. 18 2 None were designed to hold a stone
sarcophagus, although the Red Pyramid, Seneferu's apparent
[J • a
~====
final resting place, may have had one constructed in the

1:=~n~
masonry flooring of its burial chamber.
Meidum tombs M6 (ill. 158) and r6 each had two burial
shafts, driven through the superstructure into the bedrock,
without any apparent stairway approaches. The shafts of
u z ! 11
b

Rahotep and Nefermaat themselves had stone-built,

corbelled, chambers at their bottoms, while the sepulchres of
their wives, in the northern halves of the tombs, had smaller,
wholly rock-cut chambers. These two basic approaches to
the construction of the burial chamber were standard in the
f ~~~~:=====
c
I66 The development
of the substructures of
the royal tombs of the
early 4th Dynasty, although a number ofMeidum tombs 4th to 6th dynasties:
d
a. Djedefre at Abu
had substructures of a distinctive type. These comprised
Rowash (4th Dynasty) ;
an open, sloping, trench at the bottom of which was b. Khafre at Giza (4th
constructed the burial chamber. The male burial chambers Dynasty); c. Menkaure
in M6 and r6 each had a niche in the south wall, apparently e at Glza (4th Dynasty);
intended for a canopic chest; the latter item is first attested d. Shepseskaf at South
in Seneferu's reign. Similar niches are to be found in a Saqqara; e. Userkaf at
Saqqara (5th Dynasty);
number of the smaller tombs at Meidum, in the Great West
f. N1userre atAbusi "
(see ill. 39) and Far West Cemeteries; in the latter, the burial s1milar to Sahure,
chambers were frequently blocked with portcullis slabs, Neferirkare, Neferefre
sliding in grooves at the bottom of the shaft, in the former and Menkauhor (5th
by plug-blocks. Dynasty): g. Unas at
Saqqara, similar to
Unlike those of the late 3rd Dynasty pyramids, the
lses1.Teti, Pepy I,
chambers of Seneferu's pyramids lay, with one exception, g Nemtyemsafl and
within, or partly within, the superstructure. Khufu, for his Ill
Pepy 11(5th- 6th
Great Pyramid at Giza, initially reverted to a sepulchre Dynasty). 167 The burial chamber of Khufu in the Great Pyramid at Giza (4th Dynasty).

158 THE OLD K I NGDOM THE O L D KI NGDOM 159

tunnelled deep underground. However, the tomb's final
form placed galleries and chambers within the pyramid
itsel( These are generally interpreted as representing one or
more changes in plan, although some scholars would prefer
to see the pyramid as having been designed from the outset
with its ultimate layout. If indeed a change, this might have
been the result of a decision to use a stone sarcophagus,
which would not fit down the entrance passages of the
pyramid and thus needed to be introduced through the roof
of the burial chamber- which thus had to be relocated
above ground-level, enclosed within the pyramid structure.
The need to be able to introduce material such as
sarcophagi thus led to new approaches by subsequent kings.
The tombs of Djedefre and Seth?ka had their burial
chambers built at the bottom of deep cuttings instead of
being tunnelled out of the rock. Since this added greatly to
the work of construction, the internal passages of the 168 (above) The last attempt to provide a deeply buried substructure
pyramids ofK.hafre and Menkaure are of a much more seems to be at the Unfinished Pyramid at Zawiyet ei-Aryan of
Seth?ka.The cutting is here seen from t he top of the e nt rance trench.
simple form, with the roofs of the burial chambers at ground
level, an approach used by all subsequent pharaohs.
I69 (below) The burial chamber of Menkaure in his pyramid at Giza,
The substructures of the queens' pyramids comprised a showing the now-lost sarcophagus.
descending passage, a tiny antechamber and a right-angled
turn leading into the burial chamber; one has the same
layout as those adjacent to the Great Pyramid, but the other
(GIIIb: GIIIc was Menkaure's subsidiary pyramid) had a
simple axial plan, with the sepulchral chamber at the end.
Approaches to the burial chambers of most Giza mastaba
tombs were via shafts sunk through the superstructure and
bedrock, with a short passage (sometimes blocked by a
portcullis) leading to a burial chamber on the south side,
although orientations become less consistent later in the 4th
Dynasty. The room usually had a canopic cavity sunk in the
floor, while there were many minor variations in its design,
such as a stone lining, or a stair/slope beyond the doorway at
the bottom of the shaft. 18J All are devoid of decoration, with
the solitary exception of a false-door in the burial chamber
of the tomb ofMeresankh III (G7530+7540).r84 A roughly
contemporary provincial tomb at El-Hagarsa also has some
decoration in the burial chamber.
In rock-cut tombs, substructures generally open out of
the interior of the chapel, in contrast to the situation in
mastabas. Both shafts and sloping passages are employed,
although the former are perhaps more common. Burial
chambers rarely lie particularly far underground in this kind
of sepulchre.

160 TH E O L D KINGD O M
 t he centre.ln t he
XII (previous page) Aerial photograph of the Saqqara necropolis, with the causeway of the pyramid of Unas running down
of temple-tombs, with sepulchres of the reign of Ramesses 11, in particular
foreground is the northern extremity of the New Kingdom necropolis
the opposite side of the causeway are many tombs of the late O ld Kingdom, w1th the substructures of
that of t he Vizier Neferrenpet (STO). On
of the 2nd Dynasty occupying the area between the boat-pit in the m1ddle distance and the Unas pyramid. Beyond is the Step
two royal tombs
Pyramid complex of Djoser and in the distance the pyramids of Abu S1r.

Such it ems were

X III (above) Woode n panel from a niche in t he o riginal fa~ade ofthe early 3rd Dynasty mastaba of Hesyre at Saqqara (52405).
probably a more common featu re of such tombs t han t he current level of pre servation would suggest (C M CG 1430).

at Saqqara,
XIV (opposite) Detail of one of the panels of faience t iles that decorated t he substructure of the South Tomb at the Step Pyramid
3rd Dynasty. These were int ended to imitate mat-work hangings.

to the right are

XV (overleaf) Panorama of t he Dahshur necropolis from the south-east, looking across Dahshur Lake.Visible fro m the left
Ill. The mound between the Red and Black Pyramids represe nts the
Seneferu's Be nt and Red Pyramids, and the Black Pyramid of Ame nemhat
location of t he I 3th Dynasty pyramid of Ame ny-Qe mau: just to t
i s nght is an O ld Kingdom private cemetery.
 T H E 5TH DYNA ST Y be a movement from secular to sacred, with a con cen tration
of images of divinities and th e resurrection of rhe king
Superstructur es located in rhe parrs of rhe temple closest to rhe pyramid .
Roya/Tombs: All 5thl6th Dynasty pyramid complexes are T he ceilings of these tem ples were adorned wirh five-pointed
similar in size and basic plan, each having less than half the stars, smaller versions of which, linked together, also served
volume of even the smallest 4th D ynasty example,'85 with as register lines, rhus m oving the actions depicted into a
one exception (N eferirkare's) . Apart from that ofUserkaf, divine and eternal plane. Three-dimensional representations
they are built with relatively small blocks of stone and today placed in rhe tem ple included images of the king and of
are all badly ruined . kneeling bound captives rh at were placed in locations where
T he temples attached to the pyramids, although rhey would clearly show their subjugation by the mon arch.
displaying variations in detail, follow rhe basic layout Although ir is difficulr ro determine rhe precise
established by the end of the 4th D ynasty that continues programme of decoration d ue to the damaged nature of rhe
to the end of the Old Kingdom and even beyond. T he monuments, it is possible to broadly reconstruct a generic
subsidiary pyramid remained an importan t feature and its model by combin ing evidence gathered from the funerary
location now became fixed south of the innermost part of complexes of Sahure (ill. 3), N iuserre, Neferirkare, Userkaf,
the mortuary temple; earlier subsidiary pyramids had Unas (particularly the causeway), Isesi, Pepy I and Pepy 11,
occupied various positions on the south side of the main the last-n amed possessing the best p reserved-comp lex of
pyramid during rhe 4th D ynasty. them all.
T he underlying idea of the decorative organization of It should be noted that these temples contai n scenes that
the pyramid temples of the 5th and 6th D ynasties seems to sum up and eternalize kingship and the cosmic role of the
king, exp laining in part the fact th at a considerable number
of scenes are directly copied from o ne temple to another. For
example, a scene of sm iting Libyans that appears in Sahure's
complex is also found in the mortuary temple ofPepy 11,
and a scene of starving people, once thought to be unique to

Sanctuary

Subsidiary
pyramid
170 (above and left)

t Axonometric section and plan

of the pyramid of Userkaf
(Saqqara 5th Dynasty). Store rooms
Peristyle
court

17 1 (right) Plan of a typical royal Entrance hall

mortuary temple of the 5th/6th
Dynasty.
ion of
XVIII The second register of this painting in the tomb of Khnumhotep ii1at Beni Hasan (BH-111, 12th Dynasty) shows members of a delegat
coloured draw1 ng - bears the title heqa-khaswet, the prototype of
brightly clad foreigners from Syria-Palestine.Their leader - not visible 1n this
the later term,'Hyksos'.

THE OLD K I NG DOM 169

 175 The pyramid complex of Pepy 11, the final development of the
Old Ki ngdom pyramid complex.

Valley temple

172 (above) View up the causeway of Unas towards his pyramid (end
ofthe 5th Dynasty).
Queen Wedjebten
173 (left) Block in lsesi's mortuary temple at Saqqara, showing the
king, to whom a divinity symbolically proffers life in t he form of an
ankh.The king's eye was formerly inlaid (5th Dynasty) .

174 (below) Images of the king as a sphinx, a div1ne form, conquering

Egypt's foes were a standard part of the decorative scheme of royal
funerary temples, especially t he causeways; mortuary temple of
Pepy 11 (Saqqara-South: 6th Dynasty) .

Unas' causeway, also appears on that of Sahure. An The causeway was covered with a variety of scenes and
interesting feature of these temples is that the images of texts. For the most part, these related to the prowess and
the king are frequently shown attended by his ka, perhaps greatness of the king as protector of the land and provider
symbolic of all the royal kas. through conquest. These were standard kingly acts and
Pepy II's valley building yielded fragments of reliefs images of the king carrying them out successfully appear
that show the king hunting in the marshes and being on objects from the end of the Predynastic Period onwards.
attended by divinities and officials. Fragments of similar The decoration on the lower portion of the causeway
'' scenes have been found in other temples, as well as showed the king as a sphinx and a griffin trampling the
', }

~(>/(
additional scenes showing the recording of booty or tribute.
<~'> ~·:
enemies of Egypt, while the upper portions were divided
\ Niuserre's valley building might have also shown scenes of into sections showing bound prisoners, counting of booty,
--- -- ------- -------- ---------- - ----------------------- ---~--;_ - the seasons in this area. tribute being brought and images of the king being

170 THE OLD KINGDOM THE OLD KINGDOM 17 1

approached by rows of gods and offering bearers. The king are shown, the gods appear in the higher celestial Further into the temple, in a niche, the king is shown for the most part, stock scenes had to be shown in order
causeways ofUnas and Sahure also show scenes of nature, registers and the people in the lower earthly ones . being suckled by a goddess. By ingesting the divine milk he to magically ensure the maintenance of maat and the
with animals living, mating and giving birth in the wild. The central transverse corridor that leads out of the further acquires divinity and becomes one with the gods. continuation of the country and its rulers .
Additionally, the causeways of these two kings bore scenes of court to the enclosed and increasingly sacred spaces of the This scene also serves as a reminder that the king will be
the construction of the funerary complex. Sahure's showed temple is decorated with scenes of the king, followed by his rebo rn and live amongst the gods. Private Tombs: In contrast to the royal standardization,
the positioning of the capstone, while Unas' depicted the ka, smiting Egypt's enemies, being embraced by the gods The antechamber that leads to the sanctuary ofPepy II's private tombs of the 5th Dynasty varied very considerably
transport of the granite columns to the site. Vignettes of and watching or being engaged in rituals associated with the temple is decorated with images of the gods of Upper and in design, with some evidence for different architectural
daily life are also depicted in the causeway, including images heb-sedjubilee. T his emphasizes the king's success in ruling Lower Egypt, on separate walls, indicating the different traditions at each cemetery. A major problem in studying
of markets, soldiers training and boats. Egypt and maintaining maat eternally and the acceptance parts of the country. Butchers slaughter and joint cattle their development is the difficulty in reliably dating many
The passage leading into the courtyard of the temple and blessings of the gods, not just for the king, bur for the below. They are clearly providing the offering for the royal sepulchres of the later Old Kingdom, with the result that
proper showed the king being embraced by gods. The whole country and its denizens. Other scenes in the interior culr. The location of this scene, close to the cult centre, is many can only be dated to the '5rh/6th Dynasty' . Criteria
vestibule that led from there into the court showed the king of the temple continue to show the king's dominion over the followed in elite tombs. Below the register of butchers is a of size, layout, decoration, derails of false-doors and
moving from the prosaic secular world slowly into the powers of chaos and his loyalty to the gods. These include a row of officials; this layout is peculiar to royal tombs. formulae of offering lists have all been employed with
divine. Here, with his attendants, he battles with the wild, fowling scene and a hunt in the desert, which climaxes, in Probably the officials featured were divided between the varying degrees of success.
chaotic and dangerous aspects of nature, emerges victorious Pepy II's temple, in the slaying of an antelope, symbol of the two walls depending on whether they served in the north Although stone was now the preferred material for such
and is applauded by the queen and divinities who embrace untamed desert, before the gods. The antelope-slaying motif or the south. sepulchres, many brick examples were still constructed at
him and otherwise show their approbation. The king is is a standard feature in later Egyptian temples of all types . Images of butchery continue into the sanctuary, where both Giza and Saqqara. Their designs were frequently fairly
pictured fowling and spearing hippopotami. A fowling scene Sahure's hunt scene is particularly famous as it shows the they are joined by piles of offerings and endless rows of conservative, making them sometimes difficult to
appears early in the 4th Dynasty in the valley temple of king using a bow and arrow in the desert; after the end of the offering bearers, all making for the central focus of the distinguish architecrurally from 3rd/ 4th Dynasty tombs.
Seneferu and a fishing and fowling scene is also found in the Old Kingdom this motif is usurped by private individuals. chamber: the seared figure of the king at table with his ka Similar conservatism is also seen in some stone structures,
court ofUserkaf's mortuary temple. At the end of the ritual At the end of the hunt, the gods show their appreciation of behind and the sema-tawy- a metaphor for the uniting of for example that ofNihetepkhnum at Giza, which has a
hunt, the hippopotamus is shown being dragged on a sled the king by offering him life in the form of the ankh sign. Up per and Lower Egypt by tying together their respective multi-niched corridor chapel; many, however, follow 4th
after his ignominious capture by the king; chaos has been heraldic plants, the papyrus and sedge - below. The king is Dynasty norms. Nevertheless, steady developments are
bound and contained and maatcan reign supreme. The 177 The erection of the sehent-pole was possibly a part of the heb-sed separated from the offering bearers by an extensive offering generally to be seen, particularly around the middle of the
bound animal evokes the bound captives that were brought festival; mortuary temple of Pepy 11. list that was being provisioned by the bearers. dynasty when there was a fundamental change in the
to their knees by the king. It is interesting to note that in Additional scenes, perhaps specific to the events of each orientation of the main offering room, perhaps reflecting
general, when registers of gods and people approaching the reign, might also appear in the funerary temples. However, the influence of royal practice.

176 The king hunting a hippopotamus. symbo lic ofSeth, was a key 178 A group of 5th Dynasty mastabas at Giza: from the left G60 I0 (Neferbauptah) ; G6020 (lymery); and G6030 (lti).
scene in mortuary temples as it emphasized the king and moot's
dominion over Seth and chaos; Saqqara, mortuary tem ple of Pepy 11.

~· . ,
...:--
..; .. :

172 THE OLD KING DO M

T HE OLD KINGDOM 173
 portico, with a three-room chapel, which was later extended Su bstructures of the chapel, or via a sloping passage. The latter could lie
to include an eight-pillared hall and extra serdab. G2378, In royal tombs, a simple basic design became standardized in one of the rooms, a courtyard, or outside the main body
belonging to his son, Senedjemib-Mehi, was built to the early in the dynasty, with a descending passage, blocked by of the tomb. Examples of this last option are provided by
right of and at right angles to Inti's, with the tomb of one or more portcullises, leading to an antechamber, to the the Inti family complex at Giza. The superstructures lay
another son, Khnumenti, fitting G2374 into the gap right (west) of which is the burial chamber. The sarcophagus on a rock-cut platform, under which sloping passages led
between the two. This accretion of family monuments is stood at the west end of the latter, with a canopic chest sunk westwards to burial chambers containing the stone
common, as is the further filling in of gaps by later in the floor to the east of the foot from at least the reign of sarcophagi.
individuals, leading to distinctly confusing layouts. Isesi onwards. The latter king added a store-room, with
The 5th Dynasty also saw considerable elaboration in three niches, to the east of the antechamber. The principal
serdab arrangements, with a number of separate cavities chambers were covered with massive stone gable roofs,
and occasional representations of doors on the walls that frequently composed of multiple layers. The interiors of
separated them from the main body of the chapel. all these chambers were plain, until the reign of the last
The decoration of mature Old Kingdom elite tomb- king of the dynasty, Unas, whose sepulchre is the first to
chapels emphasized the natural cycle, whether it was in bear the compilation of religious literature known as the
wild or in domestic contexts and presented an ideal world Pyramid Texts.
179 The tomb of Perneb (Saqqara S9 13); now in New York (MMA with everyone living in maat. The establishment and The arrangements made in Unas' sepulchre became the
I 3.183.3: late 5th Dynasty). maintenance of maatwas of paramount importance in the standard for decorating pyramid burial chambers until the
tombs of this era. Scenes relating to the tomb-owner's end of the Old Kingdom. Pyramid Texts were not restricted
Up until then, the axis of the room ran north-south, position are also commonly depicted, often with to kings' tombs; queens' pyramids also contained them from
with the offering place on the long (western) wall. By the accompanying explanatory texts. Although deities are never the time ofPepy I onwards.' 86 These texts, executed in sunk
second half of the 5th Dynasty it generally (but not shown in private tombs prior to the New Kingdom, the relief and filled with blue paint, adorned and protected
1:
exclusively) ran east-west, with the stela at the far end of a prominence of Re is clearly implicit in the natural cycles that the sarcophagus chamber and its antechamber, the spells
i, long, narrow, room. At the same time, there were changes form the nexus of representations in the tombs of this arranged for the convenience of the king as he made his way
in the design of the false-door, which became increasingly period. In fact, it may well be the royal solar temples of the heavenward. The ceiling of these subterranean rooms was
complex, while the outer chambers and passages of the 5th Dynasty that are the source of inspiration for many of covered with five-pointed stars, implying that the king lay
chapel became more elaborate. This led in some cases to the the scenes that are found in private tombs of the late 5th and under the vault of heaven, with the promise of joining with 181 (above) The pyramid-chambers of the late Old Kingdom were
occupation of almost the whole interior of the mastaba with 6th Dynasties. The vital force of the sun and its effect on the stars. roofed with massive limestone blocks.The activities of stone robbers
chambers, halls and courts, creating space for much more nature and fertility were of crucial importance to the beliefs The area immediately around Unas' sarcophagus was has here caused one to slip downwards 1nside the pyramid of Pepy I
(Saqqara- South: 6th Dynasty) .
elaborate decoration. Outer entrances were sometimes also in an afterlife, both in royal and elite contexts. bare of texts. Instead, it was covered with incised decoration
elaborate, with ramped approaches, pillars and flanking that suggested mats lining the walls of houses, with shelves 182 (below) The burial chamber of Ptahshepses at Abu Si r had
statues or obelisks. Like those of the earlier part of the Old 180 Plan of th e tom b-com plex of the SenedJemib family at Giza bearing boxes and jars along the upper reaches. Thus the a burial chamber cut close to the surface and roofed similarly
Kingdom, a number of tombs show signs of having (G2370, 2374 and 2378: late 5th Dynasty). tradition of mats, or simulacra of mats, in royal burials to contemporary royal tombs (L.XIX: mid-5th Dynasty) .
undergone one or more enlargements. continued on throughout the Old Kingdom. The
A good example is the very large mastaba ofPtahshepses implication was that the sarcophagus was equivalent to
at Abu Sir (reign ofNiuserre). The original mastaba had five the king's bed and there he lay in a facsimile of an earthly
rooms, plus a serdab. First a porticoed structure was added to bed-chamber.
I this, which subsequently received a new entrance with Gabled roofs, protecting shallow-cut burial chambers,
another pair of pillars. Finally, a large colonnaded court and are sometimes found in private tombs, a principal example
subsidiary rooms were added to the south. Such courts are being in the tomb ofPtahshepses atAbu Sir. With its gable
found in a number of private tombs of the 5th/ 6th roof at ground level, it was clearly closely influenced by
Dynasties, as well as being a standard feature of royal contemporary pyramid architecture, perhaps prompted by
mortuary temples. Ptahshepses being a king's son-in-law. However, the majority
Another interesting tomb-complex is that Senedjemib- of tombs continued to have wholly rock-cut burial
Inti and his family (G2370-2378, Isesi-Unas). It centred on chambers. These were approached either by shafts through
the square mastaba oflnti himself, entered via a two-pillared the body of the mastaba, cut in the floor of one of the rooms

174 T HE O LD KINGDOM T H E 0 L D KI N G D 0 M 175

THE 6TH DYNASTY (190 x 105 ft) filled with nothing but rubble, Mereruka's
mastaba of 45 x 35 m (150 x II5 ft) contained nearly 30 rooms,
Superstructures which occupy most of the building's ground area. Access to
There is no cultural break between the 5th and 6th Mereruka's burial chamber was via a shaft in the floor in
Dynasties, the evolution of the royal funerary complexes front of a false-door.
continuing with little interruption. Similarly, private A feature ofMereruka's chapel is a life-sized statue
funerary monuments of the 6th Dynasty represent, in emerging from one of the false-doors of the tomb (pi. X).
general, linear developments of those of the 5th Dynasty. Smaller three-dimensional figures are found as parts of a
Amongst them is one of the most elaborate of all mastabas, number of false-doors of the 6th Dynasty and the First
that of the Vizier Mereruka, which provides an excellent Intermediate Period. The tomb ofNefershemptah at Saqqara
contrast with the mastabas of the 2nd Dynasty, with their had a false-door flanked by two statues, and a carved bust of
two shallow-niche offering places. While Ruaben's S2302 the deceased takes the place of the usual offering tablet. A
(seep. 140) had a brick-faced superstructure of 57 x 32 m further unusual image was that ofldu (G7102): his bust is set
at the bottom of the false-door holding out his arms to form
the hieroglyphic symbol for the ka.
The decoration of tombs of this period followed the
organization and motifs established in the previous
dynasties, with new motifs being added to the repertoire.
Scenes of outdoor pursuits, crafts, felling trees, wild and
d
domestic animals, visits in carrying chairs, games, including
senet, agricultural cycles, funerals, force-feeding wild and
domestic creatures, the Voyage to Abydos and offering
bringers, in the form of estates and bearers, are all found in
this period. Unusual scenes of picnics on the river adorn the
b
walls of mastabas, especially at Saqqara, where Mereruka's
brother and Ptahhotep ii (tomb D64) are shown on boats,
eating and drinking. Divinities were not shown, although 185 Th e false -door of lteti-Ankheri s has a figure of the deceased 186 The false-door of ldu at Giza (G71 02), showing the unique bust
in the central 'doorway'; from Saqqara D 63 (CM CG 57190: of t he deceased ho lding out his arms 1n the manner of a ka-s1gn
invoked in funerary inscriptions, where earlier the king had

[
6th Dynasty) . (6th Dynasty).

"}~
..~~
I 84 (left) Mastaba of the Vizier
Mereruka at Saqqara (early 6th
Dynasty) .
been the sole focus. An interesting compromise is seen in a of these cemeteries remains uncertain, as only that ofPepy II

...
...0
block from a 5th Dynasty tomb' 87 that shows some sort of
ritual or perhaps even dance, being performed, with one
has been properly investigated.' 88 Nevertheless, many
dignitaries were buried in other parts of the necropoleis, for
of the participants wearing a lion mask. This might be a example in the ancient cemeteries lying north and west of
relatively early depiction of invocations to the household the Step Pyramid. After a reversion to mastabas for the
protector-god Bes and the inclusion of the divine in a non- burials of the queens ofUnas, small, steeply angled,
183 (above) Roc k-cut tomb-chapels of the Old Kingdom: royal tomb. There is also an increase in (auto)biographical pyramids are found housing the sepulchres of the wives
a. Debhen (Giza LG90: 4th Dynasty), one of the earl iest rock-cut
texts and scenes during this time, bringing the focus more ofTeti (converted from mastabas), Pepy I and Pepy II.
tombs; b. Nefer (Saqqara: mid -/late 5th Dynasty); c. Mekhu an d Sabn i
(QH 25 & 26: late 6th Dynasty), th is comprises the union of the firmly on the tomb-owner's exploits in life and his expected A major motif of the 6th Dynasty is the increase in tomb
separate tomb-chapels of a father and son; d. Nikaankh (Tihna I 3: position in death. Examples of these are found in Harkhuf's building outside the area of the principal royal residence. As
early 5th Dynasty), the tomb lies on the east bank, and this rather tomb at Aswan and Rawer's stela from Giza (CM JE66682). the Old Kingdom progressed, there was a steady devolution
strange arrangement has been adopted to allow the false -doors Private cemeteries accompany most of the royal of the authority of the court, in favour of the provinces, or
to fac e west; e . Khenuka (Tihna 14: 5th/6th Dynasty), in this case,
pyramids, that around Teti's pyramid being particularly names. The Great Chieftains (or nomarchs) of the names
a conventional tomb is employed, but w ith the false-doors placed
either side of the doorway into the main chamber, to allow them to
extensive. The majority of the kings moved to Saqqara- constructed increasingly imposing tomb-chapels at their
face the right way Sourh and many officials followed; however, the full extent local centres.

176 THE OLD KI NGDO M T H E O L D KINGDOM 177

 An important group are those at Aswan , which lie high
above the river on the west bank at Qubbet el-Hawa.
T hese rock-cut ch apels are generally simple, comprising a
co lumned h all, the n u mber of piers ranging from 2 to 18.
T he latter number is found in the tomb (QH25) ofMekhu,
w ith the contiguous sepulchre of his son Sabni (26) adding
a further 12 pillars. The tombs share an external court,
approached from the riverbank by fine, steeply sloped,
causeways.
Other later O ld Kingdom private cemeteries include
D esh ash a,' 89 where the rock-cut ch apels oflnti and Iteti have
m ain chambers w ith three rectangular pillars across their
width and a deep niche at the rear. This arrangement is also
fo und in the tomb of Niankhpepy (14) at Zawiyet Sultan :::::•:::::
and in a four-p illared version belongi ng to Khunes (2) at
b

I 87 (above )The rock-cut chapel of Nefer at Saqqara, with multiple false-doors for members of his family (5th Dynasty). 189 (above) The double mastaba of queens Ne bet and Khenut, wives 19 I (right) Rock-cut
of Unas (Saqqara: late 5th Dynasty). tomb-chapels of the later O ld
1 88 (below) The upper part of the false-door of Kaha, the father of Nefer, in his son's tomb. Kingdom: a. lnti (Deshasha I:
190 (below) A ru ined rock-cut tomb at Zaw1yet Sultan,with a 5t h/6th Dynasty); b.Tjauti (Qasr
transverse chamber, at the back of which a pair of engaged statues w'ei-Sayed 2: 6th Dynasty);
flank the doorway into the innermost chamber (6th Dynasty). c. Pepyankh t he Elder (Q useir
ei-Amarna I: mid-6th Dynasty),
in this east bank tomb, the
false-door is in the side room,
oriented towards the west;
d. Meru (Sheikh Said 5: 6th
Dynasty); e. Unknown owner
(Sheikh Said 37: 6th Dynasty).

THE O L D KING D OM 179

 /
193 (nght) Plan of the mastaba
ofWeni at Abydos, comprising
a th1 ck outer retaining wal l,
largely fil led with sand (mid-6th
Dynasty).

194 (below) Plan ofthe

mastaba of Men1 at Dendara
(6th Dynasty) .

dl~
19 5 Plan and section of t he t omb of Mereri at Dendara (early F.rst
Interm ediate Penod).

interesting feature of a ramp built against the sarcophagus

to facilitate the placement of the lid. Such a feature was
192 The causeways lead ing up to t he tombs of Me khu and Sabni (QH2S and 26: 6th Dynasty) dominate t h1s view of t he Qubbet ei-Hawa at doubtless used not infrequently, but it is rare to find it a
Aswan.The tombs to the north are of mixed date, 1ncluding the 12th Dynasty tombs ofSarenput i (QH36) and ii (QH3 1 - next to QH26). wi th clean gravel, suggesting an intentional act at the time permanent stone fixture .
that the tomb went out of regular use. A similar feature is Following on from the introduction of decoration into
the same site. Moving further south, most necropoleis consist Abydos, was square, with a modest chapel built just north of fo und in the somewhat later mastaba at Dendara, the tomb the royal burial chambers at the end of the 5th Dynasry,
mainly of rock-cut sepulchres; contrasting with the usual the centre of the east side, which probably once contained of Mereri. In contrast, more rock tombs are to be found at inscribed and painted burial chambers became not
straightforward set of quarried rooms, at Tihna a series of the owner's autobiographical text, now in Cairo. A niche Q asr w' el-Sayed and Thebes, 2 or and mastabas at Edfu, 202 uncommon during the 6th Dynasty. A number of examples
mastabas are cut from the living rock. These date to the very with a false-door lay in the middle of the north face of the before reaching the aforementioned extensive rock-cut are found in the Teti cemetery at Saqqara, 4 in particular the
20

beginning of the 5th Dynasry (see above, pp. 155-6, 176). mastaba. The 30-m (roo-ft) square mastaba comprised a cemetery at Aswan. extensive paintings of offerings in the burial chamber of
A cemetery of considerable size'9° is located at Sheikh thick outer retaining wall, the interior being filled with sand, Away from the Nile Valley, the latter part of the Old Mereruka. The principal Old Kingdom examples are
Said.'9' Most of the chapels comprise a transverse chamber save for walls enclosing the upper parts of the three burial Kingdom saw considerable activity in the Western Desert summarized on pp. 183-5, together with a number of other
and a smaller one beyond. The latter feature is, however, shafts and a serdab in the south eastern corner. oases. Amongst the most impressive surviving monuments tombs that may either belong to the 6th Dynasty or the First
missing from many of the nearby sepulchres at Quseir Dendara's cemeteries contain a range of mastabas from there are the 6th Dynasty governors' tombs at Balat in the Intermediate Period.
el-Amarna'9 2 and Deir el-Gebrawi.'9l Yet more rock-cut the 6th Dynasty and later. 200 Made of brick with rubble D akhla Oasis and their associated necropoleis. 20J The latter At first scholars assumed that decorated burial chambers
I
i
I
I
I tombs of the period are to be found in cemeteries A, D filling, many have panelled eastern fa<;:ades, generally with tombs feature a mud-brick enclosure with a stela at the back, were restricted to certain groups of officials, such as viziers.
I ' I and Eat Meir'94 and other such sites as El-Hamamiya,'95 very wide, but shallow, chapels directly behind them. In pro tected within a brick structure, sometimes of mastaba However, the list of people at Saqqara-South who have such
! '

I I Gebel Sheikh el-Haridi,'96 Naga el-Deir'97 and El-Hagarsa.'9 8

The area of Abydos contains many sepulchres of the Old
some cases a whole string of rooms lies just inside the eastern
margin of the mastaba. One example, that of Meni, has the
fo rm. A similar arrangement is seen at the governors' tombs,
which comprise large panelled mastabas, preceded by a pair
burial chambers includes other ranks of officials, such as
Overseers of the Pyramids, Inspectors of Prophets, Overseers
Kingdom, many with built superstructures, in particular interesting feature of an open court occupying its northern of open courts. of Scribes, Prophetesses of Hathor, Lector Priests and other
the Middle Cemetery, which contains burials of high-status part, entered through an arched doorway in the western wall priestly officials, so the presence of decorated burial
individuals, particularly of the 6th Dynasty. and with a bench running along the northern and eastern Su bstructures chambers cannot be tied to rank, but rather to religious
One of the most important examples is the mud-brick sides. Similar benches have been found in the 6th Dynasry Burial chambers vary in size throughout the 6th Dynasry, trends of the time, or taste.
mastaba ofWeni, Governor ofUpper Egypt underTeti, mastaba ofKagemeni at Saqqara. From this area, a staircase the most impressive being those ofMereruka and Kagemeni On the whole, decoration in these burial chambers tried
Pepy I and Nemryemsafl.•99 It, like other mastabas at led to the roof of the mastaba; the courryard was found filled in the Teti cemetery at Saqqara. The former also has the to avoid depicting people or live animals, as these had the

180 T HE OLD KI NGDOM TH E OLD K I NGDOM 181

potential magical power to harm the deceased. Instead, the The sarcophagus chamber of (another) Meru at Sheikh
decoration was restricted to offering lists and images of food Said (tomb 5) contained an offering list,' 0 9 while the 6th
and drink, including granaries, which signified a plentiful Dynasty tomb ofinti at Abu Sir South had a false-door,
food and commodity supply in the afterlife; examples reminiscent of the one found in Meresankh Ill's earlier 197 During the latter part of
include the mastabas ofMereruka and Kagemeni (LSro) tomb at Giza. 200 the O ld Kingdom, the distinction
at Saqqara and Seshemnefer iv at Giza. An unusual example Rather surprisingly, highly decorated burial chambers between sarcophagi and burial
chambers became sometimes
from the same cemetery also contains images of boats and are also found in 6th Dynasty tombs at Balat in the Dakhla
somewhat blu rred. Small stone-
cattle being transported on boats. 20 5 Further examples of Oasis, adorned with scenes of offerings,"' and in some cases,
bui lt rooms, only large enough to
such decorated burial chambers abound in the cemeteries such as the tomb ofKhentika (mastaba III), an image of contai n a coffin, were decorat ed
surrounding the pyramid ofPepy II, as well as the walled the deceased himself''' The substructures of these large with offering scenes and texts of
enclosure of the Teti cemetery.206 sepulchres took two basic forms. ''l One was based on the th e same type that were
However, there are exceptions to the avoidance of construction of the chambers in large open cuttings, becom ing current in some
coffins; this example belonged to
animate beings, such as the burial chamber in the mastaba the other on building them within galleries accessed by
Deshri, buried near the pyramid
ofKaemankh (G4561) at Giza. Surprisingly, this contains conventional shafts. This technique was predicated on the of Nemtyemsaf I at Saqqara-
the same range of decoration as that found in a chapel. ground conditions at Balat. So uth (C M CG 1572).
Its paintings include images of offering bearers bringing live In kings' tombs, the late 5th Dynasty design was
produce and livestock, butchers, beer and bread production, perpetuated down to the reign ofPepy II, while the
food preparation, bed-making, as well as the deceased pyramids of queens generally have a simple sloping-passage- DECORATED PRIVATE SUBSTRUCTURES OF THE OLD KINGDOM
fowling and fishing in the marshes. 20 7 and-chamber design. A number of curious burials of Site Tomb Date Owner Compositions
Although tombs outside the Memphite area also had members of the royal family seem to date from the end of Abydos 6th Dyn ldi Offerings & list; object frieze & granaries; false-doors
decorated burial chambers, these are a rarity. Bubastis, the 6th Dynasty."' One is of a wife ofPepy II, named
however, seems to have been an anomaly, as several examples Abydos 5th/6th Dyn luu Offerings
Ankhenespepy IV, whose tomb was simply a store-room of
of such tomb-chambers have been found there. A few the mortuary chapel of a fellow spouse of the king, Iput II. Abydos 6th Dyn Weni Offerings & list; object frieze & granaries; false-doors
inscribed chambers have also been recorded at Mendes; A stela had been inscribed on one wall and the sarcophagus
Balat Mastaba Ill 6th Dyn Khentika Offerings
perhaps this reflects a Delta tradition. The 6th Dynasty improvised out of reused blocks. The other example
tomb ofMeru at Heliopolis/Tell Hisn contains the name belonged to a Prince Ptahshepses, who found rest in a fine Dendara 6th Dyn Menankh-Pepy Painted false-door, offering lists & titles of deceased
and rides of the deceased, but no depictions of offerings, as 4th Dynasty sarcophagus, buried in part of the valley temple Dendara 6th Dyn ldu Offerings with texts, titles of deceased
is the case with the tomb ofHepi-kem (tomb A{) at Meir. 20 s ofUnas. Clearly, the wherewithal was not available to build
Sheikh Said Old Kingdom Meru Offering list
proper tombs, nor provide virgin stone for the production
196 Decorated burial chamber of Mereruka. showing t he unusual of new sarcophagi.
Giza G7530+ 4th Dyn Meresankh Ill False-door
ramp incorporated into the sarcophagus to faci litate the placement of Away from the Memphite necropolis, the shift from
7540
the lid atop the coffer (Saqqara: 6th Dynasty) . approaching the burial chamber via shafts to doing so
through sloping passages is also seen at a site such as Giza G4561 6th Dyn Kaemankh Registers showing offering bringers, offerings, funerary priests,
butchers, furniture, servants, dancers, musicians, bakers, farmers , boats,
Dendara. The tomb ofMereri is particularly interesting in cooks, granaries
preserving a staircase leading up to the roof of the mastaba,
Giza 6th Dyn Seshemnefer Depictions of offerings on wall with text above; only text legible is
from which a well leads to the beginning of a sloping passage, 'honoured by Horus'
cut as a trench and roofed with brick. The lower part of the
Giza 6th Dyn? Rawer Offerings
passage passes first through an arched doorway, with a series
of relieving arches above it, and then into a vestibule, its Heliopolis 6th Dyn Meru Name & titles of deceased
upper part covered with a dome- one of the oldest of its
Meir 6th Dyn Hepi-kem Name & titles of deceased
kind known. The burial chamber beyond was cut in the
desert gravel. Sloping passages are also found in most Abu Sir-S. 6th Dyn lnti False-door

rock-cut tombs, good examples being found in the Qubbet Saqqara 6th Dyn Raemni Offerings
el-Hawa necropolis at Aswan. Of course simple shafts also
Meir D2 6th Dyn Pepyankh-heryib Offering lists, granaries, house-fa~ades and offerings
continue to appear, particularly in less elaborate sepulchres.

I 82 T H E 0 L D K I N G D 0 M
THE OLD KINGDOM 183
 Site Tomb Date Owner Compositions Site Tomb Date Owne r Compositions

5aqqara 6th Dyn Id ut Offering list 5aqqara 6th Dyn Khentika-lkhekhi Burial chamber I & 11: offerings, offering list & text

5aqqara 6th Dyn Maru Bebi Walls: offering list, granaries, funerary equipment & texts 5aqqara 6th Dyn Ankhmahor 5esi Offering list, offerings & funerary equipment

5aqqara L510 6th Dyn Kagemeni Offerings, magazines & offering texts 5aqqara 6th Dyn Mereruka Doorway & thickness: I0 lines of text; walls: offerings, offering lists
& offering texts
I I 5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn Penu Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles; walls: offering
texts, offering list, granaries & offerings 5aqqara 6th Dyn lshethi Tjetji Painted offering list, offerings, granaries & palace fa~ade

5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn 5enti Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles; walls: offering 5aqqara 6th Dyn 5esheshet ldut Offerings, offering lists & chests with feathers on top
texts, offering list & offerings
5aqqara 6th Dyn Niankhba Offerings & funeral equipment painted on walls
5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn Nekhut Doorway: titles painted on lintel
5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn lhy Offering texts, offering list & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn Nebpupepy 5eni Doorway: jambs with titles & thickness with offerings
5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Neferkhu Offering texts & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. MIV 6th Dyn Washiptah Lintel: offering list
5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Mereri E. Wall: 3 registers with offerings, granaries & bound ox; 5. wall :
5aqqara-5. MIV 6th Dyn Heneni Lintel , jamb & walls: offering texts 6 chests; N . wall : remains of offering list

5aqqara- 5. MIX 6th Dyn 5hey Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Nebu Offering text & names of offerings

5aqqara-5. MX 6th Dyn Ptahankhu Walls: offering texts, granaries & offerings 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn larti Offering text & names of offerings

5aqqara-5. MXI 6th Dyn Me hi Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles; walls : offering texts, 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn lti Khnetkaus Doorway: offering text & names & titles on lintel & jambs; walls:
offering list, granaries & offerings offerings, texts & names of offerings

5aqqara-5. MXI 6th Dyn 5hemait Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts; walls: offering texts, 5aqqara- 5. 6th Dyn Pepi Doorway: offering texts on lintel & titles on jambs; walls: offering texts,
offering lists, granaries & offerings offering list, granaries & offerings

5aqqara- 5. MXIII 6th Dyn lmameryre W .Wall: offering text & offerings; niche with palace fa~ade decoration 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Khubawy Walls : offering texts, granaries & offerings
& titles
5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Nemtidjeref Walls: offerings
5aqqara- 5. MXIII 6th Dyn Nihebsed Doorway: lintel with offering texts; walls: offering list, names, offerings
& titles 5aqqara-5. 6th Dyn Remeni Walls: offerings

5aqqara-5. MXIV 6th Dyn Khabaukhnum Biu Walls: offering list & offerings 5aqqara- 5. MVI 6th Dyn/FIP Nesmerut Nesti Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts; walls: offerings

5aqqara-5. MXV 6th Dyn Teti Walls: offering list & offerings 5aqqara-5. MVII 6th Dyn/FIP 5eni Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles; walls: offering
texts, offering list, granaries & offerings
5aqqara-5. MXVI 6th Dyn A nu Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts & titles
5aqqara-5. MVIII 6th Dyn/FIP 5etibti Bebi Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering text
5aqqara-5. MXVII 6th Dyn 5obkhotep Doorway: remains of text on lintel ; walls: offering texts, offering list
& offerings 5aqqara-5. MXII 6th Dyn/FIP 5ebaku (ii) Doorway: remains of name on jambs & lower part of offering list

5aqqara- 5. NVII 6th Dyn Degem Merypepy Walls: offering texts, offering list, granaries & offerings 5aqqara- 5. MXII 6th Dyn/ FIP Wad jet Doorway: lintel & jambs with offering texts; walls: texts

5aqqara-5. NVIII 6th Dyn Raherka Lintel: offering text; jamb: titles ; walls: offering text, granaries 5aqqara- 5. MXII 6th Dyn/FIP 5ebaku (i) Doorway: names on jambs; walls: offering lists & granaries
& offerings
5aqqara-5. NXI 6th Dyn/ FIP Neferkarenakhte Offering lists, granaries & names of offerings
5aqqara-5. NIV 6th Dyn Biu (usurped from Doorway: offering text on lintel & titles on jambs; walls: offering texts, Khetuihotep
Akhi) offering list, granaries & offerings
5aqqara-5. 0.11 6th Dyn/FIP Khnemu Walls: fragment of offering list, texts of granaries, names & titles
5aqqara NV 6th Dyn 5henay Fragment of decoration showing offerings
5aqqara-5 . 6th Dyn/FIP lri Doorway: remains of name of deceased ;w alls: offerings, offering texts
5aqqara- 5. NX 6th Dyn Ankhnebef Doorway: offering text; lintel & jamb: titles; walls: offering text, offering and texts of offerings & granaries
list, texts of granaries & names of offerings
5aqqara- 5. FIP Deshri Walls & ceiling blocks with offering texts, granaries, offerings
5aqqara-5. 0.1 6th Dyn Nipepy Ni Doorway: conventional text of building tomb, threat on lintel & jambs; & offering list
walls & niche: offering texts , offering list, granaries & offerings

184 THE OLD KINGDOM T H E 0 L D KI N G D 0 M I 85

 desert surface at El-Tarif, with the royal chapel at the rear
Chapter 8 The First Intermediate Period, and the tombs of officials along the sides of the court.» 8
Middle Kingdom and At least one of the royalsa.ffi, that ofinyotefii, had a chapel
at the eastern end of the courtyard, perhaps intended as a
Second Intermediate Period kind of valley temple. A Ramesside description of this
sepulchre mentions a pyramid as forming part of the tomb;
however, no traces have been found. The programme of
~
r••······················
decoration of the royalsa.ffi is unclear, although several stelae
• • ·························
••
are known. These are well carved in relief and show images 2:1 .
of the king with offerings, and in the case of the example ~
fro m Inyo tefii's 'valley temple', the king attended by his pet
ho unds. 215 m
At least one of the kings of Herakleopolis seems to have j
had a pyramid at Saqqara, according to the stelae of its

g
The end of the Old Kingdom was followed by a rapid
collapse of central authority and a corresponding rise in
the importance of the provinces. Towards the end of the
a king. It included a courtyard, a causeway and what seems
to be the remains of a valley building, forming the focus of
a cemetery of some size. » 6
-
199 (above) Plan ofthe Saff ei-Qisaiyia at EI-Tarif, the tomb of lnyotef
11. Rooms making up the chapel of the king himself are at the rear of
the structure, while the chapels of members of the government and
period, two power centres coalesced around the cities of Chapels of the First Intermediate Period have the same household lie on either side of the courtyard (early IIth Dynasty).
Herakleopolis and Thebes; in the subsequent civil wars, decorative repertoire as tombs of the Old Kingdom, with
200 (left) The rock-tombs of Beni H asan (I I th- 12th Dynasties).
the The bans were to be victorious . The ensuing Middle subtle changes. Many elements of Old Kingdom royal
Kingdom saw a number of extremely innovative sepulchres iconography had been taken over by the elite, especially 20 I (below) The tomb of lnyotef I at EI-Tarif (Saff ei-Dawaba), with
constructed, incorporating an ingenuity not again seen in since, in some cases, that elite had set itself up as minor that of his successor on the left, and smaller saff-tombs behind.This
the archaeological record. The Middle Kingdom was royalty. These usurpations became a part of the stock high- area is now almost entirely covered with modern housing.
followed by a gradual decline and then by the occupation status iconography from this period onwards. They include
of the northern part of Egypt by the Palestinian H yksos: the wearing of a false beard (starting at the end of the 6th
funerary monuments of this latter era are uncommon. Dynasty), wearing the shendyt kilt and using portions of
funerary texts. On the other hand, the impoverished state of
FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD the country often led to decoration being restricted to stone
7th to I I th Dynasties stelae, frequently of mediocre quality.
This period saw the beginning of the important series of
Superstructures tombs at Beni Hasan, beginning with simple, single-roomed
In the necropoleis around Memphis, only a few small tombs monuments, but later continuing with much more elaborate
can be dated to the First Intermediate Period; in contrast, structures. » 7 Towards the end of the period there appeared at
sites south of the Fayoum, in Middle and Upper Egypt, Thebes tombs whose offering places are fronted by a wide
contain a considerable number of rock-cut chapels of the but shallow fore-hall, the front of which consists of a series
period. Most are of simple one-room form, some with of pillars, giving the sepulchres their Arabic name, saff,
pillars, for example that ofTefibi at Asyut (tomb 3). On the implying a 'line', or 'many doorways' (type IIIb; see ill. 242).
other hand, the sepulchre of Ankhtifi at Moalla is a far more The largest examples, which belonged to the Inyotefkings
impressive monument.2 ' ' The rocky hill into which the of the early nth Dynasty, were courtyards sunk into the
chapel is cut is separate from the surrounding cliffs and
takes the form of a natural pyramid, and it seems clear that 198 (above) Asiatic traders depicted in the tomb-chape l of
Ankhtifi made this into part of a complex that aped that of Khnumhotep iii at Beni Hasan (BH -1 11: 12th Dynasty) .

186 THE Fl RST I NTE RM ED lATE PE RI 0 D. MIDDLE Kl NG D OM AND SECOND I NTERM EDIA TE PERIOD THE Fl RST I NTERM ED lATE PE RI OD, MIDDLE Kl NG DO M AND SECOND I NTERM ED lATE PER I 0 D 187
 202 The only evidence for
the pyramid of King Merykare
of the IOth Dynasty are t he
stelae of some of its priesthood.
many of whom also served the
6th Dynasty cult ofTeti.This
belongs to Gemen1. whose to mb
lay nearTeti's pyramid
(Co penhagen Ny Carlsberg
IEIN 16 16).

priests. It would appear to have lain near the pyramid of destination has been destroyed, along with most of the
Teti, but it has never been positively identified. 21 9 Also interior of the superstructure. A passage descends from the
apparently belonging to the First Intermediate Period is a end of the vestibule, its roof supported by a series of brick
huge square brick monument at Dara. This mysterious arches, until it ends abruptly in a small stone-lined burial 203 The mortuary temple of Me ntu hotep 11at Deir ei-Bahari.
structure is of considerable size, exceeding the base area of chamber. Strangely, the chamber's Boor is at the same angle
all brick pyramids except for that at Abu Rowash. Its exact as the passage, with its ceiling at a slightly shallower angle.
form and precise dating are unclear, but it certainly falls This would suggest a hurried change of plan- presumably king responsible, Mentuhotep II, was nonetheless buried at but with the body wholly shrouded, it was particularly fitted
during the First Intermediate Period. 220 the intended burial chamber would have been further south. Thebes, where his funerary installation was clearly based on to a king both dead and awaiting rejuvenation, the latter also
In the Saqqara necropolis a few tombs dated to the First the models at El-Tarif. However, his tomb was modified to being the prime objective of the heb-sed. Mentuhotep's
Substructures Intermediate Period carried on the Old Kingdom habit of take into account the wholly different topography of Deir statues are often termed (misleadingly) as 'Osirid' figures
As with superstructures, the burial arrangements of tombs of inscribing the burial chamber with offering lists, offerings el-Bahari: a deep bay in the rock, Banked on the north by (seep. q) :22 J true 'Osirid' figures, where the king is
the First Intermediate Period largely follow on from late Old and images of granaries. Examples include the tombs of high cliffs used for the tomb. The royal temple-tomb itself mummiform, are not found until the reign ofMentuhotep
Kingdom practice. One change that may be seen is the Deshri (ill. I97), Iri, the Sebakus, Wadjet and Neferkare- lay on two levels, both fronted by built colonnades of III at Armant. 224
completion of a shift from square to rectangular shafts that nakhte. Many of these tombs seem to span the end of the proto-Doric columns. The upper terrace's central focus was It is difficult to reconstruct the precise schema of
had begun during the Old Kingdom. This was the result of 6th Dynasty and the advent of the First Intermediate Period a large square massif, either a mastaba or pyramid, perhaps decoration ofMentuhotep's temple, as the remains are very
a definitive shift from crouched or flexed burials to fully (cf. pp. r84-5) . representing the mound of creation. 222 This was surrounded fragmentary, but a sense of the scenes can be made from the
extended ones, with consequent changes in the proportions by a pillared hall, behind which was a colonnaded court and fragments that were recovered. The lower colonnade of the
of coffins, the principal items to be lowered down shafts. One MIDDLE KINGDO M then a hypostyle hall, at the back of which was the main temple was decorated with processions of boats and foreign
very interesting monument, however, the 'pyramid' at Dara I I th Dynasty offering place. campaigns, showing the king vanquishing the enemy, the
has unusual substructure arrangements. m It was apparently From the avenue leading to the monument come a royal lion trampling foes, soldiers marching, fighting in siege
entered via a horizontal vaulted passage in the middle of the Superstructures series of statues showing the king standing upright with and battle scenes and foreign prisoners of all ages and both
north side. Beyond this, a vestibule has a stairway running Court Burials: During the second half of the nth Dynasty, the his arms crossed over his chest and wearing the heb-sed genders. Historical texts detailing battles against the Asiatics
upwards to the left and a passage to the right; their Theban kings obtained the rule of the whole of Egypt. The jubilee robe. As later depictions of Osiris take this pose, are found in this area. The upper colonnade had, on the

188 T H E FI RS T INTERM ED IATE PER IO D, MIDD L E KI NGDOM AND SECOND IN TE RMEDIA TE PER IOD T HE FI RST I N TER MED IATE PE RI OD, MIDDLE K I NGD OM AND SECO N D IN TERME DI ATE PERIO D 189
 southern side, hunting in the desert. Other scenes from this with a brick-sheathed flat fac,:ade, approached by a steeply While a number of tombs in the Deir el-Bahari
level included images of daily life with herdsmen, boats, the sloping rectangular courtyard (Type Ilia) . Owing to the necropolis were used during the latter part of the nth
papyrus harvest and scenes of marshlands (presumably from poor quality of the rock, the decoration was executed on Dynasty, the funerary arrangements of the last two kings
the northern wall). Closer to the central massif, the sacred a limestone lining. of the dynasty are unclear. It is known that a functioning
focus of this monument, images of the king and the gods Other tombs of the period continued the sajftype, a funerary establishment existed for Mentuhotep Ill, but it
engage in different activities that ensured the continuation variation using free-standing pillars rather than rock-cut has yet to be firmly identified. One possibility, however, is
of the cosmic cycle and the eternal life of the pharaoh. piers being seen in the tomb ofMeketre (TT28o). With that it may have been identical with a well-known sanctuary
Scenes of offering being made, the king being embraced by their long, tunnel-like, rear part, these sepulchres provide built by the king, atop a rock massif known as 'Thoth
various divinities, the success of the heb-sed race, images of the prototype for the classic 'T-shaped' Theban tomb- Hill' .227 This temple had, however, been built on the site
royal ancestors and the king performing the daily ritual for chapel, a form that became particularly common in the of an earlier shrine, which might argue against it being
the gods, all work together to ensure the safety of the king New Kingdom. One interesting variation is found in the a mortuary monument. On the other hand, a ravine on
and the country. tomb ofMeketre, which had a small chamber cut below the north side of the hill has revealed, half way up a 35-m
In addition to the cult for the dead king, Mentuhotep, the main corridor of the chapel and another below the (n5-ft) cliff, a tomb with a large burial chamber and stone
the temple at Deir el-Bahari also contained chapels for six fac,:ade, equivalent to the serdabs of earlier periods. The sarcophagus. Turned into a Coptic shrine in the 4th
of his female family members. These shrines are markedly former contained an exceptional set of tomb models, of century AD, this could have been Mentuhotep Ill's
different in their decoration, being more in keeping with a type more usually placed in the burial chamber. 226 burial place.
private funerary chapels of the period. They show scenes of
daily life with, in addition to the usual scenes of butchery 206 Relief of Queen Ashayet receiving offerings; from her sarcophagus found in her tomb (DBXI. I7) in Mentuhotep ll 's temple (CM JE47267).
and offerings, an emphasis on cows, calves and milking.
These are perhaps an allusion to Hathor, goddess of the
West in general and of the site ofDeir el-Bahari in
particular. The motifs are continued on and in the
· sarcophagi of these women. Another vignette that is typical
of these female chapels and sarcophagi is the consumption
ofliquid offerings. This motif, although seen in a few
mastabas at Saqqara, is rare and not repeated in a royal
context until the Amarna Period. The ubiquitous presence
of lotus flowers underlines the funerary nature of these
representations.
Just outside Mentuhotep Il's temple was the small,
finely decorated rock-cut tomb-chapel of Queen Neferu 11
(TT319) .22 s This had a small fac,:ade and a stone-lined passage
leading back into a square chapel, with decoration that
focused on the usual offering-related scenes, plus others
showing the hairdressing of the queen- a motif also found
in the tombs of the six royal ladies mentioned just above.
The tombs of the principal officers of state lay along the
broad processional way that led from the temple towards the
cultivation. Many were built high up in the northern cliffs,

204 (above left) Relief of Mentuhotep 11 embraced by Re , from the

rear part of his temple (BM EA 1397).

205 (left) Reconstruction of the mortuary shrine of Queen Ashayet

from w it hin the mortuary temple of Mentuhotep 11. Her burial
chamber lay at the bottom of a shaft below (I I th Dynasty) .

190 THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD. MIDDLE KINGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD THE FIRST INTERMED IATE PER I OD, MIDDLE KINGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 191
 a

208 The foun dations of a temple simi lar to that of Ment uhotep 11
were constructed some way to the south of Deir ei-Bahari ('Wadi S');
its founder remains uncertain.The graded platform below the
c cliffs, with the entrance to the royal tomb (TT281 ), is at the rear.
surrounded by shaft tombs. Grading for the causeway leads into the
distance, flattening the southern end of the Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna hill
207 Plans of three significant The ban tombs of the latter part of the before terminati ng in the vicinity of the Ramesseum (late I Ith/early
I Ith Dynasty.They all feature mud-bri ck fa~ades and bunal-passages 12th Dynasty) .
opening from the rear or the floor of the chapel: a. Dagi (TT I 03:
Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna); b. Khety (TT3 I I: Deir ei-Bahari); c. Meketre
(TT280:Wadi S).The small chambers under the fa~ade and main 209 The superstructure of the tomb of Meketre (TT280) incorporated a chamber containing models - a featu re mo re no rmally fo und in
passage contai ned tomb-models.The southern chapel-complex hallmarks of a royal tomb and thus the temple was long the substructure.They are of extraordinarily high quality; this one depicts the inspection of cattle by Meketre (CMJE46724: late I It h/early
probably belonged to the tomb-owner's son. attributed to Mentuhotep Ill. However, it has now been 12th Dynasty) .
argued that it may have belonged to the founder of the
next, r2th, Dynasty,228 perhaps following initial work by the earlier tombs are fairly simple, with a single room funerary equipment of the period, including the now-
Another candidate is represented by an unfinished the ephemeral Mentuhotep IV. Further work on the divided into two by a double row of pillars. The walls standard placement of wooden models on the lids of the
mortuary temple in a bay in the cliffs behind Sheikh Abd problem is dearly needed. opposite their entrances are devoid of a false-door, which coffins. 22 9
el-Qurna. Nothing of the building itself remains- indeed, had to be located to one side of the doorway in order to At Dendara, in contrast with the mastabas that comprise
no structure ever seems seems to have been erected- The Provinces: The provincial cemeteries that had grown up face west. the vast majority of the necropolis, there is a single tomb-
although extensive grading work for the platform and earlier in the First Intermediate Period continued to The fully fledged tomb-chapels, such as these, lie on a chapel cut in the side of a rising area of desert.'Ja Belonging
approach are still dearly to be seen and will have formed flourish. A particularly important site is Beni Hasan, which terrace along the upper part of the cliff. On the slope to Inyotefiqer ii, it is very similar to Theban tombs at
the basis for a structure much like that at Deir el-Bahari. provides an excellent example of a provincial necropolis of directly below were cur the simple shaft-tombs of the middle El-Tarif, with a sunken courtyard framing a colonnade, in
Moreover, tomb-chapels with steeply sloping courtyard the period. It lies on the east bank of the river and thus classes, occasionally marked on the surface by a stela. Many which were found the stelae of the occupants of the tomb.
approaches overlook the site. Clearly this bears all the reverses the usual orientation of tomb-chapels. The plans of were found intact and provide very good examples of the Beyond this, a passage led through a two-pillared room to a

192 T H E Fl RST I N TE RM ED l ATE PERI 0 D. M I DD LE Kl N G DO M AND SECON D I NTE RM ED I ATE PERIOD THE FIRS T I NTERMEDIATE PERIOD. MIDD LE KINGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PER I OD 193
small chamber. Shafts opened in the floor of the pillared THE 12T H DYNASTY
room, while a sloping passage led down from the innermost
chamber of the chapel. Built Superstructures and Offering Places m= ~~ 2 1 I (/eft) Plan of the pyramid
complex of Senwosret I, showing
Royal Tombs: The kings of the 12th Dynasty resumed the use the large numbe r of small
~
~
Substructures of pyramids. That of Amenemhat I at Lisht employed large pyramids w it hin its enclosure .
The usual mix of simple rock-cut shafts and sloping passages quantities of re-used stone, much of it dearly from 4th
"" / D
~

~
2 12 (right) Plan of the pyramid
are to be found in the royal and private sajftombs of the Dynasty pyramid complexes. It has been suggested that
some of this re-use had a ritual import, linking Amenemhat
complex of Senwosret 11 at D
early nth Dynasty at El-Tar if. Rather more elaborate designs Lahun. While t he superstructures D .
reappear in the cemeteries of the reign ofMentuhotep II at with the great kings of the past. '3' On the other hand, if the of t he vario us tombs lay to the D

~
Deir el-Bahari. pyramid were indeed the replacement for an earlier The ban north of t he pyramid, t he ir D
At the rear of the king's own temple, an approximately monument, time may have been considered as being of the subst ructures were on the D
150 m (500ft) long passageway, lined in part with sandstone, essence and ready-cur stone used for convenience. Little o pposite side of t he pyramid. D
descended to a granite-lined, gable-roofed room, containing survives of Amenemhat's mortuary temple, which was built Br The exce ption was tomb 62 1, D

a calcite shrine in which the king was buried. A similar on two levels, perhaps recalling the temple ofMentuhotep II.
Senwosret I's pyramid complex at Lisht was modelled on
[9 0 almost certainly belonging to t he
small pyramid, but outside t he ~
passageway lay in the northeast corner of the tree-lined pyramid enclosure entire ly
courtyard in front of the temple and gave access to a dummy late Old Kingdom examples and included what may be the
-.. ( 12th Dynasty).
burial that seems to have been linked with the royal jubilee last of all subsidiary pyramids. The enclosure also contained
rituals. nine small pyramids for members of the royal family.' l' The back walls of the temple that were closest to the
A gable-roofed burial chamber was also employed in the Fragments of relief retrieved from the pyramid temple pyramid were adorned with stelae, as well as images of the
tomb of Queen Tern, in the rear courtyard ofher husband's provide a basic idea of mortuary temple decoration at this king, accompanied by his ka, seated at offering tables. Lists
temple. In contrast, the substructure of the tomb of Queen time.'JJ The enclosure wall was decorated with a series of of offerings, and images of priests carrying them, were
Neferu II was concealed behind the south wall of her chapel images of the serekh (niched palace fa~ade), surmounted by inscribed on the walls. The decorative themes used are thus
(p. 190), a sloping passage leading to a stone-lined decorated the king's name, with offering bearers marching below. essentially those of the Old Kingdom. Also as in the later
burial chamber, sealed by a monolithic stone door. T he Engaged Osirid and free-standing statues of the king lined O ld Kingdom, a small chapel lay over the entrance to the
room's walls were covered with offering lists, together with the approach to the temple. The ceilings, as always, were pyramid; its decorative programme resembles that found in
extracts from the Pyramid and Coffin Texts. From the same engraved or painted with five-pointed stars. Processions of the mortuary temple.
reign is the chamber of the shaft-tomb ofKemsit (TT3o8- deities adorned the walls, together with scenes of the king Amenemhat II's almost entirely destroyed pyramid'H
belonging to one of the six shrines in Mentuhotep II's temple: offering to the gods and, in turn, being given life, a strong lay on the very edge of the desert at Dahshur, in contrast
see p. 190) depicting offering bringers and the deceased reign and acceptance by them. with the locations at the site chosen by Seneferu half a
having her hair dressed. Interestingly, these motifs closely millennium earlier. A wholly new site was, however, chosen
match those found on the sarcophagi ofKemsit herself and 2 10 The pyramid of Senwosret I at Lisht (12th Dynasty) . for the pyramid ofSenwosret II, at Lahun in the Fayoum. 2 J5
other royal women buried nearby (cf. ill. 206). As with the T his monument was also radical in its construction, being
earlier case ofKaemankh (pp. 182-3), such 'daily-life' scenes the first pyramid since the end of the 3rd Dynasty to be 2 13 Many of the tombs at Lahun ut ilize the mat e rial-savi ng approach
are exceptional as far as a burial chamber is concerned. built of brick, albeit with a substantial stone content, of using natural rock as part of their supe rstructure, including the
beginning with the natural rock knoll that formed the king's pyramid (south side shown here).
In the tombs of the members of the court, the burial
chamber was approached from the back of the chapel, either lower part of the pyramid core. Brick was keyed into this,
via a vertical shaft or a sloping passageway, hidden behind but the stability of the whole structure depended on radial side of the pyramid, breaking with the 8oo-year tradition of
the false-door. Some of these chambers (e.g. in TT240, 3II, walls oflimestone that split the built core into a series of a northern entrance. In addition, the entrance was further
313 and 314) were stone-lined and decorated with depictions compartments, to be filled with brick. The use of the natural concealed under the floor of what had the appearance of an
of funerary items, false-doors, offering lists and extracts rock was extended to the carving of the mastaba cores for unused tomb intended for a member of the royal family.
from the Coffin Texts; the sarcophagus in such tombs was the royal family out of the living rock, to be later sheathed Other, real, tombs belonging to the royal family lay
often made from separate blocks. An interesting variant is tn masonry. alongside, bur their solid mastaba superstructures were far
th e tomb ofMeru (TT240), whose burial chamber is in the The other major innovation in the layout of the tomb is away, on the opposite side of the pyramid. All these changes
form of a sarcophagus, inscribed with a false-door and that substructure entrances are no longer in the expected can only be explained by a desire to protect the burials from
Coffin Texts. place. The king's burial galleries were entered from the south plunderers.

TH E FIRST I N TE RM ED IATE PERIOD . MIDD LE KINGDOM AND SECO N D I N TER M ED I ATE PERIOD 195
194 T HE FIR ST I N TER M EDIATE PE RIO D . MID D L E KI N G DOM A ND SECO ND IN TER M ED IATE PE RI OD
 destruction, it is a pity that the Classical tourists who left
accounts of the 'Labyrinth' of Amenemhat Ill at Hawara
(p. 56) fail to mention anything worthwhile of its decoration.

Private Tombs: The cemeteries around the pyramid of

Amenemhat I comprise a mixture of mastabas and simple
shaft tombs. Of the latter, perhaps the most significant is
that at the southwest corner (tomb 372), apparently
belonging to the Chancellor Rehudjersen. Its core was
rock-cut, faced with fine-quality limestone, with an offering Ill I
-
chamber in the core at the south end. A complex of six
subsidiary rooms lay within the enclosure wall on the south,
2 14 The pyramid complex of each of vaulted brick construction. The entrance to the 215 Section and plan of the substructure of t he tomb of Senwosret-
Senwosret Ill at Dahshur
substructure was in the roof of the northern end of the ankh at Lisht.The tomb had a number of ingen ious features intended
mastaba, but the shaft, which slopes down to the south, is to deter robbers: apart from the shaft wh ich drenched any intruder
w1th sand from above, the first portcullis (now destroyed) had lugs
now flooded by ground water. 2 4' Another elaborate mastaba
slidi ng at 45 degrees t hat locked it down once lowered.
(400), actually within the southeast quadrant of the royal

t
216,217 Anumberofbuilt
enclosure/42 belonged to the lnyotefiqer who also tomb-chape ls of the early
constructed a rock-cut tomb atThebes (TT6o). 2 4l thro ugh a pair of equal-sized niches at either end of the I 2th Dynasty exist at Saqqara.
Most 12th Dynasty mastabas in the Senwosret I cemetery This (above) belongs to Ihi,
Wholly brick pyramids were constructed for both eastern fa<;:ade.
viewed from its colonnaded
Senwosret III zJG and Amenemhat Ill (pi. XV; ill. 225)237 at Lisht were solid, with an adjoining chapel, although one In the ancient cemetery of Saqqara, activity seems to court (cf. the plan ofthe
at Dahshur. Substructure entrance locations are again sepulchre, that ofSehetepibre-ankh, had an internal offering have been concentrated in the area of the pyramid ofTeti. adjoining tomb of Hetep, left),
apparently random. While the plan of the Dahshur complex chamber which also contained the shaft leading to the Two good examples of tombs of the time of Amenemhat I looki ng west to its two statue
of Amenemhat Ill broadly followed standard practice, substructure. 2 44 One very large stone mastaba tomb belongs are those oflhy and Hetep, built against the south wall of chambers and (right) the false
that of Senwosret lli 2 l 8 had a rectangular plan, with its to Senwosret-ankh. 2 45 It covers some 200 sq. m (2150 sq. ft), door Behind the tomb are the
the Old Kingdom mastaba of Kagemeni. 2 46 They comprised
O ld Kingdom monuments of
entrance in the southeast corner. In this and other facets it but the chapel on its east side covers nearly 500 sq. m (5400 a peristyle courtyard, in an inner corner of which a doorway
Mereruka andTjetju.
is clearly modelled on the ancient complex of Djoser (cf. ill. sq. ft). This had been completely destroyed, save a few led into a vestibule with two statue-rooms and a deeper
137), although in its details it is wholly a Middle Kingdom fragments of sculpture and granite relief. The chapel was chamber with the false-door. The entrance to the
confection. 2 19 The layout ultimately included an exceptional almost entirely external, with the exception of a small substructure lay in the centre of the courtyard. The extant
southern temple accessed from the southeast entrance, in extension into the mastaba core. The mastaba had a panelled decoration of these chapels is principally composed of
addition to the usual eastern mortuary temple. Members exterior, after the manner of Old Kingdom examples. The offering bringers and the receipt of offerings adjacent to the
of Senwosret Ill's family owned a series of small pyramids entrance to the substructure lay on the north side, under the false-door. North of the false-door were a series of rooms
within the enclosure, to the north and south of that of enclosure wall. Another tomb here that was almost entirely holding statues of the deceased.
the king. constructed and only partially rock-cut takes the shape of a Such 'temple-tombs' mark a new kind of funerary
A second pyramid of Amenemhat Ill, built after his tripartite shrine with a forecourt. The decorational mo nument, which is also found at Lisht, for example the
Dahshur pyramid had suffered structural failure, also had programme of the courtyard contains the majority of tombs of Senwosret and Mentuhotep. These comprise a is the large mastaba of the Vizier Sieset (L.LV), built of
an unusual enclosure design (ill. 226), probably once again 'daily-life' scenes found in earlier tombs; unfortunately it is large enclosure, often incorporating a causeway, with a free- brick with a limestone casing. Although elements of the
inspired by the Step Pyramid. 2 4° Known to Classical writers impossible to interpret the decoration in the shrine portion standing offering place, and in some cases priests' houses as decoration of the chapel survive, nothing is known of the
as the 'Labyrinth', a large area to the south of the pyramid of the tomb due to its poor state of preservation. well. A halfway house between such tombs and more chapel itself, which may have been built into the core of the
seems to have contained the principal elements of the The rubble-filled mastabas at Lisht (and later at conventional mastabas is provided by the Lisht tomb of mastaba. 2 47
mortuary temple. Dahshur) differ from their Old Kingdom predecessors in Djehuty, where the mastaba has a four-pillared fa<;:ade, The cemeteries adjacent to the Lahun pyramid
The devastated state of all these royal monuments makes being surrounded by an enclosure wall, with the leading to a symmetrical chapel with a transverse hall comprised mainly mastabas, often making considerable use
it difficult to say much about their decoration, but the substructure approached via a passageway from the north, and sanctuary. of the native rock. Chapels were thus often rock-cut; that of
surviving fragments suggest that most followed the basic rather than via a vertical shaft through the body of the The private cemetery of Amenemhat ll is largely the Chancellor lnpy (tomb 620) comprised a stone-cased
approach seen at Senwosret l's complex. In view of its total superstructures. In some cases, earlier tombs are recalled unrecorded, but 8oo m (26oo ft) south of the king's pyramid brick mastaba, about 21 x r6 m (70 x 50ft), with a largely

196 T HE FI RS T I NTERMEDIATE PERIOD. MIDDLE K I NGDOM AND SECOND IN TERMED IATE PERIOD THE FIRS T I NTERMED IATE PER IOD. MIDDLE KIN GDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 197
 rock-cut triple-shrined chapel below on the east side, which son, Inyotefiqer, 2 ' 2 the owner of a mastaba at Lisht (see design from those of the previous dynasty: a two-columned a
incorporated a four-pillared portico and a curious pit in p. 196). TT6o comprises a long corridor and a simple portico and four-pillared main hall, with a sanctuary at
front of the tomb to hinder unauthorized access. 2 4 8 chapel. The apparent lack oflarge tombs at Thebes may be the very back being features of the tombs of Ameny and
f.-
The exterior surface of a number oflimestone mastabas explained in part by the move of the court to the north, Khnumhotep iii (BH-II and Ill). The sanctuary
-
dating to the reign of Senwosret Ill at Dahshur are carved although the vagaries of preservation may also be to blame incorporated a rock-cut statue of the tomb-owner.
with recessed panelling, recalling the mastabas of the Early -including the possible usurpation of a number of nth Deir el-Bersha was also an important provincial
Dynastic Period and the enclosure wall ofDjoser, albeit Dynasty sepulchres during the early r8th Dynasty. A number cemetery during the First Intermediate Period and early
D
with the faces given a distinct batter, with monumental of tomb-chapels of this date have features that suggest that Middle Kingdom. As at Beni Hasan, a simple doorway
hieroglyphic texts often running along the top of the they may be adaptations of Middle Kingdom monuments. giving access to a rectangular chamber is replaced by a
mastaba, as well as vertically around and between areas In the north, the majority of tomb-chapels were built columned portico and more elaborate interior. Elaboration
of panelling. Examples include the monuments of structures, although there are rock-cut examples and some is also a feature of rzth Dynasty tombs at Qubbet el-Hawa
Khnumhotep, Sieset and Nebyot, with the panelling clearly built structures with rock-cut elements, for example the (Aswan), those ofSirenput i (QH36) and ii (QH3r: pi.
linked to the various aspects of archaism to be seen in aforementioned tomb oflnpy at Lahun. However, as XVII) having pillared fore-halls and then a long passage
Senwosret Ill's funerary complex.2 49 previously, most rock-cut sepulchres lay in Middle and leading to a columned offering place. Tomb 31 is particularly
The area north of the Hawara pyramid of Amenemhat Upper Egypt, due to the terrain, with Beni Hasan remaining interesting in that its passage has a series of niches, each
III contained many mastabas, reused in Graeco-Roman one of the key sites. The rzth Dynasty tombs there differ in holding a rock-cut mummiform figure.
times for sacred crocodile interments. These mastabas
comprised very thick brick retaining walls enclosing 218 Painting in TI60 (Senetllnyotef1qer), one of the few surviving 21 9 (right) Tomb-chapels at Beni Hasan, showing the appearance
limestone chip from the cutting of the substructure, the decorated I2th Dynasty tombs at Thebes. and growth of the forecou rt a. Khety i (BH-XVI I: I lth Dynasty) ; b.
Kh numhotep i (BH-XIV:Amenemhat I); c.Ameny (BH -1 1: Senwosret 1).
whole cased with fine limestone. Recorded sizes of the
mastabas vary from 6 to r8 m (20 to 6o ft) long, while only a 220 (below) Reconstruction of the tomb of Khnumhotep (tomb 2) at
few scraps of decorated limestone survive from their chapels. Dahsh uc showing the elaborate panelled design, reminiscent of Early c
In provincial cemeteries such as Abydos, wide varieties of Dynastic practice, but using different patterns (12th Dynasty, re1gn of
sizes and shapes of brick chapels are to be found, but the Senwosret Ill).
general approach at the site is sloping-sided plastered brick
structures- in some cases pyramids- housing a vaulted
chapel containing the offering stela. The Abydene examples
could have been actual tomb-chapels, or may have acted as
cenotaphs to permit the deceased to take part posthumously
in the festivals of Osiris. 2 1°
While the The ban necropolis was generally characterized
by rock-cut chapels, Cemetery zoo at Deir el-Bahari has a
number of tombs with largely built superstructures. 2 ' '
Dating towards the end of the rzth Dynasty, one of them,
that of one Senwosret-ankh (tomb MMAzn) comprised a
brick structure with a forehall supported by painted wooden
columns. Another, of a certain Amenemhat (MMAzoz), had
a similar structure with a series oflimestone shrines set into
I! the walls, containing statues of the deceased and his wife, as
I well as reliefs of him and his family.

Rock-cut Superstructures and Offering Places

In contrast with the nth Dynasty, few nth Dynasty major
private tombs are known atThebes. The best-known
example is TT6o, generally attributed to Senet and/or her

198 THE Fl RST IN T ERMEDIATE PER IOD. M I DDLE Kl NGDOM A N D SECON D I N TERM EDIATE PER I OD T HE FI RST I NTERMED I ATE PERIOD. M I DDLE KI N GDOM AND SECOND I NTERMED I ATE PER IOD 199
 The most dramatic 12th Dynasty private tombs are those variations and new details appear within scenes. A variant of
of the nomarchs of Qau el-Kebir, where a core rock-cut the hunt scene shows the activity as being carried out in an
element was supplemented by brick structures and walled enclosure, a detail that carries into the 18th Dynasty hunt
causeways leading down towards the edge of the desert. scenes (e.g. TTwo). Some of the animals shown in these
They are amongst the latest of the great provincial tombs of scenes (e.g. Beni Hasan BH-III, XV, XVII; Bersha 4, 5) are
the Middle Kingdom, as a series of governmental reforms also quite exotic, while others are mythical: a rhinoceros-
carried out by Senwosret Ill concentrated far more power- type animal, a griffin, a serpopard (a leopard or panther with
and hence high-status individuals- at the national capital. a serpent's neck) and the Set animal. Other unusual
This resulted in a major reduction in the number of large creatures that rarely feature in two-dimensional formal art
private tombs built away from the royal necropoleis after his also appear in these tombs: a herd of pigs emerging from a
reign, although this was certainly a gradual process, with papyrus thicket (BH-XVII), bats and several different bird
some prominent provincial burials taking place under species (BH-XV) , monkeys, ichneumon (BH-XV) and a
Amenemhat Ill. mixture of a dog and a bird. The hunt scenes at Meir and
Although the themes represented in the decoration of Thebes also contain exotic animals, such as deer and a
these tombs are the same as those of previous dynasties, giraffe (B2; TT6o). Innovative details within the fowl-
catching scenes include bird traps of different varieties
221 Amongst the tombs of t he later 12th Dynasty at Qau ei-Kebir (BH-XV, XVII) that are still in use today.
are the gigantic monuments of three of the local governors, In addition to the usual crafts, new scenes are added to
incorporating causeways and chapels of almost royal dimensions. 222 (above) The end wall of the tomb-chapel of Khety at Beni Hasan,
the decorative repertoire: arrow- and knife-making,
This view looks up t he causeway of the tomb ofW ahka i (7) . with a set of scen es of wrestling (top) and warfare (bottom) . Su ch
spinning, weaving and laundering. New details appear in
depictions are only found in a handfu l of tombs at th is site (BH-XVII:
cooking scenes, such as roasting a whole ox (e.g. in Meir
lat e I I th Dynasty).
B4) . A group of tombs at Beni Hasan also show several
registers of wrestlers on the back wall, with smaller vignettes 223 (left) A curious series of vignettes found on a pilaster in BH -XVII
of a fortress being stormed (BH-II, XIV, XV and part of show a man stand ing on his head, another one being carried by his
XXIX) . Wrestling men are also shown in the tombs at Meir comrades, cupping(?), and hockey playing.These are all unique to this
t omb (I I th Dynasty) .
(BI , B2) and El-Bersha (tomb 4).
Depictions of foreigners, other than nomads, are
also found in the tombs at Beni Hasan. Enigmatic the design of false-doors as the dynasty progresses, with
representations of families carrying their worldly possessions some acquiring a pair of eyes on the lower lintel. The eyes
coming from the Near East (BH-III), as well as what are have a dual function: they are a vehicle that permits the
presumably prisoners from Libya (BH-XIV), are found here. deceased to look out, and they serve an apotropaic function,
Perhaps this relates to actual emigrations and battles that by protecting the deceased and his body.
occurred during the tomb-owners' lifetimes.
Several intriguing scenes grace the pilasters ofBH-XVII Substructures
at Beni Hasan. These depict medical endeavours, including The earliest pyramids of the 12th Dynasty broadly followed
cupping, removing thorns and carrying people, as well as Old Kingdom practice in having entrances on the north
games like hockey and one of the rare depictions showing side. In Amen em hat I's tomb, the corridor led down to a
human sexual intercourse. The object friezes known from chamber under the centre of the pyramid, from which a
coffins of the Middle Kingdom are also transposed into shaft led downward; unfortunately a rise in the level of the
tombs in registers that are separate from the conventional local groundwater has prevented further exploration. For
offering scenes (e.g. tomb BI at Meir). similar reasons it has been impossible to penetrate even this
Engaged statuary continues to be a feature of tombs of far in Senwosret I's pyramid; however, Amenemhat II's
the Middle Kingdom. In Siren put ii's tomb we have seen the monument at Dahshur lies well clear of the water table,
passageway leading to the shrine lined with rock-cut Osirid revealing a single chamber under the pyramid's centre. Apart
statues of the deceased. Increasing elaboration is also seen in from an elaborate roof, designed to reduce crushing forces

200 THE Fl RST I NTERM ED lATE PE RI 0 D. MIDDLE Kl N G DO M AND SECOND I NTE RM ED lATE PERIOD
THE Fl RST I NTE RM ED lATE PE RI OD, MIDDLE Kl N G DO M AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PER I 0 D 201
 from above, the main innovation was that the sarcophagus descended from the outer courtyards of their chapels, A noble of Amenemhat II's reign also had a Pyramid
had been hidden under the floor, with the canopic chest leading to a slightly descending passage, which after some Text-decorated burial chamber: the Vizier Sieset, who had
some distance away, under the floor of a passage directly 20 m (70ft) terminated in a burial chamber. Just before the a large mastaba at Dahshur (L.LV). 259 The substructure was
below the doorway of the burial chamber. These were clearly burial chamber, a second shaft penetrated from above, a entered from a shaft on the north side, leading to a brick-
intended to enhance the security of the tomb and remnant from a pre-existing tomb. The corridors were lined vaul ted sloping passage and a limestone burial chamber,
foreshadowed major changes in subsequent reigns. with limestone, with the paving derived from reused blocks with two annexes, one for the canopic containers.
The tombs of the royal family at Lisht also display odd of Old Kingdom date. The burial chambers were also The tombs of the women of Amenemhat II's family lay
arrangements of substructures. Tomb 493, perhaps that of limestone-lined, with painted decoration comprising texts, to the west of the main pyramid, where the main enclosure
Amenemhat I's wife, was entered by a shaft, which gave supplemented by images of a house fa<;:ade, offerings and the wall annexed an area of some size. 260 The three tombs there
access to a sloping passage, its end lost under the ground 'object frieze' that is regularly found in sarcophagi and are of a type apparently new. Each is a built structure of
water; however, half way along, a passage runs to the right, coffins of this period. This frieze is composed of objects that masonry sunk in a pit, covered by a brick relieving arch. A
ending in a chamber. At the junction of the two passages, were used in daily life and that might be needed in the passage runs the entire length of the tomb, off which open
another shaft ascends to emerge directly under the tomb's hereafter; these objects are additionally charged with two niches, each containing a sarcophagus, its lid just below
chapel. This may have been a 'construction shaft' intended religious power and significance, such as bags of natron that the level of the floor of the passage. From the west side of
for heavy items and covered over in favour of a smaller were used in mummification as well as personal hygiene, or each sarcophagus-cut, three low openings give access to an King's burial
definitive entrance.2 sJ Another interesting arrangement is oils that have sacred significance as well as practical use. Its offering/canopic chamber, below the paving of the passage chamber
seen in tomb 378, whose entrance is in the roof of the origins might lie as far back as the 3rd Dynasty (cf. S2405) . above. At the time of the burial, the niche was filled with
mastaba, but rather than a perpendicular shaft we find one A decorated sarcophagus was sunk in the floor, with a stone slabs, locked in place by a vertical key-stone. With
sloping at about 40 degrees from vertical, which plummets canopic niche to the south east. their passages filled with plug blocks, the tombs effectively
down for some 25 m (8o ft) before hitting the water table. In the complex ofSenwosret I, the pyramids of the king's became solid masses of stone; doubtless this explains the fact
To the north of the king's pyramid is the 'Mastaba du womenfolk display a variety of innovative substructure that two of the tombs remained intact.
Nord'. 2 54 The two elements of its substructure were designs. 2 56 In pyramid 3, there was both an entrance shaft The tombs ofSenwosret II and his family at Lahun also 225 (above) The fi rst pyramid-complex of Amenemhat Ill, the 'Black
constructed in fairly shallow cuttings in the bedrock. That and a 'construction' shaft for the introduction of building include major innovations. Not least of them was, as we Pyramid' at Dahshur (12t h Dynasty) .
below the mastaba itself is interesting in that the burial material. From the former, a corridor ran towards the have already seen, the divorce, in whole or part, of their
chamber was of the same width as the approach corridor sepulchral room, two sets of sliding stone doors being 226 (below) The second pyramid-complex of Amenemhat Ill, at
substructures from their time-hallowed relationship with the
Hawara.
and also had a floor sloping at the same angle as that of the incorporated to block access. superstructures. The entrance to the king's tomb was for the
passage. The latter may have been to aid the placement of A security imperative is also to be seen in high-status first time on the south side of the pyramid, where a shaft led
the sarcophagus in the limited space available. private tombs. At the mastaba ofSenwosret-ankh at Lisht, a dozen metres (40 ft) below the surface, joining a spacious
At Saqqara, the tombs oflhy and Hetep have extensive the substructure was approached from the north, but the passageway that led via a limestone antechamber to the very
substructures. 2 55 In both cases, a main entrance shaft actual entrance lay under an enclosure wall. 2 57 A sloping fi ne granite-lined burial chamber under the pyramid. The
passage then led down to a horizontal gallery and then to entrances to most of the tombs of the royal family lay
224 Plan of the 'Mastaba du Nord' at Lisht.The substructu re below the burial chamber (ill. 215). However, not only was the adjacent to that of the king, the sepulchres themselves being
the mastaba itself had its app roach comdor enti rely fi lled with blocks horizontal passage equipped with four vertical portcullises, of simple form. An entrance shaft led to an antechamber, its
of stone (early 12th Dynasty). but directly before them a unique 'chimney' had been floor sunk to a lower level, at the end of which was the burial
constructed, leading up into the superstructure. This had chamber. Virtually all of the area of this was occupied by the
been filled with sand, so that any intruders would find a sarcophagus, a niche in the right-hand wall containing the
. I
constant stream of sand from above hindering any attempt canopic equipment, a further opening at the far end of the
''
at forcing the first portcullis and blocking any retreat. same wall giving access to the offering chamber.
I However, robbers had never faced the problem, as they had The pyramid of Senwosret Ill at Dahshur26 ' has a
Quartzite trap-doors
I tunnelled into the burial chamber directly from the south substructure reminiscent of the 5th/6th Dynasties. 262
end of the tomb, bypassing the entrance passage entirely! H owever, the tombs of his womenfolk were mainly placed
The chamber contained a sunken sarcophagus and canopic in a catacomb of unique design at the north end of the
chest and is decorated with Pyramid Texts. 2 58 Indeed the enclosure. A long east-west gallery linked the substructures
n n substructure is reminiscent oflate Old Kingdom royal of four small pyramids, which also joined them with a lower
tombs and may be a conscious imitation of them. level in which seven sarcophagi and canopic chests were Burial chamber
Blind passage

202 THE FI RST I N TE RMED I ATE PER I OD. MI DD LE KI N G DOM A N D SECOND I N TERM ED I AT E PERI O D THE FI RST INT ERMED IATE PERIOD. M I D D L E K I NGDOM AN D SECOND INT ER MEDI ATE PER I OD 203
 placed in niches in a single room. The rooms under the four More unusual forms are found under the pyramids of roof block, lowered after the burial by a 'hydraulic' device against the supercumbent weight of the rubble in the shaft.
pyramids included so-called 'ka-chambers', seemingly an Amenemhat Ill at Dahshur and Hawara. The former had an using sand: by breaking seals, sand flowed out of shafts, thus Beyond this lay an apparent burial chamber, complete with
equivalent to a king's subsidiary pyramid. elaborate arrangement of passages and chambers, including causing props to descend and place the roofing block atop a canopic niche. However, this was a dummy, a room under
South of the king's pyramid were three more small 'ka-chambers' under the southern edge of the pyramid. the chamber. This system was also used in a number of 13th the floor giving access to the real sepulchral chamber,
pyramids, one of which (number IX), belonging to Queen Some of these ka-chambers belonged to royal wives who, Dynasty pyramids and would be revived a thousand years directly below the gable-roofed room. The ingenuity
Weret II, had its entrance some distance to the northeast of like Weret, lay below the king's pyramid. However, their later for some private tombs of the 26th Dynasty. displayed in the royal tombs was thus now being employed
its superstructure, the shaft joining a north-south passage interments were accessible both from their own entrance The substructures of the mastabas of the officials that in private burials as well.
half way along its 6o-m (zoo-ft) length. To the north, it gave on the opposite side of the pyramid and from the king's accompanied the pyramids of the kings of the late rzth Under Senwosret Ill, the tomb entrance was generally
access to an antechamber, a canopic room and a burial apartments. This arrangement seems to be unique. Dynasty vary considerably in form. That of Inpy at Lahun well beyond the perimeter of the mastaba and usually took
chamber, which all lay under the body of the king's pyramid, Amenemhat's second pyramid introduced sliding trap-doors (620) was entered via a steep corridor from just beyond the the form of a shaft. 26 l A variety of designs exist at Dahshur,
some 50 m (165ft) away from the queen's own monument. in roofs to conceal the route to the burial chamber and also north end of the mastaba leading to a Bat-roofed chamber, tombs 17 (Sobkemhat) and 20 having a simple passage
Under the latter, the southern part of the passage led to the the concept of having a burial chamber carved from a single built at the bottom of a construction shaft; a gable-roofed leading to a gable-roofed chamber. However, in both cases,
'ka-chamber'. block of quartzite. The entrance was by means of a raised relieving cavity lay directly above the room, to protect the sarcophagus and canopic chest lay deeply buried below
the chamber floor. On the other hand, the sepulchre of the
Vizier Khnumhotep (z) differed entirely. Here, the shaft led
to a vestibule, a right-hand turn giving access to a further
vestibule. The sarcophagus lay in a stone-lined, gable-
roofed, niche beyond, while the canopic chest was at the end
Antechamber of a passage that ran parallel with the niche, from the end of
Outer roof-slab, lowered a corridor at the east end of the vestibule.
by 'sand-hydraulics'
Little is known of private tombs around Amenemhat
Ill's pyramid at Dahshur, but a series of simple shaft-tombs

228, 229 The 13th Dynasty Unfi nished Pyramid at Saqqara-South 230 (below) Private substructures of the I2th Dynasty: (left) section
has the most elaborate substructure of any known pyramid (above) . Its of the tomb of lnpy, including dummy chambers above the real bu rial
can opic chest was carved as one with the sarcophagus and chamber; plans of tombs 2 (Khnumhotep: centre) and 19 (unknown:
Sarcophagus of Neferuptah, surrounding burial chamber from a si ngle block of qu artzite (below). right) in the Senwosret Il l cemetery at Dahshur In tomb 2, the
Passage and
trench blocked formed of slabs inserted sarcophagus and canopic chest lay in separate deep niches, accessed
after burial between the king's sarcophagus from a vestibule. In tomb 19, these two items lay close together; but I
and east wall of chamber
deep ly buried under the floor of the burial chamber
11
11
Canopic chest
of Neferuptah
(smashed)
Sarcophagus of
Amenemhat Il l l il
if"~-- Canopic chest I
of Amenemhat Ill

227 Plan and sect io ns of the

burial chamber of Amenemhat Ill
Sarcophagus of at Hawara, w1th it s elaborate
Amenemhat Ill security systems. An add it ional
'Sand-hydrau lic' sarcophagus had been
system for lowering constructed in the room to
outer roof-s lab of accommodate the body of
---~N
To pyramid burial chamber Princess Neferuptah, which was
entrance later moved to a separate
pyramid a kilometre away.

204 TH E Fl RST I NTERM EO lATE PE RI 0 0, MIDDLE K l N G D 0 M AND SECOND I NTERM EO lATE PER I 0 D THE FIRS T I NT ERMEDIATE PERIOD, MIDDLE KINGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 205
 and beer below them, beyond which his sons knelt with yet 23 I All that survives of the
DECORATED SUBSTRUCTURES OF THE MIDDLE KINGDOM
more offerings of food and drink. His wife and daughters pyramid of Aya is its pyramidion,
Site Tomb Date Owner Scene also offer food on the south wall, the nutrition-related apparently carried off to the
northeast Delta by Hyksos
Thebes TT319 IIth Dyn Neferu Offering lists, Coffin Texts, Pyramid Texts and funeral outfit theme being completed by a procession of offering bearers
looters (CM JE43267:
on the east wall. The ceiling was adorned with a 'woven' 13th Dynasty).
EI-Qatta Middle Kingdom Ne ha Texts
pattern of red and blue crosses.
Saqqara Middle Kingdom Haishetef Offering list Other less regular examples of decoration include the
double tomb ofHeryshefnakhte and Ukhhotep atAbu Sir
Saqqara SQ75 Middle Kingdom Ipi Painted decoration, offering texts and probably Coffin Texts
el-Meleq/el-Haraga,' 67 with ritual scenes in addition to the
Saqqara Shaft 276 Middle Kingdom Tja Painted decoration more standard texts, and the tomb-chamber in Ukhhotep's
Saqqara Middle Kingdom Sihathor-lpi Pyramid Texts; Coffin Texts tom b at Meir (A3), whose wooden door is inscribed with the
names and tides of the deceased.
Abu Sir Before 12th Heryshefnakhte & Ritual scenes; offerings and religious texts
ei-Meleq Dyn Ukh( et)hotep As can be seen, although the few decorated substructures
from this period show a preference for funerary inscriptions
Saqqara 12th Dyn Hetep Funerary and offering text
such as extracts from the Pyramid and Coffin Texts and
Saqqara 12th Dyn lhy Painted decoration; texts and friezes of objects offering lists, other images are also found.

Riqqa 191 12th Dyn Senmeri Offerings and offering scenes

THE 13TH DYNASTY AND THE SECOND During the 15th Dynasty itself, the Levantine practice
Saqqara 12th Dyn Sekawesket Pyramid Texts; Coffin Texts INTE RMEDIATE PERIOD of building mud-brick tombs within urban houses or
Dahshur 12th Dyn Sieset Pyramid Texts courtyards begins to be found, a special room sometimes
Very little is known of tombs of the end of the Middle being added against the outside wall of the bedroom.
Lisht 12th Dyn Senwosret-ankh Pyramid Texts
Kingdom and the Second Intermediate Period. Pyramids Archaeological remains suggest that the mortuary practices
Meir 12th Dyn Ukhhotep-son-of-lam Wooden door of tomb with names and titles of the deceased were begun for a number of the earlier kings of the 13th also followed foreign approaches. Some examples conform
Qau el- 18 12th Dyn Wahka ii Walls with cursive texts (fragmentary)
Dynasty, but none seem to have been completed and very to Levantine norms by employing domed mud-brick
Kebir little can be divined about the layout of their chapels, other buildings, combined with the Egyptian features of tree-pits
than that they remained on the east side. One curious aspect at the entrance, an allusion to the burial rites associated with
of some of these complexes is the wavy form of their the Delta sites ofButo and Sais.
existed along its north side. At Hawara,264 most mastabas brick arch above the chamber had been intended to relieve enclosure walls; other monarchs seem to have done without As far as substructures are concerned, below the
placed their substructure entrances on the north side, the weight above, a feature reminiscent of the Hawara superstructures altogether. ' 68 After the middle of the dynasty, aforementioned F/I-p!I9:1 lay a rectangular brick structure
one group of tombs (1-ro) having particularly deep shafts, pyramid. no royal tombs are known at all until the 17th Dynasty. in a cutting in the soil, conforming to normal Delta
some plumbing over 13 m (40ft); other sepulchres were In contrast to such elaborate arrangements, the vast Private tombs with any kind of superstructure are even practice, in this case the chamber being roofed with a brick
of more modest depth. In a number of examples, at the majority of Middle Kingdom substructures consist of more elusive, although at Thebes some modest built chapels dome, other sepulchres at the site having vaults. A number
bottom of the shaft an inclined plane led down to the simple vertical shafts, leading directly to one or more burial seem to have existed in Cemetery 200 at Deir el-Bahari. One of tombs had a grave for a donkey in front of the entrance:
burial chamber. chambers. At Abydos, there are many examples of family of the few datable groups of substantial tombs is at El-Kab. this is certainly a manifestation of Palestinian culture.
Away from the royal cemeteries, elaborate substructures tombs comprising a number of parallel shafts, with Here, the essentially single-chambered tomb-chapels of The Levantine cultural backgr~und becomes even more
are also to be seen at Riqqa cemetery A. Here, amongst a chambers one above the other in each shaft. All had their Renseneb (EK9) and Sobknakhte (EKw) ' 69 span the 13th to pronounced as the Second Intermediate Period progresses,
considerable number oflarge, but generally simple, shaft upper parts enclosed in a common sleeve of brickwork, 16th!I7 th Dynasties. when Avaris became the capital of the 14th!I5th Dynasty
tombs with one or two quarried chambers, were two big linked to a single chapel. '66 Up in the Hyksos realm of Avaris (Tell el-Daba), few Palestinian kings. Some single-chamber tombs can hold
sepulchres with stone-built rooms .'65 Tomb 306, the better Also at Riqqa is a rare decorated burial chamber, that of superstructures have been found. One example, however, multiple burials. These later tombs are still vaulted, but the
preserved, was approached by a sloping cutting, 20 m (65ft) Senmeri (191). A 7-m (25-ft) shaft led to this vaulted room, was F!I-p!I9:1, which had a superstructure of approximately constructional technique used is more usually found in
long, leading to a limestone chamber, with a pointed roof with a niche in the east wall for the canopic chest and also a square plan, fronted by a chapel containing a statue of an Mesopotamia.
and containing a granite sarcophagus, whose design allows bench along the same wall. The walls of the room were Asiatic dignitary. '7° Unfortunately, its building date is The principal necropolis of the native 16th and qth
the tomb to be dated to the reign of Senwosret III or whitewashed, with paintings providing a dado around three uncertain, being possibly as early as the end of the nth Dynasties atThebes lay on DraAbu'l-Naga. Substructures
Amenemhat III. A niche in the left wall of the burial sides of the chamber. The west wall showed the tomb-owner Dynasty, to which time also date two mortuary chapels were generally simple and only one private substructure is
chamber had contained the canopic equipment, while a in front of a pair of heavily laden offering tables, with wine associated with cemetery area Alii. known. Dating to the time of InyotefVI, this chapel, of one

206 THE Fl RST I NTE RM EDIATE PER I 0 D. MIDDLE Kl NG DO M AND SECOND I NTERM EO lATE PER I 0 D THE FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD, MIDDLE KI NGDOM AND SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD 207
 Teti, comprised a small brick structure, with a painted
decoration including the deceased receiving offerings. ' 7'
Chapter 9 The New Kingdom: the Early Years
The kings of the period were interred in the same
location, equipped with brick pyramids. '?' The only
excavated example, that oflnyotefVI,'7J was less than
10 m (30 ft) square, faced with white plaster and built on the
slope of the hill, its sides rising at an angle of around 65/68
degrees; it had a decorated cap-stone, while a pair of obelisks
stood in front. The capstone bore the king's names, titles and
pedigree, as did that of the adjacent pyramid oflnyotefV 2 74
Nothing is yet definitely known of the substructure of
InyotefVI's pyramid, none of the adjacent shafts being
demonstrably part of it. The burial chambers of both Inyotef
V and VI both were discovered by plunderers during the
early 19th century, the latter being reported as being
approached by a brick-lined shaft and corridor and lying at
DraAbu'l-Naga 'halfway up the hill' .2 75 However, neither
has yet been rediscovered and precisely localized. W th the reunification of Egypt following the expulsion shaft leading down to the burial chamber. 2 78 No
of the Hyksos, the principal cemetery of Egypt settled at contemporary decoration has survived, but K93.n was
232 Aerial view of the remains of the pyramid of lnyoteNI at Ora
Abu'I- Naga.The shaft in the middle is from an earliec over-built, tomb. Western Thebes for much of the 18th Dynasty. Here, a extended during the zoth Dynasty by the High Priest of
major revision of royal funerary provision was implemented, Amun, Ramessenakhte, apparently converting it into a
233 Fragments of the capstone while an extensive series of private rock-cut tombs were shrine. The surviving texts clearly link this pious task with
of the pyramid of lnyoteNI 's built, a number of which are classic examples of the the cult of Amenhotep 1. 2 79 If this attribution is correct,
predecessoc lnyoteN, have been Egyptian mortuary chapel. the adjoining K93 .10 could be a chapel of Ahmose I,
found close to the pyramid of Amenhotep I's mother, Ahmes-Nefertiry, or his wife,
the former This one is now in
TH E 18TH DYNASTY: FROM AHMOSE I TO Meryetamun. Two potential free-standing mortuary chapels
the British Museum, London
(BM EA478: 17th Dynasty). AMENHOTEP Ill of Amenhotep I have also been identified. One lies in front
of Ora Abu'l-Naga, below K93.n,' 80 the other at Deir
Superstructures el-Bahari. The latter stood for only 40 years before being
Royal Tombs: At the very beginning of the new dynasty, demolished when the mortuary temple of Hatshepsut was
Ahmose I built a very unusual mortuary complex at Abydos, extended to cover its site.
comprising a pyramid, a cenotaph for his grandmother, two T he uncertainties surrounding the funerary monuments
temples and a pyramid- plus a substructure- spread out of Ahmose I and Amenhotep I obscure who exactly was
along an 1.25-km (%-mile) axis across the desert. 27 6 One responsible for one of the most momentous developments in
temple was a terraced structure against the cliff, the other royal burial practice - the separation of the offering place
built in front of the pyramid, the last example known to from the burial chamber. However, the presence of kingly
have been built in Egypt for a king. It remains unclear tombs in the Valley of the Kings from the time ofThutmose
whether the complex was the king's actual tomb or a I onwards clearly shows that the change had taken place by
cenotaph. 2 77 that king's death.
During the early years of the 18th Dynasty, the old 17th The separation of the royal mummy from its offerings
Dynasty necropolis at Ora Abu'l-Naga continued to host and the solar link provided by the pyramid can only have
most known interments, apparently including several been due to some major imperative, presumably that of
members of the royal family. One of a pair of rock-cut
chapels has been proposed as that of Amenhotep I (K93 .n). 234 (above) The Mayor Sennefer and his wife receiving offerings in a
It comprises a short passage with a four-pillared hall, with a boat in their burial chamber (TI96A: mid-18th Dynasty).

208 THE Fl RST I NTE RM EDIATE PERIOD. M I DDLE Kl NGDO M AND 5 ECO N D I NTE RM ED lATE PERIOD T H E NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS 209
235 (above) The pyramid of Ah mose I at Abydos (early 18th 236 (below) Plan of the Abydene fu nerary compl ex of Ahmose I; 'T'
Dynasty) . indicat es t he cenotaph-pyramid ofTetisherit

I
lOOm 400m
T

237 Hatshepsut's mo rtuary temple at De ir e i-Bahari is t he best preserved of the earlie r 18th Dynasty structures. Its design was almost certain ly
influenced by that of t he adjacent I Ith Dynasty monument of Mentuhotep 11 , seen at left (an d ilL203).

security. The significance of the pyramid may still have Millions ofYears'. In contrast to earlier royal funerary Osirid figures of the queen. Beyond the colonnades was the The arrangement of the decoration moves from the
weighed heavily, however, if the oft-remarked resemblance sanctuaries, the focus widens from the king himself to the peristyle court, at the back of which lay the main sanctuary profane to the sacred, with the lower terraces showing
of the peak ofEl-Qurn to a pyramid, looming above the gods in general. The New Kingdom royal mortuary temples of the temple, dedicated to the local version of Amun- military and naval motifs, as are often found on the exterior
Valley of the Kings, was indeed a factor in the ancient choice thus celebrate not only the royal cult, bur also the The ban 'Amun ofDjeser-djeseru'; Djeser-djeseru was the name of of cult temples, or perhaps inspired by the adjacent temple
of this wadi. triad: the god Am un, his wife M ut and their son, Khonsu, Hatshepsur's temple. ofMentuhotep 11. The southern colonnade shows the
While no mortuary temple is known for Thurmose I, as well as other divinities' 8' and royal ancestors. The Deir el-Bahari temple and subsequent structures transport of a pair of obelisks from the granite quarries at
chapels for his prematurely deceased son, Wadjmose, and The first great temples of the dynasty are characterized of the same kind, had four specific cult-foci. The central Aswan to the great temple ofKarnak. Its badly mutilated
his successor, Thurmose 11, lie at the southern end of the by their construction on sloping sites that resulted in a one was dedicated to Amun - or rather a special form of northern counterpart had reliefs ofHatshepsut fowling and
necropolis, near Medinet Habu. Both were of simple design, terraced design . The best-preserved and most striking is that the The ban god, unique to the specific locale. The kings' fishing- just as one would find in a private mortuary chapel
later modestly extended. ofHatshepsut, built oflimestone at Deir el-Bahari. 282 The specific divine essence was now relegated to a secondary - as well as offering to her fellow gods.
The reigns ofThutmose Ill, Amenhotep 11 and complex began in the plain, near the edge of the cultivation, position, their own cult chambers lying away to the left of The middle terrace has exquisitely carved and detailed
Thutmose IV saw the creation of the first large-scale free- in a valley building with two levels and a colonnade of the principal god's, although linked to it as the king was images of the famous voyage to Punt that Hatshepsut
standing royal offering places. It is now being increasingly square pillars. A causeway, lined with sphinxes, led for over fused with Amun after death; a solar court containing an commissioned to bring back incense, incense trees and
realized that the meaning of the New Kingdom mortuary 1 km (Y, mile) up to the main temple. altar, situated to the north of the Amun sanctuary is found other goods from Mrica. North of the ramp is the Birth
temple was much more complex than that of its Old A decorated colonnade, the second also having in all Theban mortuary temples and links the solar element Colonnade, with scenes concerning the impregnation of
Kingdom predecessors. Indeed, it has been suggested that subsidiary chapels of the deities Hathor and Anubis, fronted of the more ancient royal burials with the more recent ones; Hatshepsut's mother by Amun-Re while incarnated in her
the difference was so great that a different term is required each terrace. The ramp that led up from the second court the final element was the veneration of the ruler's father, a earthly father, Thutmose I. This idea of the supernatural
for the New Kingdom monuments, perhaps 'memorial gave access to the inner part of the temple, fronted once chapel ofThutmose I lying directly adjacent to paternity of the pharaoh is an ancient concept in Egyptian
temple' , or the contemporary Egyptian term, 'Mansion of more by a pair of colonnades, the pillars embellished with Hatshepsur's. kingship, but explicit depictions have only survived in a few

210 THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY YEARS THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY YEARS 211
 ~
L_

238 The mortuary temples of the New Kingdom included 'hrstorical'

scenes, a good example being a series rn the temple of Hatshepsut
depicting her trading expedition to the east African territory of Punt.
These rncorporate this rmage of the obese queen of Punt
(CM JE 14276).
239 (above) Plans of t he mortuary temples of Hatshepsut (top) and
Thutmose Ill, both burlt in a terraced arrangement; the latter; however;
rncludes more conventronal pylon gateways (18th Dynasty).
places; these formed the basis of a standardized composition
found in (at least) one cult temple (Amenhotep Ill at Luxor)
240 (opposite) All that survives of the fa~ade of the mortuary templ e
and one other mortuary temple (Ramesses II). 28 J The top of Amenhotep Ill: the famous quartzite statues now known as the
most terrace, the holiest area in the temple, contains a large- Colossi of Mem non.
scale continuous scene of the progress of Amun's barque
during the Festival of the Valley (see pp. 220-r) and images
of royalty. his Jubilee in his 30th year the building was enlarged to
The remaining r8th Dynasty mortuary temples are breathtaking size, filled with hundreds, if not thousands,
largely destroyed, but one might assume that they followed of superbly carved statues in soft and hard stones. By far
a similar pattern of topics, mixing standardized elements the largest of its genre ever built, the temple's entrance was
(hunting, divine birth and ritual scenes) with 'historical' flanked by a pair of huge quartzite colossi, dubbed in
ones. The inclusion of the latter in the pyramid-temple of Classical times the 'Colossi ofMemnon'. Three successive
Ahmose I at Abydos would support such an assumption. pylons were followed by an avenue lined with great
Thutmose Ill's mortuary temple lay on the edge of the recumbent jackals and crocodile-bodied sphinxes, beyond
desert and is in very poor condition, due to its position and which lay a great peristyle court and the inner temple.
also because many parts were built in mud-brick. Its basic Unusually for a New Kingdom temple of this kind, the
layout, which is visible, was similar to Hatshepsut's focus is not Amun, but rather the king and manifestations of
monument, with the exception that brick pylons fronted the sun god. Much of this enormous temple was formed by
the first courtyards. Subsequent kings followed this scheme, open courts that were decorated with scenes of the king
the best-preserved temple being that ofThutmose IV celebrating his jubilee. As far as can be determined, a major
Far larger, but now almost entirely destroyed was the part of the temple's decoration was in the form of statuary
temple of Amenhotep Ill. Originally of dimensions broadly that was laid out in a specific pattern, perhaps in a celestial
in keeping with those of the temples of his predecessors, for or other plan. The court of the temple was apparently

2 12 THE NEW KINGDOM:THE EARLY YEARS

constructed so that it would flood during the annual Nile
inundation, with the temple re-emerging after the waters
subsided. This mirrored the story of the creation of the
world, when the first land emerged from the chaos of the
primeval waters of Nun.

Private Tombs: The rock-cut tomb-chapels of the first part of

the r8th Dynasty were of simple design. Both at Dra Abu'l-
Naga and some So km (50 miles) further south at El-Kab,
one finds chapels of single-room types (ill. 242, Types
I-11 28 4). However, as the dynasty progressed, 'T' -shaped
(Type V) tombs, reminiscent of those found at Thebes in the
Middle Kingdom (Type Ill) appeared. Indeed, some
examples of such sepulchres may actually have been re-used 241 The tomb of Re on Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna (TT72).The tomb is
older monuments, particularly on the Sheikh Abd el-Qurna remin iscent of the Deir ei-Bahari temple of Hatshepsut, built on
hill, which was to become the principal noble necropolis of two levels, with a colonnaded lower level (I 8th Dynasty: reign of 243 (above) and 244 (right). One of the classic tombs of the 18th
Amenhotep 11). Dynasty is that of Rekhmire.Above, the plain forecourt and fa~ade
the middle of the r8th Dynasty. One particular example is
are to be seen on the Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna hiii.To the right is its long
hall, unique in having a ceiling level that rises greatly from east to west.

-
Middle ~nd Inter: New Kingdom Middle ~nd Inter: New Kingdom This al lowed a multi-level offering place, with a niche for a statue at
Kingdom Period I8th Dynasty 19th Dynasty 20th Dynasty Kingdom Period 18th Dynasty 19th Dynasty 20th Dynasty
the top, a small false-door stela below it (see ill. 246) and the main

lla
VIa

X false-door at the bottom (18th Dynasty, reigns ofThutmose Ill and

Amen hotep 11).

~
llb
Vlb

Jb
the tomb oflneni (TTSr), which seems to have been
Ilia
converted from a sajftomb with a pillared fac,:ade into
Vlla
a 'T-shaped tomb' with a flat fac,:ade by filling the gaps
lllb

"'" Jb between the pillars with brick walls.

Such 'T' -shaped chapels are typical of the period and
vary considerably in elaboration. The simplest have a wide,
IVa

IVb
Jll7 VIle rfl1
d~
shallow, hall, with a doorway at the rear leading to the
offering place. Variations on this theme include the piercing
of the rock wall between the fac,:ade and the transverse

_,J.b chamber, creating pillars or windows and the addition of

one or more rows of pillars across the outer chamber.

~
Va
Similarly, the approach to the offering place may be enlarged
and equipped with pillars, or extra rooms.

~
Examples of the simple form are common, but the tomb
Vb
.~'
ofRekhmire, Vizier ofThutmose Ill (TTroo), provides an

~
interesting variation. 28 > In this case, the corridor that leads
Vc fro m the rear of the transverse hall has a ceiling that rises
steadily to place the bottom of the statue-niche some 6 m

~
Vd
(20 ft) above floor level. That of Senenmut (TT7r) has a set
24 2 Time-spans of the various forms ofTheban tomb-chapels,
of pillars across its transverse hall, dividing it into aisles, each
classified according to the scheme of Friederike Kampp-Seyfried.
Ve

d1 Broken lines and un-filled columns indicate possible ranges of

variation.
of which has a different kind of ceiling (Type VIIa); yet
another fairly early variation places a room at the very end of

214 THE NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS

THE NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS 21S
 the tomb (Types Vd, VIa and VIIb). TT71 and TTwo are embossed flat side facing out, although only one set has been structures were excavated during Amenhotep Ill's reign.
interesting in that neither has a substructure immediately observed in situ.' 86 The visible area was usually inscribed The 'simpler' examples (e.g. TT 55 and TT192' 88 ) converted
adjoining (cf. pp. 225-6). wi th the name and titles of the tomb-owner, sometimes his the shallow transverse hall into a space akin to a temple's
A feature particularly associated with Theban tombs of wife, as well as prayers and vignettes showing the sun god. hypostyle hall. Similarly, the inner chamber was broadened
the 18th Dynasty (although found from the mh to the 26th T hey have variously been interpreted as dummy roofing and equipped with two rows of pillars (Type VIII). Some
Dynasties) is the employment of funerary cones, tapered poles, mummy labels, boundary stones, dummy offering other tombs went even further, the largest of them all,
pottery items of circular section impressed on their flat loaves or pieces of meat, 'visitors' cards', representations of Amenhotep-Surero's TT 48, having four chambers,
end with the name and titles of a tomb-owner. They were sun disks and an allusion to the solar cycle, or merely a respectively with 20, 20, 24 and 6 columns- a total of 70.
apparently placed in lines above the tomb entrance, with the decorative element.'87 Possibly their meaning and use Substructures now tended to open from the southwest
changed over time. corner of the first hall, rather than from shafts in the
The reign of Amenhotep II witnessed a considerable forecourt, as had earlier been the case.
245 (/eft) A unique feature offi71 was a series of carved panels
w ith the tit le, name and pedigree of its owne~ Hatshepsut's favourite, increase in the proportion of the more elaborate chapel types Such tombs of Amenhotep Ill's reign, and other
Senenmut. lt is unclear how they related to the main body of the built at Thebes . While the very simple T-shaped tombs contemporary but simpler examples, were often cut much
decoration, which was painted on plaster adhering to the rough parts remained current throughout the dynasty, ever more vast lower down the The ban hills than hitherto. This may have
of the walls (18th Dynasty). had two motivations. First, the quality of the rock at this
level is finer, allowing more carved decoration. Secondly, by
246 (bottom left) Detail of Rekhmire's upper false-door showi ng
the deceased and his wife before an offenng table (from TT I00: now this time the upper levels of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna were
Louvre C74) . becoming extremely congested (cf. Map 5C), making the
construction of tombs there very difficult. Accordingly,
247 (below) The tomb of Q enamun (TT93), one of the earliest tomb-owners had to either move elsewhere (Qurnet Murai
Theban private tombs to have an elaborate substructure, approached
received its first major tombs under Amenhotep Ill), or use
by a stairway and slopi ng passage (18th Dynasty: reign of Amenhotep 11).
the lower slopes of the hill of the Sheikh. The latter solution
led to the enhanced role of the outer courtyard, now sunk
into the rock and sometimes with a monumental approach,
the most impressive being that ofTT192, with a stairway
enclosed in a decorated vestibule. Protection in such a closed
courtyard encouraged the decoration of the tomb fas;ade, the
finest example also being that ofTT192. The latter tomb is,
however, also an exemplar of another characteristic of such
low-lying tombs: the relatively thin rock above the great
248 (above) During the reign of Amenhotep Ill the cross-halls of t he columned hall has given way, leaving the sepulchre an utter
highest status Theban tombs became hypostyle halls, as seen here in
• • the Vizier Ramose's TTSS.
ruin, a fate shared by TT 55 (albeit now restored) and others.

•• 249 (right) Plan of one of the

grandest examples of the
large sepulchres of t he reign
of Amenhotep Ill: the tomb of
\
Kheruef, Steward of Queen
Tiye, at Thebes (TT 192 I8th
Dynasty) .

216 THE NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS THE NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS 217
r

250 (above) The tomb of Ramose contains raised relief decoration

of almost unsurpassed quality, albeit never f1nished and still unpainted.
This is part of a banquet-scene (TI55: 18th Dynasty, reign of
252 Cretans, Nubians and Syrians bringing tribute to King Thutmose Ill. They are depicted in the tomb of Rekhmire as part of an enumeration of
Amenhotep Ill). the owner's vizierial duties (TI I 00).

251 (/eft) The end-wall of the much smaller chapel of Kha (TIB).
This lay within the core of a brick pyramid at Deir ei-Medina largest number come from the reigns ofThutmose Ill and on tomb walls (e.g. TT254), perhaps related to Book of the
(m id- 18th Dynasty). Amenhotep 11, perhaps reflecting those two kings' public Dead spell 132, which permits the deceased to see his house
fondness for the sport. During the reign ofThutmose Ill, on earth. 2 9' The house is inscribed with an offering formula,
the tomb-owner was also shown hunting hippopotami which has been found in actual houses. 2 92
At the opposite extreme of elaboration are the tombs (TT39, TT53, TT8r, TT82, TT85, TTr23 , TTr25 , TTr55, Although tomb walls of the New Kingdom continue to
in the workmen's community at Deir el-Medina, where TTr64, TT342), a scene that became obsolete shortly depict images of the funeral, changes occur within the cycle.
single-room chapels began to be surmounted by small thereafter. Those dating to the first half of the r8th Dynasty show an
pyramids. One of the most important of this period is During this time fresh details enliven the venerable assortment of traditional representations of the burial,
TT8, built for the head of the community during the scenes of the agricultural cycle. Gleaners can be found in the including rituals that were probably archaic by the r8th
middle of the dynasty. 28 9 This form of superstructure wake of harvesters (TT69), as can girls squabbling over the Dynasty. After the reign ofThutmose IV obsolete rituals
remained current at Deir el-Medina down to the end of fruits of the gleaning. Pulling thorns from feet, sleeping were omitted and a single sequential representation of the
the Ramesside Period. under trees, measuring the fields for taxation (TT69) and actual funeral employed. Such scenes form the basis for a
The r8th Dynasty saw a variety of decorative motifs the presence of a 'corn-doll' to ensure a fruitful harvest series of Book of the Dead vignettes. 2 93 Images of the
employed in private tomb-chapels, with certain themes (TT38, TT 52, TT 57) are other new features. 2 9° Offering tomb-chapel itself, capped by a pyramid, seem to have
distinctive of a particular group of reigns. For example, scenes continue to be shown, but there are fewer rows of become more popular after the reign of Amenhotep Ill,
desert hunting scenes are to be found in tombs dating offering bearers depicted; offerings being brought to the perhaps due to the increased focus on solar worship.
from the reign ofThutmose I (TT2r) until the time of deceased now include fish (e.g. TT 52, TT69 and TTr92). Foreigners begin to appear far more commonly
Amenhotep 11 (or perhaps Thutmose IV- TT276). The Images of the tomb-owner before his house are also found in Egyptian tombs of the mid-r8th Dynasty, probably

218 THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY YEARS THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY Y EARS 219
 royal mortuary temples along the way. Images of deceased flanks the doorway that leads from the transverse hall to the
and divine kings were also carried as part of the procession rest of the tomb. The king is shown seated on a throne in a
and the whole event was a rime of renaissance for the kiosk, to whom the tomb-owner brings offerings and pays
cemeteries of the west bank ofThebes. After the tour Amun his respects. In certain instances, most commonly from late
returned by boat to the east bank. This festival, more than in the reign of Amenhorep Ill through the Amarna period
any other, was an occasion for the rejuvenation of the (see below) until the reign of Ay, the king is shown
cemeteries and a time for the meeting of the living and the rewarding the deceased. Less frequently the king is shown
dead. People would visit tombs and make offerings to their in relation to the gods, thereby ensuring the upholding and
ancestors, as well as the king and the gods and generally continuation of maat. Images of the ruling king in
commemorate and celebrate the beyond. This might be conjunction with former rulers are almost always a part of
likened to the Mexican Day of the Dead celebrations. the Festival of the Valley. A few less-regular royal
Tomb scenes show elements of the festival, such as the representations include the king hunting (TT72, TTr43);
procession, visiting tombs, revering the ancestors, the king, worshipping divinities (TTr92); being suckled by his wet
ere. Images of the king are also frequently shown in tombs of nurse (e.g. TT85, TT92, TT350); on the lap of his tutor or
this period, starting in the reign ofHatshepsur. For the most nurse (TT63 , TT64, TT78, TT85, TT93, TTw9, TT226);
part, these show the relationship between the deceased and and being suckled by divinities (TT 57) . Aside from such
the pharaoh, rhus underlining the tomb-owner's position in images were those of certain ancient kings who were
society. Most commonly, a large-scale image of the king especially revered as patrons of the The ban necropolis.

254 Vizier Rekhmire had many responsibilities, including the overseeing of King Thutmose Ill 's sculpture, and the execution of these duties is thus
shown in Rekhmire's tomb.What is particularly delightful is that some of the st atues survive to t hi s day (TT I 00).

253 W hile tomb-owners were always shown formally, minor characters could be seen in a variety of poses.This rare image in the t omb of
Rekhmire (TT I 00) depicts a servant girl from t he rear

reflecting Egypt's increasing contacts abroad. Most drink and fertility remains inherent in these scenes.
foreigners appear in tombs of viziers who had to deal with Dancers and musicians continue to feature as part of the
them. In addition to Nubians, other Africans, Libyans, entertainment. An interesting light is thrown on changing
Syro-Palestinians and many Aegeans feature in Theban attitudes by the fact that many of the dancers and serving-
tombs, appearing in some 40 chapels dating to the New girls in r8th Dynasty tombs are shown effectively nude.
Kingdom, as well as the much laterTT36, dating to the However, when one such tomb (TT 52) was usurped in
reign ofPsametik I. The earliest tomb to feature these people Ramesside times the dancers were provided with clothes.
was that ofSenenmut (TT7r). Clearly, interaction with the An innovative scene found primarily in Theban tombs
denizens of the Mediterranean Sea had increased of the r8th Dynasty shows the celebration of the '(Beautiful)
dramatically by this time. 2 94 Festival of the Valley'. The festival itself, according to textual
Banquet scenes are particularly prominent during the evidence, was probably celebrated from the Middle
earlier r8th Dynasty, becoming increasingly elaborate and Kingdom onwards, although it only seems to be prominent
extensive. The details show people turning around and in r8th Dynasty tomb art. The festival occurred on an
interacting with one another (starting in the reign of annual basis in the second month of the season of Shemu
Amenhotep II), drinking and even vomiting. Figures of (nominally Summer) and was related to Amun, as well as
lesser importance may be shown in unusual poses: in the Harhor as the goddess ofDeir el-Bahari and associated with
tomb ofRekhmire (TTwo) a young serving girl is shown in the west. The image of Amun ofKarnak crossed the Nile
a three-quarters view from the back. The imagery of food, and processed through the west bank, stopping at all the

220 THE NEW KINGDOM: THE EARLY YEARS THE NEW K I NGDOM THE EARLY YEARS 221
 individuals had become common. Interestingly, User's burial son-of-Hapu, who enjoyed a very high-status at Amenhotep Substructures
chamber, in TT6r, also had royal affiliations, in being Ill's court and was later deified. He may have also owned a Roya/Tombs:2 97 In the expanse of desert between his pyramid
decorated with the Book of Amduat (seep. 130). rock-cut chapel at Qurnet Murai (TTFK396), due west of and temple at Abydos, Ahmose I constructed a subterranean
The reign of Amenhotep Ill also saw a major upsurge in the free-standing example, although its identification is tomb of unusual form. Mostly cut only a few metres below
the usage of the ancient necropolis of Saqqara for high-status highly tentative. His exceptional status is signalled by his the surface, a pit entrance gives access to a twisting
burials, perhaps as the result of the establishment of a possession of a stone sarcophagus - a very rare item for a passageway that eventually opens into a great hall, its roof
separate northern Vizierate in the latter part of the dynasty. private person of the New Kingdom, although anthropoid formerly supported by r8 columns. Below the hall,
Few tombs dating to the earlier part of the r8th Dynasty are coffins in the material are not uncommon. 2 96 a further passage, seemingly unfinished, leads deeper into
known, but whether this reflects a lack of burials there, or is the matrix.
an accident of discovery remains uncertain. Nevertheless,
the fact remains that from this point onwards a number of a
high-status burials are known at Saqqara.
Amongst the most important is that of the Vizier
Aperel (I.z), datable to the early years of Amenhotep IV
and comprising a four-pillared hall with three niches at the
255 Part of the cross-hall of the tomb of Menena (TT69: back; the entrance to the substructure lay in the left-rear b
18th Dynasty, reign ofTh utmose IV). corner of the chapel. 295 The tomb lies on the escarpment
that fronts the northern part of the Saqqara necropolis,
Most prominent was Amenhotep I, who apparently appears just south of the southern end of the Early Dynastic Period
for the first time under Amenhotep III (TTr6r) and is then cemetery, southeast of the pyramid ofTeti. It is now
a frequent feature ofRamesside tombs, as was his mother becoming clear that the whole hillside here resembled the
Ahmes-Nefertiry, his fellow patron ofDeir el-Medina's cliffs at Thebes, with tier upon tier of rock-cut tombs, some
workmen. with built external elements. However, re-use as a cat-
Although stelae appeared outside tomb-chapels or above cemetery (the Bubasteion) in Late/Roman times and the
shaft tombs throughout Egyptian history, a variation on the accumulation of thousands of tons of debris have long
theme occurs in the New Kingdom. Carved and/or painted hidden this fact.
inscriptions that mimic stelae appear on the end walls of Although the vast majority of private mortuary chapels 257 Plans of the pnnci pal royal
the transverse cor6dor in The ban 'T' -shaped tombs. The tombs of the I 8th Dynasty: a.
at Thebes were rock-cut, at least one individual had a free-
Thutmose I (KV20), extended
lunette of some of these show the tomb-owner praying to a standing structure, closely following the design of that of a
by Hatshepsut; b.Thutmose Ill
divinity or divinities, or an image of a solar disk- more contemporary cult-temple. This belonged to Amenhotep- (KV34); c.Amenhotep Ill
common from the reign of Amenhotep Ill -which indicates (WV22); d.Akhenaten (TA26);
the worship of a solar divinity. Sometimes Opening-of-the- 256 The New Kingd om cl iff-cemetery at Saqqara. e . Horemheb (KV57).
d
Mouth rituals are also depicted in the lunette. The
decoration on the opposite wall often shows a false-door as a
counterpoint to this motif, which balances the composition
of the schema of decoration.
I Certain individuals living in the r8th Dynasty (generally

I~
only dating from the reign ofHatshepsut/Thutmose III to
Amenhotep II) each have two tombs cut into the The ban
hills. It has been hypothesized that they are indicative of an
elevation in status (seep. 26). TTr3r, the second tomb of
User (his first being TT6r), may be the first private tomb at
Thebes to have been surmounted by a pyramid, a feature e ~
Jillf Jlnmmmmm 1111111111111111111
r---'I.......J----'~~1!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1-------IIIIWJIWiu
111111111111111
that until a few years previously had been the attribute of
royalty. By the end of the dynasty, its use by private

222 T HE NEW KINGDOM THE EARLY YEARS T H E NEW KI NGDOM: THE EAR LY YEARS 223
 This pattern was followed by the earliest certain New Amenhotep Ill was drawn with a pen and ink on a plain
Kingdom royal tomb atThebes, KV2o, in a wadi now buff ground, using stick figures and cursive hieroglyphs.
known as the Valley of the Kings. U ltimately, it was In KV34's case, the background was painted the colour of •
completed for H atshepsut, but it is also possible that all papyrus, with the apparent intention of giving the
but the deepest chamber had been excavated by her father impression of a giant ancient scroll unrolled around the •
Thutmose I. Five successive galleries descend at a steep curving walls.
angle into the mountainside, turning gradually to the south, After Thutmose Ill's reign, the pillars of the burial
evidently in a search for better rock. This remained poor, chamber and the outer rooms of the tomb received full-seal
however, and when a final chamber was added by images of divinities and the pharaoh, in polychrome after
Hatshepsut, it had to be lined with blocks oflimestone to the reign ofThutmose IV. T he pharaoh praises the gods an<
provide a surface that could be decorated. in return, the gods welcome him an d offer him eternal life J Plan of the probable tomb of Queen Ahmes-Nefertiry (and
This 'long-and-deep' plan was abandoned by subsequent within the context of solar resurrection. This all links into naps later also Ahmose I) at DraAbu'I -Naga (early 18th Dynasty).
rulers in favour of a pair of stairways, joined by a fairly a conception of the royal tomb as a gateway to the
short corridor, giving access to an antechamber and finally underworld. The architecture of the tomb leading to the :r his enemies and passed through a series of challenges,
a pillared burial hall. In the first three such tombs, KV34, burial chamber thus emulated the topography of the s united with Osiris and could be reborn together with
38 and 42, the burial chamber h ad the oval shape of the Duat, 9 and different portions of the perilous journey,
2 8 :sun god the next day. T his royal resurrection in a divine
cartouche, the frame used for the principal royal names and entailing passage through a series of gates after routing foes re was crucial to the stability of the nation and the cosmos 26 1 Plan of KV39, possibly completed as a communal tomb for the
and passing tests, that had to be made before finally arrivin~ was an expression of the triumph of maat over chaos. family of Amenhotep 11.
symbolic of eternity. KV34 had been built by Thutmose Ill
and it appears that KV38 had also been built by him for a at the court of Osiris. 2 99 This paralleled the journey of the tus the royal tombs of the New Kingdom were carved and
reburial ofThutmose I. KV42 was later appropriated for the sun god Re, who traversed the underworld during the 12 n ted with a series of funerary texts that would facilitate Private Tombs: During the first half of the r8th Dynasty,
planned interment ofThutmose Ill's wife, Meryetre, but hours of the night, vanquishing his enemies, to be densure a successful voyage. substructures were generally approached via a shaft,
seems to have been intended originally for Thutmose Il - triumphantly reborn the following day. T he basic plan of these kingly sepulchres had previously normally in the forecourt of the chapel, but sometimes
although whether built by h im or by his son is unclear. The tomb and its decoration thus had an implicit, :n used in the reign of Amenhotep I for the burial places within the chapel itself. It should be noted that in addition
The burial chambers ofKV20 and KV34 both preserved though not always geographical, east-west axis mimicking two queens, Meryetamun (TT358 at Deir el-Bahari and to the principal burial place, other complexes might be dug
the first decoration to be seen in a royal burial chamber since the path of the sun, with the idea that the burial chamber mes-Nefertiry at O ra Abu'l-Naga), both including a contemporaneously, or later, in and around the tomb, to
the end of the Old Kingdom . In KV2o it had been drawn on was located in the most western part, the part associated :ll' at the end of the approach passage. T his feature house the bodies of other members of the family.J The 0 '

a limestone lining of the burial chamber, in KV34 upon the with death. Thus the king, having successfully triumphed :ame permanently incorporated into kings' tombs forms of the burial chambers vary considerably, but are
m T hutmose III onwards and is generally believed to generally fairly simple, the main additional feature being :and
plastered rock walls of the burial and antechambers. The
principal material used for this decoration was taken from le served both the practical purpose of protecting the niches to contain the protective magic bricks. T hese were
259 On the left,Thutmose Ill is shown in his burial chamber with inscribed with a protective spell from the Book of the Dead
the Book of Amduat (seep. 130) and down to the reign of nb from storm-water and providing the dead king with
his wife, Meryetre: on the right, he is depicted being suckled by a
easy access to the underworld, also perhaps signifying the (Chapter 151) and equipped with an amulet, to ward off ;h was
sycamore tree, labelled as being lsis - probably with the double-
meaning of the goddess and the king's earthly mother of the same nb of the death-god Sokar. Like most other non-kingly danger coming from each of the cardinal points. A handful ;d and
name. nbs, those of the royal family were undecorated. of tombs have decorated burial chambers (see below). bearers,
258 Sectional view of the tomb offhutmose Ill (KV34: 18th Dynasty).
,.....--~::-----:::;:::::::-------:---:-~--1 Burial arrangements for members of the royal family W hile most substructures lie within the immediate prand
~ .f .£ ( ."-'
greatly during the r8th Dynasty.J00 Early queens, such as vicinity of the main tomb-chapel, in some cases they lay up >k of the
,1:>\i r:·
mes-Nefertiry and Meryetamun, had independent tombs to 1 km ())' mile) or so away. At least fo ur high officials had 1ble
'I . ' ome size. H atshepsut, as Regent, had a similar tomb in modest burial chambers in the Valley of the Kings (KV36, The
·.. Wadi Sikkat Taqa el-Zeide. However, during the second 45, 46 and 48), with other unattributed tombs likely to have lb
t of the dynasty royal family tombs seem to be restricted belonged to such individuals as Thutmose Ill's vizier, red
odest shafts in the Valley of the Queens and interments Rekhmire, whose chapel (TTroo) has no tomb-shafts. The .·ves
ide-chambers of kings' tombs. A possible exception is designs of these tombs are generally simple, with either a •yal
39, an elaborate tomb that seems to have been intended shallow shaft or a stairway and descending passage. A single nits
a multiple occupancy, perhaps by members of the family room is the most common arrangement, but the tomb of
enhotep II, to judge by its foundation deposits. Yuya and Tjuiu (KV46) had a second staircase before the
chamber and KV21 a column and store-room added to the

T H E N EW KI N GDO M : T HE EA RLY YEA RS 225 oARS 227

224 TH E N EW KI N GDO M : T H E EA R LY YE AR S

l
 This pattern was followed by the earliest certain New Amenho tep Ill was drawn with a pen and ink on a plain
I
I
~
Kingdom royal tomb atThebe s, KV2o, in a wadi now buff ground, using stick figures and cursive hieroglyp hs. I
known as the Valley of the Kings. Ultimate ly, it was In KV34's case, the backgrou nd was painted the colour of
papyrus, with the apparent intention of giving the • I

complete d for Hatshepsut, but it is also possible that all

but the deepest chamber had been excavated by her father
Thutmos e I. Five successive galleries descend at a steep
angle into the mountain side, turning gradually to the south,
impression of a giant ancient scroll unrolled around the
curving walls.
After Thutmos e Ill's reign, the pillars of the burial
chamber and the outer rooms of the tomb received full-scale
•
evidently in a search for better rock. This remained poor,
however, and when a final chamber was added by images of divinities and the pharaoh, in polychro me after
H atshepsu t, it had to be lined with blocks oflimest one to the reign ofThutm ose IV. T he pharaoh praises the gods and,
in return, the gods welcome him and offer him eternal life 260 Plan of the probable tomb of Queen Ahmes-N efertrry (and
provide a surface that could be decorated.
within the context of solar resurrect ion. This all links into perhaps later also Ahmose I) at Dra Abu'I-Naga (early 18th Dynasty).
This 'long-and -deep' plan was abandon ed by subseque nt
rulers in favour of a pair of stairways, joined by a fairly a concepti on of the royal tomb as a gateway to the
underwo rld. The architecture of the tomb leading to the over his enemies and passed through a series of challenges,
short corridor, giving access to an antecham ber and finally
burial chamber thus emulated the topograp hy of the was united with Osiris and could be reborn together with
a pillared burial hall. In the first three such tombs, KV34,
Duat,'9s and different portions of the perilous journey, the sun god the next day. This royal resurrect ion in a divine
38 and 42, the burial chamber had the oval shape of the
entailing passage through a series of gates after routing foes state was crucial to the stability of the nation and the cosmos 26 1 Plan of KV39, possibly completed as a communal tomb for the
cartouche, the frame used for the principal royal names and family of Amenhotep 11.
and passing tests, that had to be made before finally arriving and was an expression of the triumph of maatove r chaos.
symbolic of eternity. KV34 had been built by Thutmo se Ill
at the court of Osiris.'99 This paralleled the journey of the Thus the royal tombs of the New Kingdom were carved and
and it appears that KV38 had also been built by him for a
sun god Re, who traversed the underwo rld during the 12 painted with a series of funerary texts that would facilitate Private Tombs: During the first half of the r8th D ynasty,
reburial ofThutm ose I. KV42 was later appropri ated for the
hours of the night, vanquish ing his enemies, to be and ensure a successful voyage. substruc tures were generally approach ed via a shaft,
planned intermen t ofThutm ose Ill's wife, Meryetre, but
triumphantly reborn the following day. The basic plan of these kingly sepulchres had previously normally in the forecour t of the chapel, but sometim es
seems to have been intended originally for Thutmo se II -
T he tomb and its decoratio n thus had an implicit, been used in the reign of Amenho tep I for the burial places within the chapel itself. It should be noted that in addition
although whether built by him or by his son is unclear.
though not always geographical, east-wes t axis mimicki ng of two queens, Meryeta mun (TT358 at Deir el-Bahari and to the principal burial place, other complexes mighrbe dug
The burial chambers ofKVw and KV34 both preserved
the path of the sun, with the idea that the burial chamber Ahmes-N efertiry at Dra Abu'l-Naga), both includin g a contemp oraneous ly, or later, in and around the tomb, to
the first decoratio n to be seen in a royal burial chamber since
was located in the most western part, the part associate d 'well' at the end of the approach passage. This feature house the bodies of other members of the family.l0 ' T he
the end of the Old Kingdom . In KV20 it had been drawn on
with death. T hus the king, having successfully triumphed became permane ntly incorpor ated into kings' tombs forms of the burial chambers vary considerably, but are
a limeston e lining of the burial chamber, in KV34 upon the
from Thutmos e Ill onwards and is generally believed to generally fairly simple, the main additional feature being
plastered rock walls of the burial and antecham bers. The
have served both the practical purpose of protectin g the niches to contain the protective magic bricks. T hese were
principal material used for this decoratio n was taken from 259 On the left,Thutmose Ill is shown in his burial chamber with tomb from storm-w ater and providin g the dead king with inscribed with a protective spell from the Book of th e Dead
the Book of Amduat (seep. 130) and down to the reign of his wife, Meryetre; on the right, he is depicted being suckled by a
an easy access to the underwo rld, also perhaps signifYing the (Chapter 151) and equipped with an amulet, to ward off
sycamore tree, labelled as being lsis - probably with the double-
meaning of the goddess and the king's earthly mother of the same tomb of the death-go d Sokar. Like most other non-king ly danger coming from each of the cardinal points. A handful
name. tombs, those of the royal family were undecora ted. of tombs have decorate d burial chamber s (see below).
258 Sectional view of the tomb ofThutmose Ill (KV34: 18th Dynasty).
Burial arrangem ents for members of the royal family W hile most substruc tures lie within the immedia te
vary greatly during the r8th Dynasty.l00 Early queens, such as vicinity of the main tomb-ch apel, in some cases they lay up
Ahmes-N efertiry and Meryeta mun, had independ ent tombs to 1 km (Y, mile) or so away. At least four high officials had
of some size. Hatshep sut, as Regent, had a similar tomb in modest burial chambers in the Valley of the Kings (KV36,
the Wadi Sikkat Taqa el-Zeide. However, during the second 45, 46 and 48), with other unattribu ted tombs likely to have
part of the dynasty royal family tombs seem to be restricted belonged to such individu als as Thutmos e Ill's vizier,
to modest shafts in the Valley of the Queens and intermen ts Rekhmire, whose chapel (T Troo) has no tomb-sh afts. The
in side-cham bers of kings' tombs. A possible exceptio n is designs of these tombs are generally simple, with either a
KV39, an elaborate tomb that seems to have been intended shallow shaft or a stairway and descendi ng passage. A single
for a multiple occupan cy, perhaps by members of the family room is the most common arrangem ent, but the tomb of
of Amenho tep II, to judge by its foundati on deposits. Yuya and Tjuiu (KV46) had a second staircase before the
chamber and KV21 a column and store-roo m added to the

T HE NEW KINGDO M : T HE EAR LY YEA RS 225

224 THE NEW KI N GDOM T H E EARLY Y EARS
burial chamber. A similar tomb (KV62) was modestly and sloping-passage approaches; for example, in Puiemre's
extended at the end of the dynasty for the burial of King sepulchre (TT39), a shaft at the northern end of the
Tutankhamun. transverse hall descends 3 m (10 ft) to the beginning of a
Another example of a 'remote' substructure is that of series of rough descending galleries, ending in a sandstone-
Senenmut, whose chapel (TT71) is on Sheikh Abd lined burial chamber.
el-Qurna, but whose burial chambers are at Deir el-Bahari Only eight The ban private tombs-chapels of the r8th
(TT353) .l02 This is a particularly elaborate example, with a Dynasty are presently known to have had associated
series of three stairways and passages leading to the intended decorated substructures (TT7r/ TT353, TT6r, TT82, TT87,
burial chamber. The antechamber provides perhaps the
earliest New Kingdom example of decoration in a private 263 A column in the burial chamber of Sen nefer showing the deceased
substructure, with texts from the Book of the Dead being offered a drink by his w ife (TI96A: mid-18th Dynasty).
supplemented by an astronomical ceiling, the prototype of
most other subsequent ceilings of this type.JOJ Other images
included Senenmut praising Hatshepsut's cartouches, images
of Anubis and the Bull and Seven Cows motif from the
Book of the Dead that ensured nourishment in the hereafter.
TT353 is one of the earliest examples of the new practice
of having substructures approached by sloping passages,
rather than shafts. Clearly, they made access to the burial
chamber easier, but may have reflected a conscious imitation
of kingly practice, since the design of the funerary chambers
also became more elaborate, sometimes including pillared
halls. Such substructures were provided for the Mayor
Sennefer underThutmose Ill (TT96- the burial chamber
is designated TT96A) and for the Steward Qenamun in
the reign of Amenhotep II (TT93) . In the former case, the
entrance lay in the forecourt of the chapel, in the latter,
within the columned fore-hall. The latter became by far the 264 The decoration of the burial chamber of Se nnefer (TI96A) differs considerably from that of other private examp les in its richn ess and
variety. He re we have t he Voyage to Abydos; t he rough cei ling has been painted as t hough it we re a grape-arbou r
most common location.J0 4 Some tombs combine both shaft

TT96, TT2or, and TT383: see summary on next page), In contrast, an almost entirely figurative approach was
262 The substructure of t he t omb of Senenmut (TI353). Unlike most
although the poor recording of the subterranean portions adopted by Sennefer in TT96 (pi. VIII): the deceased and
private tombs of t he period, th is lay a consi derable distance from its
of such monuments clearly distorts the picture. In the his wife before tables of different offerings, offering bearers,
chapel. Whi le t he latter (TI7 1) was high on the Sheikh Abd e i-Qu rna
hi ll, the burial passages lay at Deir ei-Bahari, close to Hatshepsut's case of the Vizier User (TT6r), the adornment of his burial different funerary divinities, including Osiris, Hathor and
temple. apartments uniquely borrows from contemporary royal Anubis, the funeral procession, selections of the Book of the
practice in employing the Amduat, otherwise exclusively a Dead and the Abydos pilgrimage. The most remarkable
royal prerogative until the 21st Dynasty.l0 ' Amenemhat feature of this tomb is the ceiling, which is painted. The
(TT82), in contrast, covered the walls of his burial chamber naturally poor rock made it very difficult for the tomb
with extracts from the Book of the Dead and the ancient builders to smooth out the rock; instead they plastered
Pyramid Texts, along with images of the deceased receiving it over and painted it to resemble the undulating curves
offerings from his children.l06 The Book of the Dead also of a grape arbour. A winged vulture, rare in a non-royal
provided the basis for the decoration of the burial chamber context, spreads protective wings over the tomb from its
of Minnakhte (TT87), which may also have been present in lofty perch.
T T383 (Merymose), although only fragments of columns of A thus-far unique burial chamber belongs to Re
text remain there. (TT2or) .J 0 7 It is painted in yellow paint on a black

226 THE NEW KING D 0 M: THE EARLY YE A R S THE NEW KING D 0 M THE EARLY YE A R S 227
 background, apparently intended to imitate the schema of In the main body of the Theban tombs, shaft-approaches
decoration of r8th Dynasty 'black' coffins.l08 The painted steadily decrease in number as the dynasty progresses, with a
Chapter I0 The New Kingdom:
decoration gives the burial chamber its orientation, with the corresponding increase in the occurrence of sloping passages, the Amarna Years
image oflsis on the south (the feet) and Nephthys on the until the latter is the dominant design by the beginning of ......................................... ... ..... ............ ........... ................ .......... .......... ........ ................................................................. ... ...... ..... ..... .... ................................................................. . .................................................................. ....... .. ........ ......................
..... ... .................. .............. . ..._

north (the head). In addition, the walls of the burial the Arnarna Period. Elaborate substructures survive from the
; 11
chamber ofTT39 (Puiemre) were faced with thin sandstone reign of Arnenhotep Ill; a good example is that of Ramose
slabs that were smeared with a plaster wash, as if in (TT 55) which, as is fairly standard at the time, begins with a
preparation for painting that was never executed. ramp in the far left-hand corner of the first hall of the chapel.
At Deir el-Medina, the substructure of the tomb ofKha Descending steeply, stairs flank a central ramp that describes
(TT8- died reign of Arnenhotep Ill) lies in the rock face a 135 degree turn before turning left into a four-pillared hall,
opposite his pyramid and is approached by a steep stairway, presumably the burial chamber, equipped with a series of
at the bottom of which a horizontal corridor leads to the subsidiary rooms. However, designs vary considerably
burial chamber. T he corridor was used to store some between tombs, TTr92 having four long passages that led
funerary equipment, while the burial chamber was secured ultimately to a chamber that lay just behind and below the
by a wooden door with a mechanical lock. innermost niche of the chapel.

DECORATED PRIVATE SUBSTRUCTURES OF THE EARLIER NEW KINGDOM

T he accession of Arnenhotep IV, soon to change his name T HE 18TH DYNAS T Y ~ T HE AMARN A PER IOD
Site Tomb Date Owner Scene to Akhenaten, marked a major upheaval in Egypt's ritual

18th Dyn Puiemre No decoration, but faced with thin sandstone slabs that were smeared life. The king effectively abolished the majority of Superstructures
Thebes TT39
(Thutmose Ill) with a plaster wash traditional public cults in favour of a single sun god, the No trace of any royal mortuary temple has come to light at
Book of Amduat
Aten. He also moved the royal residence to Arnarna, a virgin Arnarna. It is not unlikely that Akhenaten's close link with his
Thebes TT61 18th Dyn User
(Thutmose Ill) site in Middle Egypt. The brand-new city, calledAkhet- god meant that his worship fused with that of the A ten,
Aten, was constructed in a great bay in the cliffs, at the obviating the need for any separate mortuary temple. On the
Thebes TT82 18th Dyn Amenemhet BoD; Pyramid Texts; deceased kneeling with ointment and taper below
(Thutmose Ill) a niche. Son (sem-priest) and other children offer to deceased and back of which a large wadi led out towards the high desert other hand, private tomb-chapels were constructed in the
wife. Deceased and mother. Bull and sacred cows and the royal necropolis- a new Valley of the Kings (Map cliffs to the north and south of the Royal Wadi (Wadi Abu
Thebes TT87 18th Dyn Minnakht BoD 3) .3°9 This was flanked by hills into which were carved the Hisah el-Bahari). The southern group appear to have been
(Thutmose Ill) tomb-chapels of the royal officials. founded three or four years later than the northern and,
Thebes TT96 18th Dyn Sennefer Priests with offerings, deceased, deceased with daughter, men with
(Amenhotep 11) funeral equipment, priest libating, deceased with wife,Anubis-jackals, 265 (above) Image of Ay and Tey
offering texts, deceased going to 'see the sun-disk' with wife, Os iris- receiving gifts from the king.
Wennefer with Western Hathor, dancers, ceremonies, shrines, son
from the scene in ill. 268 (CMTR
libating and censing, deceased and wife being purified by sem-priest,
BoD, mummy on a couch with Anubis and ba, deceased and wife before I011 112611 ) .
lsis and Osiris
266 (right) The southern section
Thebes TT201 18th Dyn Re Scheme imitates that of a sarcophagus of the Nort hern Tombs at
(Thutmose IV/
Amarna, comprising tombs TA3
Amenhotep Ill)
(Ah mose), 3A~3F (unknown),
Thebes TT353 18th Dyn Senenmut Texts, sketch of deceased, BoD, deceased with Horus, purification, 4 (Meryre i), 5 (PentJu) , 6
(Hatshepsut) Fields of laru, false-door, deceased with parents, deceased with (Panehsy) and 6A~6 D
offerings,Anubis, mummified god, bull with seven cows, and gods of
(unknown).TombsTA I (Huya)
sacred oars. Ceiling: astronomical
and 2 (Meryre ii) lie JUSt beyond
Thebes TT383 18th Dyn Merymose Uncertain: traces of inscriptions and titles the wadi at the top of the
(Ame nhotep Ill) photograph (cf Map 3).

228 THE NEW KIN GDO M: T H E EARLY Y EA RS THE N EW Kl N G DOM : THE AMAR NA YEARS 229
rather than lying high up the cliff face, are much lower down round-pillared, fore-halls and sometimes a pillared inner
and are consequently submerged by sand. The construction hall as well. The innermost part of Amarna chapels generally
of the new capital clearly required large amounts oflabour, as included a rock-cut statue of the deceased- although the
did the foundation of tombs for many of the worthies, and a unfinished state of many of the tombs obscures the true
shortage oflabour was clearly one reason why all the Amarna extent of this fashion. The locations of substructure
tombs are unfinished to some degree. entrances vary, some following The ban fashion in being in
Interestingly, only one of the men to be buried at the left-hand end of the forehall, while in others it is at the
Amarna certainly gave up a Theban tomb in favour of one opposite end. Some are stairways, while others, especially in
at the new city. This was Parennefer, whose TT188 is one of the Type IVa tombs, are shafts.
the few there to contain clear examples of Amarna art.J'0 Tomb decoration in Amarna Period tombs is markedly
On relocating to Amarna he founded TA7 .l'' different from that of any other era of Egyptian history. Due
Some Amarna tomb-chapels were built along Theban to the change in the nature of the religious ritual of the time,
lines, albeit with entirely novel decorative schemes. Such the schema of decoration of these tombs has a great deal in
tombs ranged from large sepulchres of type VIII (e.g. Ay's common with contemporary temples. Both depict the king
TA25 and May's TA14) to a number of examples of type IVa and his family in various poses, whether praying to the Aten,
or going about their daily life in the palace, the temple, or 268 (above) The largest figures
- something that had essentially gone our of use at Thebes
in an Amarna tomb tend t o be
in Thutmose Ill's day - with a very wide hall. However, around the city, surrounded by adoring courtiers and
t he royal couple. He re they are
the basic Theban 'T' -shaped tomb is rare, while there was dignitaries. Scenes of the city of Akhetaten occur frequently shown at t he window-of-
also a considerable number of tombs of a basic pattern not in these tombs. The tomb-owner features rarely in these appearances rewarding t he
generally found at Thebes. This featured square, tombs, except in specific situations: being rewarded by the tomb owne r and greeting t he
king and on the jambs at the tomb entrance. In the populace in t he tomb of Ay
(TA25).
267 View of t he interior of t he fi rst hall of t he tomb of Meryre ii at Memphite tombs of this time the owner is more commonly
Amarna (TA2). featured than in the contemporary tombs at Akhetaten
269 (/eft) The most promine nt
itself place for the tomb owner in an
The fa<;:ade ofTT188 well illustrates the differences Amarna t o mb was o n the
between the decoration of Amarna Period tombs and others doorJambs of the tomb's entry.
of the New Kingdom and, for that matter, most other This co uple , Ay and Tey, later
King and Queen, are shown
periods as well. Leaving aside the style itself, with its
raising their arms in praise to
distortions of bodily proportions, the most striking feature the sun wit h t he text of a hymn
is the complete dominance of the king and queen and the carved above them (TA25).
almost complete absence of the tomb-owner. While the
monarch is depicted in many New Kingdom tombs, it is in
a limited, defined context. In TT192, the royal family are
prominent in the surviving decoration, but this may be a
function of the tomb-owner's intimate relationship with
them as the queen's Steward.
This situation is clearly rooted in the Aten rheology,
which placed the royal family in the position of sole
intermediaries between humanity and the god. Thus,
coupled with the new cult's abandonment of the traditional
funerary values manifested in earliers tombs th rough scenes
of 'daily life', the Amarna tombs show the royal family's
journey from palace to the central city; the royal family
dining; the royal family visiting the temple; the royal family
worshipping; and the royal family receiving gifts.

THE NEW K I N GDOM T HE AMAR N A YEARS 23 1

230 TH E N EW KI N G D O M T H E AM A RNA Y EARS
 Another departure from previous practice is the fact that Substructures
Amarna compositions take up the whole available height Roya/Tombs:J•4 The basic 'bent' substructure design
of the wall, rather than dividing it into a series of registers. imroduced for royal tombs earlier in the dynasty continued
A wall surface thus received a complete composition, usually in use up to the time of Amenhotep Ill, albeit with slight
dominated by the king and queen at the centre. Registers expansion, including the addition of a further amechamber.
are only employed within the basic composition to An innovation fairly late in Amenhotep Ill's reign was the
accommodate lesser figures and features. construction of new chambers, specifically for members of
As regards their overall arrangement, tombs at Amarna the royal family. Such individuals had certainly been
had antechambers that contained hymns of praise to the interred with the king in the Valley of the Kings sepulchres
king at th e door jamb; the tomb proper was inscribed with of Amenhotep II and T hutmose IV (KV35 and 43) , albeit
images of the activities of the royal family, including without special architectural provision. In Amenhotep Ill's
rewarding the deceased, as well as scenes of the city. Unusual WV22, however, store-rooms were greatly enlarged into a
scenes show the king not only in intimate family scenes, but pair of single-pillared burial chambers, each with their own
also indulging in very secular activities, such as eating and subsidiary room. These are likely to have been intended for
drinking (TAI); perhaps the earliest representation of a the king's two queens, T iye and Sitamun.
kebab is shown on the wall of a tomb at Amarna (TAr). T he T his provision for royal family members was further
only truly large-scale image of the deceased took the form of expanded under Akhenaten. His tomb was built far down
engaged statues at the rear of the tomb-chapel. It has been the wadi that lies behind the city ofTell el-Amarna (Map 3).
suggested that at Amarna it was believed that the dead slept Some 5 km (3 miles) down the wadi and ro km (6 miles)
during the night in their tombs and arose to greet the sun, as from the heart of the city, a high and broad corridor, 3.2 m
depicted on the door-jambs, after which they accompanied (ro X ft) square, was cut into the cliffs. Its stairways are
the king to the temple.3 12 An unexpected and much more interesting in being the earliest to have a ramp down the
traditional scene shows offering being made before a centre, to aid the introduction of a sarcophagus. The tomb
mummy (TAr), but such an image is rare at Amarna. was never finished, the burial chamber being improvised out
Although the majority of tombs attributable to of what had been intended as a pillared antechamber. In
Akhenaten's reign have been found in the southern part of addition to Akhenaten's mummy, the room seems to have
Egypt, other sepulchres have been identified at Saqqara. The contained the burial of his mother, Tiye.
tomb of Aperel (p. 222) certainly overlapped the period,
while the first of a long series of tomb-chapels with built 270 Axonometric v1ew ofthe royal tomb atAmarna (TA26).
superstructures was erected in a long-abandoned area south
of the causeway ofUnas. Such monuments followed the
basic form of a contemporary god's temple, with an entrance
pylon, peristyle court(s) and sanctuary - just as had the
aforementioned Theban sanctuary of Amenhotep-son-of- Intended burial chamber Entrance
Hapu. The earliest thus-far identifiable example at Saqqara ofNdoctiti(l) ~
(H9) belonged to a High Priest of the Aten. Its owner had
started work under the name M eryneith, changing it to
Burial chambers
Meryre and then back to Meryneith,J•J indicating that
of Meketaten
his career must thus have spanned the period, probably
late in Akhenaten's reign, when the king had execrated all
Burial chambe r of
gods save his own Aten. Other tombs of this general date
Akhenaten andTiye
in the area include those ofPaatenemheb (now Leiden
AMT. r-35) and Huy (S2735); the area would become a
major necropolis in the years immediately following the
end of the Amarna Period.

232 TH E NEW Kl N G DO M THE AMARNA YEAR S

XIX (previous page) The conventional style of bas-relief as found in the tomb of Ramose at Thebes. lt is beautiful ly carved and modelled, and
reflects the best of the style 1n the t ime of Amenhotep Ill (TISS: 18th Dynasty).

XX (above) Upper part of the south wal l of the crypt of the burial chamber ofSety I in the Valley of the Kings, showing a winged figure of the
goddess Isis and texts from the Book of Amduat Also visible is part of the vaulted astronomical ceiling that covers the crypt, in wh ich lay the
mummy of the king (KV 17: 19th Dynasty) .

XXI (opposite) The burial chamber of Pashedu x at Deir ei-Medina. Figures of Anub1s guard the entrance, while texts from the Book ofthe Dead
adorn the walls and ceil ing. On the end wall is an image of the Western Mountain, in front of which Osiris sits enthroned;the area below this
tableau was former ly occupied by a stone sarcophagus, destroyed during the 19th century (TI3: 19th Dynasty).
XXII (right) North wall of the burial
chamber of RamessesVI in the Valley of the
Kings, with Part A of the Book of the Earth
(KV9: 20th Dynasty).

XXI II (overleaf) The burial chamber of

N efert~ry, wife of Ramesses 11, in the Valley
of the Queens. The column in the
foreground depicts the lunmutef priest who
penformed the Opening-of-the-Mouth
ceremony for the mummy.The sarcophagus
fo rmerly lay across the centre of the central
crypt of the chamber (QV66: 19t h Dynasty).
 Other members of the Amarna royal family were also difficulr. At Saqqara, in the tomb of Aperel, a Bight of steps
provided with burial places within the king's tomb, suites of gives access to a passage, from the Boor of which a shaft leads
rooms being cut to the right of the main corridor, one for down to a vaulted chamber. Beyond this yet another shaft
the burials of at least two female members of the family, leads down to a shallow staircase, under which was the burial
another perhaps for Queen Nefeniti. chamber. This proved to be largely intact, although the
As might be expected given its owner's change in belief contents had been quite badly damaged by humidity and still
system, the Amarna royal tomb was decorated in a held the coffins of the vizier, his wife, son and daughter-in-
completely different way from its predecessors. The Amarna law, together with their canopic equipment and other
royal reliefs , like those in the contemporary tombs and material.
temples, focus on scenes of royal daily activities in
conjunction with the worship of the Aten. The sunk relief 18TH DY N ASTY- FROM TUTANKHA M UN TO
shows scenes of the king and his family praising the Aten in HOR EM HE B
temples, going about their daily culric business and most
poignantly, scenes of the deathbeds of female members of Superstructures
the royal family.J's Royal Tombs: The Atenist 'heresy' , as it has been dubbed, was
ended with Akhenaten's death, the state necropoleis shifting
Private Tombs: The same kinds of substructures found at back to their traditional locations. No mortuary temple has
Thebes are to be found atAmarna, although examples are yet been identified forTutankhamun, although one was
generally unfinished, thus making detailed comparisons begun by Ay at Medinet Habu and finished by Horemheb.J' 6

27 1 A maJor concentration of New Kingdom burials at Saqqara was adjacent to Teti's pyramid .These included that of lpuia (52730), whose hal l is
seen here; the blocks from the tomb are now in the Cairo Museum UE44755,JE44924,TR21 /6/24/ 16,T R27/3/25/ 17: late 18th Dynasty).

XXIV The no rt h wall of the original bu rial chambe r ofTawosret in the Valley of the Kings showing the final scene from the Book of Caverns, with
the sun god eme rging at t he t o p as a scarab and as a chi ld (KV 14_: 19th Dynasty) .
In its final form, the temple was fronted by three pylons, a
a massive gateway giving access to the great court. A palace
was constructed between the third pylon and the gateway, a
feature that became standard in Ramesside temples. Behind
the court was a broad hypostyle hall, two columns deep and
ten wide, giving access to further, smaller, pillared courts
and the three-fold cult complexes beyond. The temple was
razed to the ground in antiquity, but recovered fragments
show a return to conventional decorative themes. b

Private Tombs: A bare half-dozen private tombs of the late

I 8th Dynasty are known at Thebes, with a major upsurge

in the numbers constructed at Saqqara.Jl7 At Saqqara, they

centred on the area around the pyramid ofTeti and south
ofUnas' monument. It is possible that these locations were 274 Another provincial tomb of t he post-Amarna period is that
chosen owing to the easy access up the steep escarpment 273 Plan of the tomb of the Overseer of Nurses. Sennedjem, at of Nefersekheru at Zawiyet Sultan.This view shows the principal
c Awlad Azzaz, near So hag (18th Dynasty: reign ofTutankhamun).
afforded by the remains of these ancient monuments' chamber, with statue niches at the rear (late 18th/early 19th Dynasty).
causeways.
The rock-cur cemetery in the cliff east ofTeti's pyramid Of very similar design was the contemporary tomb at Awlad Azzaz, near So hag in Middle Egypt.l20 It is rock-
(p. 222) continued in use, including the tomb of the Lady (LS27) of the Treasurer Maya (Maya was a common name, cut, with a particularly impressive fayade, flanked by large
Maya (I.2o) , wet-nurse ofTutankhamun, while free- used by both men and women). The inner chapels of these stelae, but otherwise similar to Theban tombs in its overall
standing tombs began to be placed near the pyramid itself. tombs were surmounted by brick pyramids and in some layout.
d cases the chapels lay in the actual pyramid core.
Their structures comprised mud-brick walls faced with
•• • • • • • • Tomb decoration of this period shows the transition
stone and generally consisted of small single-roomed
• •
•
Aside from these monuments at the capitals, a number from the Amarna style of art to a n aturalistic yet less
•
chapels, perhaps fronted by a pair of columns (ill. 271).
Similar monuments were also built in the cemetery south
of the pyramid ofUnas, but part of its major expansion
..
•';;;;=;.:~.]. .......
• • 12$]

• • • • • • ••
•
• of other sepulchres are known from other parts of the
country during the post-Amarna Period. A significant
example is that of the Overseer of Nurses, Sennedjem,
exaggerated style. Scene types that were common prior to
the Amarna Period are reinstated and images of the king
decrease dramatically.
involved the erection of huge temple-tombs for key officials
on sites apparently made available by the demolition of a e 275 In the post-Amarna period
number of Old Kingdom (and earlier) mastabas. some scenes that had appeared
The shafts of the latter formed the basis for a number previously, such as funerary
rituals, regained popularity.
of New Kingdom substructures, while their masonry was
However, new variations, such as
also re-used, along with blocks from nearby pyramids.
the smashing of the pots, were
At least one other cemetery of such tombs lay in the rntroduced into the mourning
Memphite necropolis, in the area between Saqqara-South sequence (Saqqara, tomb of
and Dahshur, where was found the tomb of the Royal Horemheb: 18th Dynasty, reign
Butler, Ipay.l'8 ••••• ofTutankhamun).
Of the same mud-brick construction as the smaller D :
tombs, that of the general, later pharaoh, HoremhebJ'9 •••••
underwent a gradual evolution, beginning as three chapels
opening from the rear of a peristyle court, with a plain .
272 Temple-tombs' of the late 18th/early 19th Dynasties:
forecourt. T he latter was then converted into a vestibule, a.Amenhotep-son-of-Hapu (Thebes: reign of Amenhotep Ill);
flanked by statue rooms and a new forecourt added , which b. Maya (Saqqara LS27: Horemheb); c.Tjia andTia (Saqqara:
still later had colonnades added around it and a large pylon Ramesses 11); d. Neferrenpet (Saqqara STO: Ramesses 11); e.Tasihuy
in front of it. (Saqqara STS: Ramesses 11); f. Paser (Saqqara: Ramesses 11).

242 T H E N EW KIN GDO M : THE A M ARNA YEAR S TH E N EW KI NG DOM : TH E AM AR N A Y EARS 243

 Su bstructures Tutankhamun and continued by Ay, but hurriedly finished
Royal Tombs: A tomb (TA29) may have been begun for off to an abbreviated plan due to Ay's untimely demise.
Tutankhamun (or perhaps Neferneferuaten) at Amarna, Exceptional scenes occur in the tombs of both
comprising a 45-m (148-ft) corridor at the time of its Tutankhamun (KV62) and Ay (WV23). The Amduat is no
abandonment and showing a clear resemblance to that of longer pictured in full in the diminutive tomb of the boy
Akhenaten. However, the remaining royal tombs of the r8th king. Instead, only abbreviated extracts of it are shown in
Dynasty were built at Thebes and were far closer in large-scale polychrome in the burial chamber, the only room
conception to those of the earlier part of the dynasty, albeit in the tomb to be decorated. Perhaps due to the space
with the bend removed. Only that of Horemheb (KV 57:
ill 257e) was ever (nearly) completed, as Tutankhamun was
buried in an enlarged private tomb (KV 62) and Ay was
interred in WV23. This last was probably begun for

277 (right) Sketch of

Tutankhamun's tomb as
discovered. lt had been
co nstructed as a private tomb -
perh aps for Ay? - but had been
pressed into serv1ce as a royal
sepulch re - hence the gross
ove r-crowdi ng of the tomb.The
obj ects wi ll have been designed
to fit into a far larger monument
(KV62: late 18th Dynasty).

278 (below) Wall of the burial chamber ofTutankhamun, with. from

the left: Os iris being embraced by the ki ng, fo llowed by his ko; Nut; the
king;the k1ng's mummy, rece1ving the Open 1ng-of-the-Mouth ritual
fro m his successor; Ay. The scene is unique in naming the person
carrying out the ritual.

276 Although Horemheb's Saqqara tomb was left for the burial of his female relations, the previous ly carved images of Horem heb had the royal
uroei added to the new king's brow to emph asize his now-royalty (RMO H. III.CCCC) .

244 THE N EW KI NGDOM T HE AMARNA YEARS T HE NEW KINGDOM: T H E A M ARNA YEARS 245
constraints, further funerary texts taken from the Amduat, In Horemheb's tomb (KV57), the now-traditional
the Litany of Re and the Book of the Dead, together with Amduat texts were supplanted by the Book of Gates (p. 130) .
Chapter 11 The New Kingdom: the Ramesside Years
unidentified texts written in cryptographic hieroglyphs, This tomb is also noteworthy as it contains the first example
were placed on the shrines that were placed around of a burial chamber carved in raised relief. The decoration
Turankhamun's sarcophagusY' was not complete at the time of the king's death, thus
The sepulchre also includes a scene that was hitherto allowing us to study the technology that was used in its
only found in superstructures: his heir (Ay) officiating as the fabrication.
sem or funerary priest at the funeral. Since conducting these
rites conferred legitimacy to the heir, their presence here Private Tombs: Shaft approaches are standard in the 'temple-
may reBect Ay's desire to present himself to the gods as tombs' at Saqqara. Substructure layouts are to some degree
Tutankhamun's true heir. Thus, political expediency rather inBuenced by their re-use of the shafts from over-built Old
than any religious intent may provide the reason for Kingdom tombs and are often of very considerable depth.
including this scene that is unique in such a context. The principal shaft ofHoremheb's tomb ultimately descends
Ay's tomb is also unusual decoratively as, in addition to to a four-pillared chamber, a final, much smaller, burial
further large-format selections from the Amduat and scenes room being approached via a shaft at its far endYJ
of the king in the presence of the gods, he chose to include a The substructure of the tomb of his contemporary,
double-scene showing himself, with his wife, spearing the Treasurer Maya (LS27), is interesting (and unique for
hippopotami on a canoe and fowling from a canoe. These its location and period) in that its principal chambers were F ollowing the end of the r8th Dynasty, the country's centre opposite end of the necropolis from those of his late-r8th
latter scenes are normally specific to the decoration of the lined with limestone blocks, to allow the addition of relief- of gravity gradually moved northwards, with the Memphite Dynasty predecessors, The building was incomplete at its
private tomb-chapel or royal mortuary templeJ'' and are decoration, impossible in the poor native rock of this part necropolis increasingly supplementing the The ban as the founder's death and was ultimately finished by his son,
unique in the context of (royal or private) burial chamber of Saqqara. The scheme employed showed the deceased cemetery of the elite. Civil disorder and economic decline led Ramesses II. The decoration applied by the latter, in sunk
decoration at any time. Are these a vestige of Atenist usage and his wife, Meryet, worshipping various deities. The to a gradual fall-off in the construction of monumental relief, is far inferior to Sety's own work, in raised-relief of the
or due to some ambivalence on Ay's part as to his background was painted a golden yellow, both the schema tombs as the period progressed. very highest quality. The temple was fronted by two courts
posthumous destiny? of decoration and the colours used being reminiscent of and pylons, now almost totally destroyed, but much of the
royal burial chambers.J24 These rooms were approached 19 TH AND 20TH DYNAS TIES main temple remains intact. The ten-columned portico gives
via a shaft in the inner courtyard of the chapel, leading access to the usual three parallel sets of rooms.
279 (below) The burial chamber of King Ay is unusual in his inclusion Su perstructures
to a series of chambers, from which a further shaft led to The temple ofRamesses II, known today as the
of the fis hi ng and fowl1ng scene that is normal ly only found 1n private
tomb-chapels and some royal mortuary temples- never in a the lowest level, where a decorated room led to a passageway, Royal MortuaryTemples:l' 7 Ramesses I appears to have been Ramesseum, is considerably larger and more elaborate. Its
substructure (WV23: late 18th Dynasty) . giving access to the final pair of stone-lined burial unable to complete a mortuary temple for himself and great enclosure contains, besides the temple itself, a chapel
chambers.J25 provision for his cult seems to have been restricted to the possibly dedicated to his mother, Tuy and wife, Nefertiry,
Moving to more provincial cemeteries, the tomb 'paternal' section of the temple of his son. Sety I's mortuary and a large number of brick-vaulted store-houses- some
of Sennedjem near So hag (p. 235) has two sets of temple was built in front ofDraAbu'l-Naga, at Qurna, at the of which were used for burials in the Third Intermediate
substructures, entered from the left and right rear corners
of the chapel. The latter has a complex set of chambers, 280 (above) The sun god in his bark as he crosses the underworld at night in the tomb of Sety I (KV 17: 19th Dynasty).
including one with four pillars connected to the previous
room by a stairway that descends and then rises again to 28 1 (below) The fa~ade of the inne r part of the mortuary temp le ofSety I at Qurna (19th Dynasty).
emerge at its original level.
At Riqqa cemetery F, only substructures survive,
although fragments of offering places were identifiable.
That oflpiy (F20r) was approached by a 6-m (2o-ft) shaft
giving access to a chamber to the east and another to the
west.''' The latter had a southern extension, from which a
fUrther 4-m (!2-ft) shaft led to the burial chamber. The
neighbouring tomb 202 was generally similar, but the upper
chamber featured a pair of pillars.

246 THE NEW KINGD OM: TH E AMARNA Y EAR S

282 (above) The Ramesseum, the mortuary temple of Ramesses 11 almost entirely destroyed, or unidentified, the exception 284 (above) The mortuary temple ofRamesses Ill at Med inet Habu.
on the west bank at Thebes (19th Dynasty).The remains in the '' being that ofRamesses III at Medinet Habu, whose temple lt basically follows the design of a cont emporary cult-temple, one
foreground are of brick store-rooms, some of which were re-used ' exception be1 ng t he presence of a royal palace, the remains of which
is the best preserved of all such buildingsY 8 lt is in essence
as burial places during the 22nd Dynasty (see. pp. 273- 4). ' can be seen 1n t he foreground.
' an enlarged copy of the Ramesseum, this lead being
283 (nght) Plan of the Ramesseum.
0 0000000000000000 0
followed by Ramesses IV who began a similar temple, albeit 285 (below) Reconst ruct io n of Med1net Habu in the Ptolemaic
'' half as large again, on the Asasif. H e never fi nished it and Period. O riginally cent red on an I8th Dynasty t emple, t he mortuary
' neither did Ramesses V and VI who fo llowed him; this last temple of Ramesses Il l was added to t he complex in the 20th Dynasty.
'
Period. T he temple itself is built of stone throughout, in ' of the known New Kingdom royal mortuary temples was During t he 23rd Dynasty a royal necropol is was established t here,
'
wit h new pylons and court yards added t o t he 18th Dynasty temple in
contrast to the extensive use of brick for the outer elements abandoned years from completion.J29
Late and Ptolemaic periods.
of temples down to that of Sety I. However, the basic layout During the Ramesside Period, something of a
of three cult complexes, of the king/his father, Amun and standardized decorative arrangement was established in
Re, is retained from earlier monuments. Beyond the pylon royal mortuary temples. Scenes dealing with battles and the
lay the ruined First Court, flanked by colonnades. T hat on triumph over the enemies of Egypt were placed on the
the right was supported by Osirid columns; that on the left exterior of pylons and walls, as well as on the walls of open
fronted a small palace. courtyards. Sometimes these are generic scenes of victory,
T he Second Court was surrounded on three sides by but they are also frequently a record of actual historic
colonnades and beyond lay the main Hypostyle Hall, its events, such as the battle of Qadesh against the H ittites
roof held up by 48 columns. Those flanking the aisle were featured in the Ramesseum and the struggles with the
rather more massive than the rest, supporting a clerestory, invading Sea Peoples from the Aegean, fou nd on the walls
which was the sole light-source. The standard set of three of Ramesses Ill's mortuary temple. Scenes of hunting
complexes lead from the hall. T he central suite, of Amun, become, for the most part, obsolete, with a notable
featured a series of small hypostyle halls. exception being a bull hunt fo und on the exterior of the
The basic plan ofMerenptah's mortuary temple reverted Medinet Habu temple.
to the more modest dimensions of the monument of Sety I. Osirid pillars are still found, but their location is
Of the remaining Ramesside mortuary temples, mos.t are generally restricted to the piers in the open courtyard of the
0 120ft

248 N EW KI N GDO M : THE RAMESS I DE YEARS N EW KI N GDO M : THE RAM ESSID E Y EARS 249
temples. At Medinet Habu the reliefs of the second courtyard
were concerned with divine festivals, in particular those of
Min and Ptah-Sokar-Osiris. T he ceiling decorations of
temples of the 19th Dynasty mark a change from earlier 18th
Dynasty practice, in that the ceiling of the hypostyle hall of
the Ramesseum is adorned with an entire astronomical
ceiling. A lunar calendar with Ramesses II offering to the
different divinities of the months is also shown.
Most of the wall and pillar scenes in the interiors of
Ramesside temples beyond the open courts show the king
interacting with gods, with Amun being the main recipient
of his devotions. The cult of Re is relegated to his special
sanctuary in the northwest corner of the temples; certainly
the Old Kingdom scenes evocative of the sun's goodness are
nowhere to be found in the decoration of these mortuary
temples. Recurring themes in the inner part of the temple
show the king's name being written on the ished-tree,
inscriptions that ensure his eternal life and rule; the offerings
of incense, bouquets, oils, images of maatand food and drink
to the gods; offering lists; offerings; a false-door or offering
area for the king; prayers to various gods; and the giving of 28 6 (obove) Typ ical scenes of the ki ng smit ing his e nemies ado rn ed
life to the king. The heb-sed scenes that dominated older the pylons of both cult and mort uary temp les. Wh ether o r not the
rule r had fo ught a battle (as had Ramesses Ill, shown here at Medinet
temples are reduced in scope, with the idea of eternity for
Habu), t his scene was necessary as it e pit om ized the ruler's ro le and
such celebrations frequently being provided by scenes of the
was crucial t o t he cont inuati on of moot.
gods offering the deceased pharaoh multiple hieroglyphic
images of the words 'heb-sed' . The increase of the scenes 287 (opposite) At h1s mortuary te mp le , Ramesses 11 sits wit hin an
showing different divinities, especially the The ban triad, is ished-tree , and has his name inscribed on t he leaves for longevity
also linked to the Festival of the Valley (see pp. 220-1). An and a continu ous rule rship.

interesting set of scenes are those found in the complex of

rooms associated with Osiris at Medinet Habu, which have The 'temple-tomb' approach was also found at Thebes .
vignettes from the Book of the Dead, in particular Chapter The High Priest Nebwenenefhad a free-standing structure
no, most unusually featuring the king in the Fields ofiaru. in front ofDraAbu'l-Naga, including granite colossi of
his master, Ramesses II. The ruinous state of the structure
Private Tombs: The Saqqara cemeteries continued to grow makes its details difficult to discern, but it seems to have
during the 19th Dynasty. A notable change was a move resembled the Saqqara structure ofTjia and Tia, with a
towards the use of stone, rather than brick, for the structure peristyle courtyard fronting a number of smaller rooms,
of the tombs, although solid stone was reserved for the at least one with rwo columns supporting the ceiling. This
decorated facings, wall-cores being of rubble or mud-brick. was in addition to his normal tomb-chapel, TT157, nearly
An important example is the tomb ofTia, sister ofRamesses r km (Xmile) to the north, a vast structure with a cross-hall
II and her husband Tjia (ill. 272c) .JJo Although this follows supported by rwelve Osirid pillars and an inner hall with
the same basic patterns as the earlier tombs, there are a a dozen square piers. A mud-brick pyramid above the
number of changes, also found in the other tombs of the chapel completed Nebwenenef's public mortuary
period at Saqqara. In particular, the statue rooms berween installation.
the courtyards disappear and the pyramid is made a free- Other structures - at both Thebes and Saqqara-
standing element directly behind the tomb (cf. ill. 272d-f). combined both rock-cut and built elements. For example,

250 N EW KIN GD OM : T H E RAMESSID E YEARS

Djhutymose's TT32 had two brick pylons and a colonnaded As the Ramesside Period proceeded, the number of
court, the latter backed with statue niches and a false-door. known Theban tomb-chapels decreased; apart from the
The rock-cur chapel, in contrast, had a simple cross-hall tombs of the Deir el-Medina community, few are precisely
with four pillars, behind which lay a passage and the offering datable, with an increasing number of instances of
place. Similarly, the very basic 'T' -shaped tomb of the High usurpation of older chapels. Designs generally reverted to
Priest Bakenkhonsu (TT35) was fronted by an extensive set the simple 'T'-shaped Types Va and b, sometimes with
of pylons and courtyards and topped by a pyramid. statues cut into the ends of the cross-hall and a pyramid on
Such tombs had a far more 'monumental' form than the hillside above. One of the more elaborate examples was
sepulchres of the previous dynasty, with an apparent Roma-Roy's TT283, fronted by a peristyle court and pylon.
conceptual change as well,JJI the pyramid and the small The return to orthodoxy was accompanied by changes in
brick-vaulted chapel housed within it adding for example a both artistic styles and the choice of scenes. As consolidated
specifically solar element to the monument.JJ2 In TT288/9 during the Ramesside Period, this change shifted focus fro m
the pyramid-chapel was arranged so as to lie directly above the deceased or the king to the gods.m Scenes relating to the
the statue niche of the rock-cur chapel. individual's career became fairly rare, although examples
continued to exist, for example a 2oth Dynasty reward scene
in TTr48. Agricultural scenes decreased dramatically in
288 The development of the Ramesside tomb-chapel: a.TI I06
number, although several late r8th/early 19th Dynasty tombs
(Paser); b.TI288/9 (Setau) ; c.TI283 (Roma-Roy); d.TT222
(Heqamaatre-nakhte).The latter two tombs have extensive built
(e.g. TTr6, TT255 and TT324) contained vignettes showing
elements in front of the rock-cut chapel, while the first three all had agricultural activities. Instead, scenes of funerary ritual
associated pyramids, TT IOb's being some distance away. abounded, plus extracts from the funerary 'books' that were
previously appropriate only to burial chambers (c£ pp. 129-31).
a Initially some Amarna themes are found at both Saqqara
and Thebes: tombs dating from the reign ofTutankhamun/
Ay and later show images of the king bestowing the gold of
b honour upon the deceased, as well as depictions of towns
(e.g. TT 49, showingThebes). Somewhat later, TT 409 has a
rare image ofRamesses II engaged in worship.
However, the switch to the realm of the divine asserted 289 Scenes which are predominantly rel 1g1ous are typical of chapels of the Ramess1de Period. Here, men adore a djed pillar that supports a
itself as the Ramesside Period began. In addition to the usual sun-d1sk, embraced by the arms of Nut, wh1ch emerge from the Western Mountain;tomb of Neferrenpet-Kenro (TI 178: 19th Dynasty, mgn of
Ramesses 11).
funerary divinities, Ptah-Sokar-Osiris gained prominence,
perhaps due to the post-Amarna shift of the political gravity

~=/)~c- -. . . . J
to Memphis where this god was prominent and where many Dynasty (e.g. TTro, TT 5o, TT5r, TT65, TTro6, TT2r7 the two of them on occasion drinking water from T-shaped
of the elite were now being buried.JJ4 and TT255), perhaps a reaction against the excess of kingly pools that are very reminiscent of the shape of the tomb itself,
By the 19th Dynasty, images of the funerary cortege depictions found in chapels of the Amarna Period.Jl5 proliferate. These more explicitly religious scenes make the
with the grave goods, muu dancers, tekenu, journey to By the reign of Sety I the basic format for tomb chapel increasingly similar to a mortuary temple, with the
I - ~'
(( Abydos, shrines ofButo and Sais, butchery and the elaborate decoration of the 19th Dynasty was in place, as can be seen transition to the next world being stressed, rather than the
) )
i
I
I
I
Opening-of-the-Mouth ritual had been abandoned in in the tomb-chapel ofRoy (TT225), with variations being fine life that would be had there. JJ 6 T he inscriptions in tombs
I ;/
( -- I
_____/ favour of an image of the tomb-chapel with the The ban hills visible in other tombs of a similar date, such as those of of this period are painted on a special separately coloured
I f
! I in the background, fronted by images of the deceased and Userhat (TT5r) and Hatiay (TT324). Scenes in Ramesside background, while those of the r8th Dynasty are painted on
I ·'
') '! the performance of the Opening-of-the-Mouth ceremony. tombs contain many more funerary prayers and texts and the same background as the scene, or on a blue-grey
Sometimes the image of a calf with a bleeding leg, the divinities worshipped by the deceased. These appear on ground.m The dominant background colour for tombs of
accompanying vignette to Chapter r in the Book of the upper registers, while lower registers show the provisioning of this period is yellow, suggesting the golden light of the sun, as
Dead, was placed near or within the funeral scene (TTr9, the deceased, an earthly activity. Images showing Hathor, the well as alluding to the metamorphosis of the flesh into gold
TT23, TT 45, TT135, TT277). The appearance of royalty in Lady of the Sycamore, dispensing nourishment to the that was believed to take place after death and the attainment
Ramesside tombs is less frequent than in tombs of the r8 th deceased and his ba (e.g. TTr58) and vignettes showing the of eternal life and divinity by the deceased. Engaged statuary

252 NEW KINGDOM : THE RAMESS ID E YEARS NEW K I NGDOM: T H E RAMESS I DE YEARS 253
1

remains a part of the adornment, as can be seen in the tombs enlargement in the height and width of the passages.
of K.haemopet and Paser (TTro5, TTro6). The former shows Roughly in parallel with this, the entrances of the tombs
statues of the husband and wife carved into a niche above the became larger and were placed in prominent places in
entrance to the substructure, while the courtyard of the the Valley, contrasting with the inconspicuous, easily
latter's tomb contains nine statues of the deceased, three of obliterated, locations seen earlier. Indeed, it seems that the
which are Osirid. 20th Dynasty royal tombs were never intended to be
It was during the 20th Dynasty that portions of books hidden. Instead, it is possible that 'pylons' of rubble were
of the underworld began to be inscribed in the chapels of arranged to flank decorated gateway-entrances that lay
private individuals. This move was accompanied by a shift several metres above the contemporary ground level. The
in the balance berween text and image in a tomb in favour tombs seem to have been closed by simple wooden doors; no
of the former. evidence of the sealed blockings found in earlier tombs was
The patterns described above are best seen at Thebes, present in those ofRamesses II and his successors. Indeed,
although they broadly hold good throughout Egypt. There it has been suggested that the doors of royal tombs may have
are, of course, local variations and it m ay be observed that been on occasion opened ceremonially subsequent to the
'Theban' motifs are not always found in the Memphite area, buriaJ.Ho In this situation, the security of the tombs will have
while tombs at El-Kab and Thebes often have common relied paradoxically on their visibility and the reliability of
themes and even identical scenes . The Voyage to Abydos is the necropolis police- the latter perhaps an unwise
rare, but not unknown at Saqqara (e.g. Tjia and Tia and approach in the troubled times of the late 2oth Dynasty.
Pabes), as are images of the king, while the Saqqara scene of From this period we also have information on the names
ritual pot-breaking is not found in Thebes. However, it is anciently given to the various parts of the royal tomb,
interesting to note that a tomb dating to Tutankhamun's derived from a number of ancient documents. w From the
reign at Sohag (p. 235) has more in common with the entrance, they are as follows:
deco ration of contemporary Memphite tombs than with
those of the much nearer The ban area.338
MODERN AND ANCIENT TERMS
The Memphite tombs, mainly of a Ramesside date,
FORTHE PARTS OFA KING'STOMB
continue to show residual stylistic influences of the Amarna
Period, coupled with the iconographic shift that is seen at Corridor I setja-netjer en wat shu
First God's Passage [of Re] of the Sun's Path
Thebes. Images of Osiris and other deities enthroned and
adored by the tomb-owner abound. Corridor 2 setja-netjer sen-nu
Second God's Passage
Substructures Corridor 3 setja-netjer khemet-nu
Roya/Tombs:339 The initial tombs of the 19th Dynasty followed Third God's Passage
right niche khemyu enty hetepu no netjeru iabtet im
the architectural pattern of that of Horemheb. However, Sanctuaries in which the gods of the east rest
with Ramesses II (KVy) a number of changes occurred. left niche khemyu enty hetepu no netjeru imentet im
Sanctuaries in which the gods of the west rest
First, the simple stairway previously seen in the Valley of the
Kin gs was replaced by a ramp, flanked by stairs, as seen a Corridor4 setja-netjer fed-nu
Fourth God's Passage
little earlier in the royal tombs at Amarna. Second, the axis
niches at iry-aa sen
of the burial chamber shifted through 90 degrees, with the 2 door-keepers' rooms
result that the crypt now ran across the chamber, with four
Well-room weskhet iseq
pillars in front of it and another set of four behind. Hall of waiting
This arrangement remained constant in all completed
Pillared hall weskhet merkbet
royal tombs into the 2oth Dynasty, although a number were Chariot Hall
290 Musicians in the tomb of Nakht at Thebes. Originally naked,they were given clothes during a Rame~side usurpation, the paint of wh ich has
finis hed off to abbreviated plans. Another change seen
now largely fallen away (TT52: 18th Dynasty). Burial per n nub (enty hetep tu im-ef)
towards the end of the 19th Dynasty was a reduction in the chamber House of Gold (in which One rests)
angle of descent of the tombs, together with a considerable

254 NEW KINGDOM THE RAME551DE YEARS NEW KINGDOM THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 255
 Entrance

292 (right) Axonometric projection of the tomb of Ramesses 11

(KV7) .

293 (below) Detail of th e astronom1cal cei li ng of the tomb of Sety I

(KVI 7).

Ra:~=------.~~==
d 294 (overleaf) The Ramess ide period saw a more complex type of
ceili ng decoration 1n t he bunal chamber. Some exqu isite ce ilings, for

~ ~=1:::::::::::::::::::1
exam ple th 1s one 1n the tomb of Ramesses VI, detail the pat h of the
w_ 29 I Plans of princ ipal su n through the night when he is swallowed by Nut and reborn the
royal tombs of the fo llowing day, with the constellations indicated by various images
Ramesside Period: (KV9 20th Dynasty) .
a. Sety I (KV 17);
b. Ramesses 11(KV7) ;

~~C--~r~:~r----~--
c. Merenptah (KV8);
d.Tawosret (KV 14),
usurped by
Sethnakhte ;
e. Ramesses Ill (KV I I),
begun by Sethnakht e;
f. RamessesVI (KV9) ,

~ C,__:_____..o~==-"t-......-=....;._J_
begun by RamessesV;
g. Ramesses XI (KV4).

It is uncertain how far these designations applied to granite pillars and formerly covered by an earthen
tombs before the 2oth Dynasty. mound surrounded by trees. The central part of the hall
To be considered in conjunction with the Valley of is encircled by a channel, intended to be filled by subsoil
the Kings tombs is the so-called Osirion of Sety I at water to make an island, upon which cavities suggestive
Abydos.J42 T his cenotaph 'tomb' lay behind his finely of a sarcophagus and canopic chest are cut. This was
decorated temple, dedicated to seven of the gods of Egypt, intended for a symbolic interment linking the king with
including his deified self. A series of passages and rooms Osiris, whose tomb was believed to lie a few kilometres
lead to the great hall of the Osirion, its roof supported by away at Umm el-Qaab.

256 NEW KI NGDOM: THE RAMESS I DE Y EARS NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 257
 The decoration ofRamesside royal tombs further Sety I's Osirion at Abydos also conrains celestial images: Entrance
emphasized the journey of the king's soul through their the eastern chamber's ceiling is decorated with an image of
decoration. The fronr portion, which was regarded as Nut stretched over Geb, the earth god, with Shu, god of air,
Accidental breakthrough
nominally 'east', closest to daylight, is dedicated to Re, while separating them. T his is the first such depiction and one that into adJacent tomb (KV I 0)
the back portion, the 'west' and dark portion, is dedicated to becomes a stock image subsequently. When the Osirion was
Osiris, Lord of the West. The division is frequently marked completed by Sety's grandson, Merenptah, the Book of
by two images of Osiris enshrined that are located on the far Caverns, another 19th Dynasty funerary text, was added to
wall of the first pillared hall of the tomb. the enrrance passage to the structure. This book was regularly
Bur ial chamber
The tomb of Sety I in the Valley of the Kings (KV17) is featured in the royal tombs of the 2oth Dynasty and is most
innovative in its inclusion of the first astronomical ceiling strikingly featured in the tomb ofRamesses VI (KV9).
after that of Senenmut (TT353: see above, p. 226). Sety's Ramesses II's KV7 adds a variation to the exterior of the
ceiling, adopted with enthusiasm by later Ramesside kings tomb: instead of a blank sealed doorway, the linrel above the
296 (above) Axonometric
(e.g. Merenptah (KV8), Ramesses VI (KV9), Ramesses VII enrrance to the tomb bears a panel depicting the solar disk
projection of KV I I , begun by
(KVr) and Ramesses IX (KV6)) is an artistic tour de force of the sun god, Re, Aanked by images of the king and Is is Sethnakhte and completed for
and one of the most eleganr and evocative images from the and Nephthys. The disk on KV7's lintel conrains images of his son, Ramesses Ill.
royal necropolis. The ceiling, hovering above the place the sun in its three guises at differenr times of the day and is
where the mummy lay, illustrates the passage of the sun painred yellow, the colour of the sun during the day. Inside tomb were the realm of Osiris and the god stood guard over
through the body of the sky goddess Nut at night and its the tomb the sun is painted red, indicating that it is later in them . Although a motif found in a number of private tomb-
rebirth the following day, thus promising the king a role in the day and corresponds to the sun's passage through the sky. chapels (e.g. that of Aperel (Saqqara I.z)) and revived in the 297 (below) Early copy
the eternal cycle of the cosmos. Sety's tomb is also the first This device is adopted by subsequent rulers. Images of the much later tomb of Mentuemhat (TT34), it is not otherwise of one ofthe f1gu res of
to include an early version of the Book of the Divine Cow goddess Maat Aanked the tomb's doorway, each kneeling harpers that are,
found in royal substructures.
uniquely, to be fou nd in
(seep. 131) . T his book had only been used once before: on on a basket that was balanced on lotus/lily (the symbol of Interestingly, burial chambers were called the 'House of
a side chamber 1n t he
the shrines that enclosed the sarcophagus ofTutankhamun. the south) or papyrus (the symbol of the north) plants, the Gold' by the ancien t Egyptians (see p. 255). T his might have entrance-way of t he
At this poinr, or shortly thereafter, the arrangement of heraldic plants of Egypt. T his further emphasized the been due to the treasures placed within, the golden colour of t omb ofRamesses Ill
divinities within the sepulchre was regularized, with female nominal orientation of the tomb east-west.J44 the walls,l45 or the fact that the king's Aesh, like that of a god, (KV I I : 20th D ynasty) .
divinities associated with the sun and sky dominating the Ramesses II's KV7 and his sons' KV5 (see below, was supposed to be m ade of gold. C ertainly the gold/yellow
first or upper part of the tomb and male, chthonic deities pp. 262-4) include a rock-cut full-frontal image of Os iris, used in decorating these burial chambers, especially in the
dominating the second or lower part of the tomb.HJ apparently to emphasize that the deep and dark parts of the Ramesside Period, was indicative of divinity.l46
Later Ramesside kings of the 2oth Dynasty maintained
295 The lintel of the tomb of Ramesses X in the Valley of the Kings. w ith the disk of the sun in the centre flanked by two figures of t he king, the solar focus in their tombs through texts known as the
behind whom stand Isis and N ephthys (KV I 8: 20th D ynasty). 'Book of Night' and 'Book of Day', as well as the other,
older texts. These emphasize the royal responsibility of
maintaining the course of the sun through the sky. Another
composition used in late New Kingdom royal tombs is the
'Book of the Earth' and deals with differen t earth gods and
their relationship to the sun god.H? T he positioning of
texts varies through the Ramesside Period, as shown in
the table on the next page, the principal fixed point being
the concentration of the Litany of Re near the entrance.l48
By using different texts placed in specific areas the tomb
allowed the recreation of the cosmos. Thus, in the
sarcophagus chamber the books of the heavens were placed
on the ceiling and the books of the underworld and the
earth were inscribed on the walls, creating the world by
word and by situation.

260 NEW KINGDOM TH E RAM ESSIDE YEAR S N EW KI N GDOM T HE RA ME SSI D E YEARS 26 1

 The tomb ofRamesses Ill (KVn) is extremely unusual Those of the earlier royal wives are in many ways miniature
as, in addition to being inscribed with standard funerary versions of kingly tombs, generally with a descending
texts, it contains scenes in the corridor, as well as in a side corridor, an antechamber and a burial hall, sometimes
chamber (side-chamber C) that are more commonly pillared and sometimes with a sunken crypt. The most
associated with I8th Dynasty elite tomb-chapels. A elaborate tombs of this kind are those ofTuy and Nefertiry
remarkable image of a harper found in the corridor earned (QV8o and 66), mother and wife ofRamesses II. 298 (right) Plan of the tomb of
this tomb the sobriquet 'the Harper's tomb'. Side-chamber However, far surpassing them is the stupendous the sons of Ramesses 11 in the
Valley of the Kings (KVS: 19th
C is enlivened with images of bakers, brewers, butchers, catacomb built for a number of the same king's sons in the
Dynasty)
cooks and leather-workers, all standard scenes in 18th Valley of the Kings. KV 5 seems to have been an enlargement
Dynasty tomb-chapels, but extremely unusual in tomb- of a much smaller tomb of the I 8th Dynasty, the rear part of 299 (below) Lintel of the burial
chapels of the later New Kingdom -let alone a royal which was extended into a 16-pillared hall, work perhaps chamber of Amenhirkopshef 1n
substructure. Side-room K is also unusual in depicting begun in Year 19 ofRamesses Il, on the basis of a graffi.to on the Valley of the Queens,
ploughing, sowing and reaping in the Fields oflaru, showing at the top a winged
the roof Two smaller pillared annexes may also have been
sun-disk, and below the
something also seen in Ramesses Ill's Medinet Habu temple. intended as burial chambers, while a 'T' -shaped set of
cartouches of Ramesses Il l
Otherwise it, like other 20th Dynasty royal tombs, corridors at the back of the main pillared hall gave access to protected by winged cobras; the
continues to emphasize the rebirth of the king in the guise of no fewer than 56 small rooms of unknown purpose. On the sarcophagus is visible beyond
the sun god. This unification is stressed by writing the royal opposite wall from the entrance to the 'T' -shaped corridors, (QVSS: 20th Dynasty).
name in a disk formed by the bodies of two entwined two further passages plunged into the bedrock, lined with
serpents or along the centre of an astronomical ceiling. yet more small chambers and at least one of them leading to
A new series of royal family tombs also began during the another pillared room and a further descending passage: the
Ramesside Period in the Valley of the Queens (Map 5F) .349 total number of passages and chambers known at the time of

DECORATIVE SCHEMES OF ROYAL TOMBS OF THE NEW KINGDOM

Element of tomb Thutmose Ill Amenhotep Ill Horemheb Sety I Ramesses Ill RamessesVI
(KV34) (WV22) (KV57) (KVI7) (KVII) (KV9)

Burial chamber Book ofAmduat; Book ofAmduat; Book of Gates; Book of Gates; Book of Gates; the Book of Earth
Litany of Re the king and the Book ofAmduat; king and the gods
gods astronomical ceiling;
the king and the gods

Antechamber List of divinities Th e king and the The king and The king and the Book of the Dead; Book of the Dead;
gods the gods gods the king and the gods the king and the gods

4th and 5th Opening-of-the- Opening-of-the- Book ofAmduat

corridors Mouth Mouth

Mid-length The king and Book of Gates Book of Gates Book of Gates;
pillared hall the gods Book of Caverns

Well-room The king and the The king and the Book of Gates;
gods gods Book of Caverns

Jrd corridor Book ofAmduat Litany of Re; Book of Gates;

Book ofAmduat Book of Caverns

2nd corridor Litany of Re Litany of Re Book of Gates;

Book of Caverns

Ist corridor Litany of Re Litany of Re Book of Gates;

Books of Caverns

262 NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 263
writing exceeds 130. Nevertheless, it remains unclear exactly lower chambers of her tomb, like those in other later also applies to the handful of queens' tombs of the 2oth
how many burials were made in this huge tomb: only five Ramesside royal sepulchres, are decorated with images of Dynasty that also lie in the same wadi.
names have come to light, but excavation of the many parts funerary goods and religious emblems reminiscent of the In these sepulchres of the royal family, decoration was
of the tomb which remain choked with debris will doubtless object frieze found in Middle Kingdom sarcophagi and us ually straightforward, with the tomb-owner shown in the
help resolve this issue. coffins. A series of further tombs was also built for sons of company of various deities and selections from the Book of
Later in the dynasty, a somewhat reduced king's-style Ramesses Ill in the Valley of the Queens; these are generally Gates. One notable feature in the tombs of the sons of
tomb was built for the Queen-RegentTawosr et in the Valley of much shallower descent than earlier examples- mirroring Ramesses III was that their father was the most prominent
of the Kings (KV14), a location also used for a tomb contemporary kingly trends- and fairly long and narrow, protagonist, while in the case of the sepulchres of royal ladies
intended for a son ofRamesses IIl (KV3) . The dadoes in the with one or two subsidiary rooms. The same basic scheme their husband or father is wholly missing.

Private Tombs - Rock-cut: Radical changes appear in the form

of the substructures of private tombs at Thebes during the
Ramesside Period. The shift to the use of sloping-passage
approaches is completed, the change being neatly illustrated
in the tomb of the Viceroy ofNubia, Setau, ofRamesses II's
reign (TTz88/9: ill. 288b). The simple four-pillared chapel
originally had a shaft sunk in its northwest corner, but
this was replaced by a sloping passage to the right of the
forecourt, that led to a complex of no fewer than 12
chambers. Their plan is reminiscent of that of the innermost
d
rooms of contemporary royal tombs; the majority of the
rooms are also remarkable in being decorated (see below).
In contrast to the essentially straight axis seen in this 30 I The evolution of private
tomb, a major development during early Ramesside times is substructures of the Ramesside
Period: a TI373 (Amenmesu):
the appearance of substructure access-passages that describe
bTI I06 (Paser): cTI32
a descending spiral course. The most extreme example (DJehutymose); dTI 158
appears in TT32 (Djehutymose), where the gallery turns (TJanefer).
360 degrees through a single turn before heading a further
30 m (wo ft) down to a decorated burial chamber. Similarly, Tjanefer (TTrs8) having a sinuous, but broadly straight
TTw 6 (Paser, ill. 288a) has a stairway that descends the four passage leading from an inner left wall of the chapel. This
sides of a rectangle before exiting into a columned led to a rough, shallow, but wide, antechamber and a square
antechamber with four store-chambers- highly reminiscent burial chamber. A rather different 'straight' substructure is
of royal burial halls - and an innermost burial chamber, with found in the tomb of the late 19th Dynasty Chancellor Bay,
fo ur niches in each side-wall. TT157 is yet more elaborate, whose sepulchre was built in the Valley of the Kings on a
with an eight-pillared hall preceding the burial apartment. royal scale (KVr3) .
Apart from a few tombs such as TTw6, which retain the Most of these substructures were simply rock-hewn, in
late-r8th Dynasty placement of the substructure-entrance in some cases fairly roughly finished, the principal exceptions
the floor of the left-side of the first hall, most Ramesside being KVr3 and TTz89 and the burial apartments ofTT32
examples have instead an opening in the side-wall of the rear and TTr56. The tomb-chamber ofTT32 has painted scenes
part of the chapel, apparently closed only with a wooden of the deceased adoring deities; similar motifs are found
door. This also echoes royal practice, since the later tombs in in TTr56 (Pennesuttawi), possibly painted rather later than
the Valley of the Kings were similarly sealed. the decoration of the tomb's chapel. In the substructure of
The 'spiral' descent, which may have attempted to Setau (TT289), ten rooms contain extensive decoration on
symbolize elements of the netherworld350 seems to have died a scale exceeding that of any private tomb-chambers prior
300 Scene from the tomb of Amenhirkopshef B: the prince with his fathec Ramesses Ill (QVSS: 20th Dynasty). out in the later part of the 19th Dynasty, the tomb of to the end of the Third Intermediate Period. They largely

264 NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESS I DE YEARS NEW Kl NG DO M: THE RAM ESSI DE YEARS 265
 comprise standard scenes of the deceased before the gods, The majority of the decorated substructures at Deir
but there are depictions of the funerary procession and el-Medina date to the 19th Dynasty, although a handful
extracts from the Book of Gates. Bay's KVr3 also had a also come from the 2oth Dynasty. The well-known TTr
decoration that recalled royal practice, perhaps in keeping (Sennedjem)J5I is oriented so that the west wall of the burial
with his pretensions to power, with images oflsis and chamber is indeed in the west and is therefore covered with
Nephthys over the main entrance and the first corridor scenes related to the netherworld. The east wall shows the
beginning with figures of kneeling goddesses spreading sunrise and a paradisiacal world fo r farmers in the Fields of
their wings, followed by a series of images of Bay before Iaru from Chapter no of the Book of the Dead. The
various gods and the king. T he second and third remaining scenes show mummification by Anubis (a
passageways were largely taken up with sections from the popular scene repeated in several other tombs at the site,
Book of the Dead. Any decoration that might originally with some variations, including TT219, TT22o, TT290,
have been applied to the following chambers has long TT323 and TT36o), Osiris and other divinities of the
since vanished . underworld. The majority of these images are attached to
In contrast to the sparse adornment of the substructures Spell 17 of Book of the Dead.
of most of the elite tombs, at Deir el-Medina, many tomb- The majority of the other decorated burial chambers in
chambers were given brick vaults, upon which were applied the Deir el-Medina cemetery contain large-scale illustrations
plaster and painted decoration. This circumstance is from different spells of the Book of the Dead as well as
certainly the direct result of the tombs' owners being the images of funerary divinities, demons and manifestations of
artisans responsible for decorating the royal tombs in the the deceased's ba (TT290, 292). O ther images found in these
Valley of the Kings. In both conception and execution the tombs include traditional views of family members engaged
decorative approach is often very similar- not surprisingly, in different activities and poses (TT3 even shows a
of course, as the same artists were responsible for both! manifestation of old age in the form of grey hair!), offerings,
Amongst the results were the some of the jewels of the Voyage to Abydos and the Opening-of-the-Mouth
Ramesside art. scene. One other motif (found in TT2, 284, 306 and 359) is

302 (left) lnherkhau shown with

Thoth before Osiris in the burial
chamber ofTT359 at Deir ei-
Medina (20th Dynasty, reigns of
Ramesses Ill and IV).

303 (opposite) A hare slaying a

serpent allusions to the triumph
of the sun god over Apoph1s are
implicit in this scene (TI359).
,I

266 NEW K I N GDO M : T H E RAMESSIDE YEAR S N EW K I N GDOM : T HE RAM ESSIDE YEARS 267
the adoration by the deceased of the 'Lords of the West', the usual kinds of funerary vignettes on the side walls, Tom b Date Owner Scene
a group of ancient kings, queens, princes and princesses, together with text of the Negative Confession. The entrance
TT IO 19th Dyn Penbuy i & Kasa i Vaulted ceiling with Anubis,Thoth and Four Sons of Horus
headed by Amenhotep I and Ahmes-Nefertiry, who were was flanked by knife-wielding demons, the whole room
(Ramesses 11)
patro ns of the Theban necropolis. T he 'Lords' range back to being reminiscent ofDeir el-Medina burial chambers.
Mentuhotep 11 of the mh Dynasty, but mainly belong to the Yet another tomb is that of Sobkmose from Rizeiqat, TT32 19th Dyn Djehutymose Ceiling decorated with text
(Ramesses 11)
late qth/early r8th Dynasty and provide a useful catalogue whose stone-built chamber has images of the deceased
of royalties of the period.J5 2 and the gods.J55 TT2 12 19th Dyn Ramose i Offering texts and tree-goddess
(Ramesses 11)
A somewhat unusual scene found in these tombs is one
of Anubis leaning over a fish mummy (TT2) as a variant of Private Tombs - Built: In other areas of Egypt, in particular the TT292 19th Dyn Pashedu ii Anubis, mummy and other gods being adored by deceased and wife; tree-goddess and bas
(Ramesses 11) drinking; Osiris; vaulted ceiling:Anubis-jackals, demons and other funerary divinities
the more common image where the mummy of the tomb- Delta, where rock-cut structures were impossible, the old
owner is featured. Tree-goddess scenes, found in the chapels approach of building the substructure in a cutting was TT335 19th Dyn Nakhtamun ii Nut in mountain; Osiris; deceased and wife adoring gods and emblem s of gods; family member
(Ramesses 11) offering to deceased; Opening-of-the-Mouth; mummies before tomb; guests at a banquet;
of contemporary tombs, are quite common (e.g. TT2n, 212, continued. Important examples belonging to Viceroys of
vaulted ceiling: offering texts, cat slaying Apophis as serpent, and funerary gods
292). Delightful vignettes showing a cat, a symbol of Re, Kush are known at Bubastis, where the tomb ofHori iii
slaying a serpent, the representation of Apophis, with a comprised a corridor of baked brick - a fai rly uncommon TT336 19th Dyn Neferrenpet ii Coffins; banquet; divinities; deceased and wife;Weigh ing of the Heart;Anubis and mummy;
(Ramesses 11) vaulted ceiling: horizon and scarab,Western Mountain, the sun god
sharp knife are also found in these tombs (e.g. TT216, 335) material in pharaonic Egypt - flanked on each side by three
and are related to several of the spells found in the various vaulted chambers. Their walls were also of baked brick, as TT339 19th Dyn Huy iv& Texts
(Ramesses 11) Pashedu xv
funerary books. A particularly lovely and unique scene was the pavement of the tomb, presumably to guard against
shows one tomb-owner kneeling before a palm tree and damp, but the upper walls and roofs were of mud-brick. TT3 56 19th Dyn Amenemwia i Offering texts; tree goddess; family members; divinities, deceased and wife
(Ramesses 11)
drinking from a pool of fresh water (TT 290) . Four of the rooms held stone sarcophagi. Other tombs of
A handful ofRamesside private tombs away from similar type had been built nearby, including that ofHori's TT3 60 19th Dyn Qaha i Anubis-jackal ; mummy and Anubis; deceased; vaulted ceiling: deceased
(Ramesses 11)
Thebes have decorated substructures, including that of like-named father, also a Viceroy.J5 6 Other examples of such
Amenhotep at Deir Durunka in Middle Egypt.Jn There, vaulted tombs are well known at Abydos, where the earliest TT3 19th Dyn Pashedu x Deceased and divinities;Abydos pilgrimage; deceased and other family members (pi. XXI)
decoration is preserved on three walls of the chamber, specimens appear to date to the first part of the r8th Dynasty (Ramesses 11)

showing the judgment scene, scenes of offerings and the and can be seen to have been surmounted by mastabas. An TTS 19th Dyn Neferabet i Gods and deceased; family members and deceased adoring divinities
deceased being conducted to the hereafter by Hathor and interesting tomb at Abydos is Groo, which is approached (Ramesses 11)

Anubis. At Abydos lies the vaulted burial chamber of both via a shaft, giving access to antechambers, a right-angled TT2 14 19th Dyn Khawy ii Guardians and personification of the West; deceased and Renutet and Harsiesi, Maat,Thoth &
Deduhorankh (v4o),J54 with decoration in red and black turn into a passage and the sepulchral chambers and a sloping (Ramesses 11) Hathor; son mourns mummy; vaulted ceiling: divinities and the Gate of the West
ink. The end wall showed the deceased before Osiris, with passage that opens directly into the main burial chamber.J57 TT2 19 19th Dyn Nebenmaat ii Anubis jackal; son as priest censing and libating to parents ; deceased and wife with gods and
(Ramesses 11) family member;Anubis and mummy on couch ; offerings by deceased to divinities, offerings
made by wife and son to gods; funeral procession to tomb; vaulted ceiling: gods and deceased
DECORATED SUBSTRUCTURES INTHEBANTOMBS OFTHE RAMESSIDE PERIOD
TT220 19th Dyn Khaemteri i Anubis-jackals; divinities; mummy on couch; funeral banquet
Tomb Date Owner Scene (Ramesses 11)

TT6 18th- I 9th Dyn Neferhotep & Shrine and divinities, extracts from Book of the Dead (BoD), Fields of laru, Book of Gates, TT290 19th Dyn lrynefer i Inscription with titles, family members,Anubis-jackals , BoD, divinities, offering to divinities,
Nebnefer deceased and wife (Ramesses 11) Anubis tending mummy; vaulted ceiling: deceased kneels before a palm tree and drinks from
pool, divinities, ba and shadow
TT I56 I 8th- I9th Dyn Pennesuttawi Deceased adoring Western hawk, Hathor cow and Sobek;Weighing of the Heart; image of
deceased and wife TT216 19th Dyn Neferhotep ii Nephthys;Anubis-jackals; deceased and wife; adoration ofWestern emblems; cat slaying a
(Sety 11) serpent; gates and guardians with knives; vaulted ceiling: divinities
TTI 19th Dyn (Sethy Sennedjem i Netherworld scenes; mummy, banquet; extracts from BoD; Osiris; deceased in front of gods
1/Ramesses 11) of the underworld TT2 11 19th Dyn Paneb i Sokar's bark; deceased and family; mummy on couch ; parents, wife and gods; vaulted ceiling:
(Siptah) tree-goddess, divinities
TT298 19th Dyn Bakii& Anubis and mummy with Is is and Nephthys; text with list of relatives
(Ramesses 11) Wennefer i TT359 20th Dyn lnherkhau ii Deceased and wife; Book of Gates; gods
(Ramesses IV)
TT323 19th Dyn Pashedu vii Hawk; Benu bird; family before gods;Anubis and mummy
(Sety I) TT267 20th Dyn Hay vii Names and titles; deceased with family members ;sem-priest and divinities
(Ramesses V)
TT2 19th Dyn Khabekhnet i Re, Osiris, Hathor and king; Hapi and offerings; winged lsis;Anubis and fish mummy; various
(Ramesses 11) divinities with and without deceased TT3 55 20th Dyn Amenpahapi i Deceased and wife adoring

268 NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS NEW KINGDOM: THE RAMESSIDE YEARS 269
 by a shaft in a further room. Later examples were plainer,
Chapter 12 The Third Intermediate and Saite Periods consisting only of limestone rooms.
The dominant decorative themes in these tombs are
largely consistent with those of the Ramesside Period. The
antechamber ofNRT-III, built by Pasebkhanut (Psusennes)
I, has, on the north and west walls, processions of genii,
surmo unting scenes of the king offering to Osiris and Isis.
O n the east, Pasebkhanut offers to Re-Harakhty, above
which scene are to be found a series of demons. The tomb
had separate granite burial chambers for the king and the
queen (who was later evicted to make way for the (re?) burial
of KingAmenemopet), each having a mummiform figure
of the deceased on their rear walls. A further room, which
held the burial of the General Wendjebaendjed, has scenes
of this favoured courtier doing homage to Os iris, Harakhty
305 (left) Plan of the mastaba of
andApis.
Pasebkhanut A, son ofthe High
Priest of Amun Menkheperre
The decline in the monumentality of tombs after the was a mastaba, the chapel consisting of a main chamber, Private Tombs: No private tomb has been found in situ at (Abydos D22: late 21st
New Kingdom was dramatic, reflecting the lack of central at the back of which is a small offering place, which once Tanis, although re-used blocks discovered there attest to their Dynasty).
control that was a feature of much of the Third Intermediate contained a fine stela showing the tomb-owner before adornment with the usual kinds ofRamesside mortuary
Period. However, after four centuries of universally modest Osiris, Isis and Horus. A number of contemporary tombs scenes. Of the small number of monumental tombs of the 306 (below) The main group of21 st/22nd Dynasty royal tombs at
Tan is: from the left that of Amenemopet (NRT-IV); Pasebkhanut I
sepulchres, a revival saw the construction of some of the in the same area had similar plans. dynasty that are known in Upper Egypt, one of the most
(NRT-111); Osorkon 11(NRT-1- probably built for Nesibanebdjedet I);
largest and most elaborate tombs ever built in Egypt, as well Elsewhere, virtually nothing has been identified from the important is the aforementioned tomb of Pasebkhanut A at unknown king (N RT-VI); Pimay (NRT-I I).That ofShoshenq Ill (NRT-V)
as others that marked the high-point in the long battle dynasty. It is assumed that the royal tombs at Tanis, located Abydos (D22). Access to its substructure was via a brick- lies at a higher level a short distance to the left of the photograph: see
between tomb-builders and tomb-robbers. within the city temple precinct, had been surmounted by lined shaft, 6 m (20 ft) deep. Five chambers lay at the il l.307
brick chapels, but any possible traces were swept away
2 I ST DYNASTY during excavation. Nevertheless, it is conjectured that they
may have resembled those later built above the substructures
Superstructures of the tombs of the God's Wives of Amun at Medinet Habu
A major motif of the new regime is the almost complete (pp. 227-8), taking the form of miniature temples .J59
disappearance of monumental, decorated tomb-chapels
from the archaeological record. A few Middle or New Substructures
Kingdom chapels at Thebes received summary additions Royal Tombs: The tombs constructed for the kings of the
(e.g. TT68, 70, II7, 337 and 348), but no new chapels are 21st Dynasty at Tanis were wholly unlike those of their
certainly identifiable. Indeed, all of the identifiable high- immediate predecessors in the Valley of the Kings in design.
status burials of the dynasty at Thebes (TT320; MMA6o) As had long been the case in the Delta, the tombs were built
were clearly designed without a superstructure. The reason structures, sunk a few metres into the ground, not far above
for this is unclear, but at the same time funerary deposits the water table.J 60 The first examples (NRT-I and Ill)
were being reduced to simply the mummy and its coffins possessed granite burial chambers within a limestone
and suggest a major re-think, perhaps in part motivated by structure that also contained an antechamber, approached
security considerations.
There are a handful of examples in other cemeteries, in
304 (above) Outer lintel from the 26th Dynasty Theban tomb of
particular in Cemetery D at Abydos, where a group of New
Pabasa (TT279), showing t he elevation ofthe bark of the sun god,
Kingdom sepulchres was joined by the tomb ofPasebkhanut flanked by t he God's Wives of Amun N itokris I (left) and
A, son of the High Priest of Amun, Menkheperre (D22) .J58 It Shepenwepet 11 (right) and t he deceased (twice).

270 THE TH I RD INTERMEDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS THE THIRD I NTERM ED lATE AND SAITE PERIODS 271
 borrom, two of them stone-lined, but the tomb proved to be simultaneously, being placed close together in the chambers
entirely robbed, save a few shabtis of the tomb-owner.J6 ' of the tomb and along its corridors.
At Thebes, the known 21st Dynasty burial places are Apart from the principal cluster of interments at Deir
'' generally usurped from earlier owners and equipped with el-Bahari, smaller groups of 21st Dynasty burials are known
NRT-V ''' 307 (left) Plan of the royal little more than a nest of coffins.J 62 The burial places involved from other parts of the The ban necropolis, generally
'' necropolis at Tanis:
i Pylon of include both the superstructures and substructures of these intrusive within earlier tomb-complexes . Given the evidence
NRT-1 : Nesibanebjedet(? - 21st
i Amun-temple earlier sepulchres. This is common to all levels of society, of the Bab el-Gasus, it is possible that a number of other
Dynasty); usurped by Osorkon 11
'
'' for himself, Prince Harnakhte C including members of the quasi-royal high priestly family. such deposits may have been cleared to be replaced by mass
'' andTakelot I; also used for burial O ne of the latter, Nauny, daughter of Pinudjem I, had her
~
reinterments, in parallel with the reburials of the New
of Shoshenq V (? - all 22nd coffins and mummy placed in the outer corridors of the Kingdom royal mummies which took place at roughly the
Dynasty);
comb of the 18th Dynasty queen, Meryetamun (TT358) at same time.
NRT- IV NRT-11 : Pimay (22nd Dynasty):
NRT-11 1: Pasebkhan ut I, Q ueen
Deir el-Bahari, some years after the restoration of the latter's
Mutnodjmet B, Prince comb during the reign ofNesibanebdjedet I (Smendes) . 22 N D A ND 23RD DY N ASTIES
Ankhefenmut C and General Another three ladies, a sister and two nieces ofNauny, were I
NRT-111
WendJebaendJed (21st
Dynasty); later also used fo r
placed in a tomb (MMA6o) nearby, in which they were later
joined by a number of other mummies. As the tomb filled
Superstructures
Early in the new dynasty, the lack of superstructures seen
;I
Amenemopet, Siamun, I
up, previous occupants were removed to make room for new with The ban private tombs during the 21st Dynasty I,
Pasebkhanut 11 (21st Dynasty)
arrivals . The tomb, for once apparently purpose-built, took apparently continued. However, under Osorkon I, although

lQ}
and Shoshenq 11(22nd Dynasty);
NRT- IV:Amenemopet; later the form of a sloping passage, leading to a large shaft, with a burials continued to be made further west, such as in the
used for Siamun(?): stairway at the side, leading down to the burial chamber. 161 New Kingdom tombs of Sheikh Abd el-Qurna,J 6 5 the
N RT-VI NRT-
NRT-V: Shoshenq Ill and IV The area ofDeir el-Bahari seems to have been favoured centre of burial moved down from Deir el-Bahari
(22nd Dynasty) :
particularly popular during the 21st Dynasty, containing to the locale of the Ramesseum. Small brick chapels,
NRT-VI : Unknown:
D Limestone NRT-VII: Extension to NRT-1,
the two largest sepulchres of the dynasty. The earlier one is
the only tomb of a High Priest to have been identified,
sometimes lined with sandstone slabs with painted
decoration of a very similar type to that found in Ramesside
mid-22nd Dynasty.
D Granite
belonging to Pinudjem II (TT320) .J64 Lying room (330ft) tombs,J 66 were built within the vaulted brick store-rooms of
Mud-brick 308 (below) Upper register
D south west of the temples ofDeir el-Bahari, it seems likely the temple (ills 273-4).J6? Similar mud-brick chapels were

I
ofthe west wal l of the that the sepulchre had been constructed on a much smaller also built slightly further afield down into the 25th Dynasty.
antechamber of the tomb of
scale during the early New Kingdom and then substantially Of a fairly standardized form with a small pylon and a triple
0 IOm Pasebkhanut I, with processions
offunerary deities (Tanis NRT-111: extended for the interment of the high priest and his sanctuary arrangement, they lay along the edge of the desert,
0 30ft
21st Dynasty) . immediate family. The burial chamber seems initially to behind the New Kingdom royal mortuary temples.J 68
have held just the bodies ofPinudjem and his wives; they Elsewhere in Egypt, few tomb superstructures survive;
were later joined by his daughter and son-in-law and then those that do show that decoration was minimal, being
(during the 22nd Dynasty reign of Shoshenq I) by some 40 generally restricted to a stela. One place which does provide
royal or distinguished individuals of the New Kingdom. some data is Abydos, where some tombs seem to have had
They were transferred there for security purposes from their mastabas - or even pyramids- above their tomb-shafts,
own tombs via a number of other provisional resting places , forming the centre of a walled complex fronted by one or
making up the famous 'Royal Cache'. more pylons.
Another communal burial seems to date to the very end
of the dynasty, under the High Priest Pasebkhanut II. This is Substructures
the Bab el-Gasus, close to the temple ofHatshepsut and Royal Tombs: There is a hiatus in the sequence of tombs
adjacent to MMA6o and another near-contemporary tomb, known at Tanis during the early part of the 22nd Dynasty
309 (left) Plan of the tomb of MMA59 . It contained 153 coffins or nests of coffins, together and there are indications that the royal necropolis may have
Pinudjem 11, south of Deir
with various other items, such as shabti-boxes and wooden shifted elsewhere (perhaps to Bubastis), but was abandoned
ei-Bahari, and later used as the
Royal Cache (TI320: 21st
stelae. The burials range across much of the last half of the in the face of flooding.J 69 Osorkon II returned to Tan is,
Dynasty) . dynasty and seem to have been moved to the tomb usurping what seems to have been the sepulchre of the 21st

272 THE THIRD I NTERMEDIATE AND SA ITE PERIODS THE THIRD INTERMEDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS 273
 The Tanite tombs of Shoshenq Ill and Pimay (NRT-V
and II) were new constructions of very simple form,
reminiscent oflate Predynastic tombs: a rectangular cavity,
divided in two by a stub-wall. NRT-II is undecorated, but
N RT- V was adorned with elements largely derived from the
Amduat, supplemented by various less-usual scenes and
vignettes from the Book of the Dead.
During the reign of Osorkon II, a separate royal line
established itself at Thebes, beginning with the former High
Priest of Amun, Harsiese. His tomb lies within the temple
enclosure at Medinet Habu, a sandstone structure probably
once surmounted by a chapel (MHI).l7° A stairway led down
to a burial chamber, in the centre of which the priest-king
had been laid to rest in the trough of the granite coffin made 312 (above) The burial chamber ofShoshenq Ill at Tan is (NRT-V) was
fo r Ramesses II's younger sister, Henutmire, but equipped decorated with extracts from the books of the underworld (22nd
with a new lid. Two niches in the wall on each side of the Dynasty).
coffin held canopic jars. No other tomb of a Theban 23rd
31 3 (below) The tomb of the priest-king Harsiese at Medi net Habu,
Dynasty king has been identified, but that ofOsorkon Ill built withi n the temple-enclosure there.The niches in the lateral walls
may be mentioned in 26th and 27th Dynasty papyri, whose were intended for the canopic jars. A chapel was presumably built
3 I0 (above) A number of 22nd Dynasty tombs were built within the implication is that it may also have lain at Medinet Habu.J7' above along the line of the later ones of the God's Wives of Amun
brick store-chambers of the 19th Dynasty Ramesseum. In the latter part of the Third Intermediate Period, a (see below, 1lls 317- 18).
number of petty kingdoms arose to join those already in
3 I I (/eft) Reliefs from the mortuary chapel of Nakhtefmut (Ram88)
place at Tanis and Thebes. One was at Leontopolis (Tell
at the Ramesseum, including his daughter, Djedmutiusankh
(Philadelphia E1824-6: 22nd Dynasty, reign of Osorkon 1). Moqdam), where a queen named Kama(ma) was buried in a
stone-built tomb, intact in 1921, but with its contents largely
des troyed by water.J7 2
Dynasty founder, Nesibanebdjedet I (NRT-I: ill. 307) .
Partly rebuilt and decorated anew, it also held the body Private Tombs: The most impressive private tombs of the 22nd A popular priestly venue for burial during the latter part
of Osorkon's father Takelot I. Dynasty are those of the High Priests of Ptah at Memphis, of the Third Intermediate Period was the mortuary temple
The decoration of the tomb continued to employ the in form much like the royal tombs ofTanis, being stone ofHatshepsut at Deir el-Bahari.J7 6 0ne of the few such
kind of motifs and compositions that had been found in structures sunk in the temple court.m That of Shoshenq burials to be properly recorded comprised a pit 4 m (12 feet)
royal tombs since the 18th Dynasty. The ceiling of the D (son of Osorkon II) comprised a single room, built of deep cut in the floor of the Hathor shrine of the temple,
antechamber bore the celestial decans, its west wall showing re-used blocks and decorated both on its fac;:ade and on its which led to a chamber; the room was no more than 4 m
the sun's journey across the sky, bracketed by a figure of the interior. The west wall was taken up by extracts from the (12 feet) or so square, but contained three wooden
goddess Nut. On the south wall the dead king prepares to Book of the Dead, the others by various deities and more sarcophagi , which had clearly been assembled in situ.m
approach Osiris, while the remaining wall surfaces are parts of the Book of the Dead.
occupied by episodes from the Book of the Dead, including Another High Priest, this time of Amun at Thebes, had a 25T H AND 26 TH DYNAST IES
the weighing of the heart: no longer is the king a god on tomb at Abydos, in cemetery G. Here, Iuput (Shoshenq I's
earth gone to join his brothers in heaven, but one who must son) had a granite burial chamber, decorated with scenes Superstructures
now submit to judgment like a mere mortal. Scenes showing from the Book of Amduat, approached by a long corridor.J74 Roya!Tombs:J78 The increasing fragmentation of the country
the king in the Fields oflaru underline the intruding mortal T he whole structure had been built in a long narrow pit. culminated in the invasion of the King of Kush (N ubia),
aspects of the king. Elsewhere in the tomb are more At Thebes, burials of officials continued to be made in Piye, founder of the 25th Dynasty. Fully Egyptianized, the
traditional royal scenes, including extracts from the Amduat, older tombs throughout the period. In many cases this Kushite ruling family had formerly been buried under
while in the burial chamber are scenes of the regeneration of happened repeatedly, with one generation cleared out to tumuli and mastabas, bur had now adopted the pyramid
the sun. make way for a new one. m shape for their tombs, built in their homeland, at El-Kurru

274 TH E THIRD I NTERMEDIATE AND SA ITE PERIODS THE T HIRD INTERMEDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS 275
 become an important place of burial during the 23rd water-filled pit.'" The only record of them survives in the
Dynasty (ills 317-18). The best-preserved example, built by writings ofHerodotus, who visited Sais c. 450 BC; he writes
Shepenwepet II for Amenirdis I, is a stone-built structure that Wahibre, fourth king of this dynasty was:
fro nted by a pylon. T his gives access to a fo ur-pillared hall
buried in the family tomb in the temple of Athena [Neith],
and then to a sanctuary, surrounded by a corridor. Its
nearest to the shrine, on the left-hand as one goes in. The
decoration featured Pyramid Texts, the Opening-of-the-
people of Sais buried all the kings who came from the
Mouth texts and ceremony, as well as images of the tomb-
province inside this area. The tomb ofAmasis [Ahmose II]
owner offering to different gods, purifYing temples, making
is also in the temple court, alrhough further from the shrine
offerings and being granted life by the various divinities.
than that of Ap ries [Wahib re] and his ancestors. It is a great
As in the O ld Kingdom, the texts are situated for the
cloistered building of stone, decorated with pillars carved in
convenience of the deceased, rather than in a sequence that
the imitation of palm trees and other costly adornments.
makes sense to the visitor.
W ithin the cloister is a chamber with double doors and
The royal cemetery of the 26th D ynasty lay at its city of
behind the doors stands the sepulch re.
origin, Sais. Following the practice of the Tanites, these
kings' tombs lay within the enclosure of the local temple of H ERODOTUS, H ISTORIES, BOOK !I: §169 .
the goddess Neith, their probable site now marked by a huge
3 14 (above) Burial chamber ofthe High Pnest of Ptah. Shoshenq D,
from Memphis (CM JE88131 : 22nd Dynasty, reign of Osorkon 11). 3 16 The pyramid ofTaharqa at Nuri (Nu I: 25th Dynasty).

315 (/eft) The granite coffin-lid of Hars1ese, from his tomb at Medinet
Habu (CM JE59896).Aithough the lid had been made fo r him, the
trough was usurped from Ramesses ll's sistec Henutmire ( 19th/23rd
Dynasty).

and Nuri. These pyramids were small and very steeply

angled, with a chapel on the east side, atop the stairway
leading to the substructure. T he largest of these was that of
Taharqa, the penultimate Nubian ruler of Egypt,
constructed at Nuri, a little way downstream from El-Kurru
(Nur) . It was some 52 m (170 ft) square, as compared to the
7.6 m (25ft) ofPiye's monument.
The last Kushite to rule Egypt was Tanutamun, whose
rule in Egypt was ended by an Assyrian invasion. However,
his successors continued to rule in what is the modern
Sudan for centuries more. Pyramids also continued in use,
although their contents and ornamentation show a steady
shift towards a distinctly Kushite interpretation of the
ancient motifs. It was in the Sudan, at Meroe, that the last
Nilotic pyramid was built, around AD 350, 3,000 years and
1,6oo km (1,000 miles) from the first such monument at
Saqqara.
By the 25th Dynasty, the premier role at Thebes had
been assumed by the God's Wife of Amun, usually the eldest
daughter of the king. Their tombs were built at Medinet
Habu, within the old temenos ofRamesses Ill, which had

276 T H E T H I RD I N TER M ED IATE A ND SA ITE PERIODS THE T H I RD I N TERM ED IAT E AND SAITE PE RI 0 OS 277
317 (above) The tombs ofthe God'sWives of Amun at Medinet This implies that the earliest Saite kings were buried in a 3 19 View of the Asasif, showing the locat ion of the principal tombs.
............................................................................. .................................... ......... .............. ............................................................................................... ....................................... . ..... ................................................ ................ ....................................... ...................... ....................................... ........
Habu were surmounted by small chapels of a kind that may have been single tomb- or perhaps that each had a separate tomb
also found at sites such as Tan is (25th-26th Dynasty).
below a single superstructure. The description of Ahmose
II's monument seems to conjure up a standard Egyptian with the remote past, further reinforced by the decoration The decoration of these monuments employed scenes
3 I 8 (below) Plans of the mo rt uary chapels of the God's Wives of
peripteral shrine, with a central cult-room surrounded by a that in some cases directly copied ancient prototypes. and texts from the entire span of Egyptian history. T his very
Amun at Medinet Habu. From left to right Shepenwepet I (with
section of burial chamber: MH 17);Amenirdis I; Shepenwepet 11 colonnade. Presumably, the burial chamber was sunk in the The designs of the rock-cut chapels that form the kernel much ties in with the archaism which is the hallmark of the
(central shrine, flanked by Nitokris I and Mehytenweskhet C). ground beneath- suggesting an affinity with the tombs of of these tombs seem to owe something to the royal mortuary art and to some extent, the culture, of the 26th Dynasty.
the God's Wives of Amun at Medinet Habu. temples of the New Kingdom, as well as the 'temple-tombs' The rise of archaism in art, harking back to the golden ages
of the nobility at Saqqara and the small brick chapels of the of Egyptian culture, was linked with an increase in tomb
Private Tombs:J80 The latter part of the 25th D ynasty saw a middle part of the T hird Intermediate Period. W hile their decoration. Artists relied heavily fo r their inspiration on
sudden revival in monumental tombs. The most outstanding plans all differ in detail, they generally centre on an open scenes from Old and New Kingdom tombs that were
of these lie on the Asasif at Thebes, the majority belonging to courtyard, frequently surrounded by a colonnade. Beyond slightly altered in their new format.
officials connected with the God's Wife of Amun, the key this are one or two hypostyle halls, with subsidiary Motifs that included scenes of fishing and fowling,
figure at Thebes during the 25th and 26th D ynasties.''' The chambers, giving access to the offering place and the butchery, apiculture, offering and sculpting are arranged
tombs combine both brick-built and rock-cut elements, the entrance to the substructure. The innermost sanctuary varies side by side with funerary texts of every type. Even the
former comprising principally a massive niched enclosure in form, with either a false-door or statues of the deceased. textile designs fo und on the ceilings of earlier sepulchres are
wall and pylons fronting both the main axis and the stairways In the earliest tombs of the type, dating to the latter part of reproduced in the Theban tombs of this era. In a delightful
that usually led down at right angles. It has been suggested the 25th D ynasty (e.g. TT223 and 391), the arrangement of adaptation of the scene showing the overseeing of royal
that their location, close to the ancient tombs and temples at the chambers along a single axis is fairly rigorously statuary, a striding statue of the God's W ife of Amun, whom
@ @ D eir el-Bahari, was chosen to link the sepulchres explicitly maintained; later, more changes of direction are to be seen . many of the Asasif tomb-owners served, is substituted for

278 T H E TH IRD IN TER M EDIATE A N D SA I TE PERIODS THE THIRD I N T ERM ED l ATE A N D SA IT E PERI 0 DS 279
 ' J
·-.
....

320 (above) The pylon of the tomb of Mentuemhat atThebes (TT34: 25th Dynasty).

321 (below) The tomb of Shoshenq on the Asasif (TT27), dating to the end of the 26th Dynasty; its exterior walls are panelled, recall ing
structures of the Early Dynastic Period.

322 (opposite) TT34, showing the West Portico, leading into the second courtyard and the 1nner part of the tomb (25th Dynasty).
 []
a

323 Section and plan of t he 324 Plan and section of the tomb-chapel ofthe Vizier Nespamedu at
tomb of Pedamenopet (TT33) Abydos (D57: 25th Dynasty, reign ofTaharqa).
o n the Asasif, the seco nd largest
tomb in the Theban necropol is;
cut inner element. The initial vestibule of the latter leads to 325 (above) View of t he surviving portion of the superstruct ure of
for a detai I of t he area of the
a four-pillared hall, followed by one with six pillars. Beyond t he to mb of lufaa at Abu Sir (early 27th Dynasty).
burial chamber see ill. 53
the latter are two main rooms, surrounded by a corridor and
Ii
I
(26th Dynasty).
culminating in a false-door. d 326 (/eft) Plans of tomb superstructures of the Sait e and Late
1 Periods: a.lufaa (Abu Sir: 27th Dynasty) ; b. Nespaqashuti (TT3 12: early
Tombs combining rock-cut and built elements are also
11 to be found at G iza, behind the Great Sphinx. Their brick
e 26th Dynasty) ; c. Bakenrenef (Saqqara LS24 early 26th Dynasty); d.
Pabasa (TT279: early 26th Dynasty); e. Wennefer (Saqqara: late 30th
outer parts are badly destroyed, as are the inner elements, Dynasty); f. Nesidjehuty (Saqqara QS4 12: early 26t h Dynasty).
although reliefs and columns were seen in 18201!, allowing
327 (below) View of the rock-cut t omb-chapel LGB I at G iza;the
two to be attributed to General Pedubast and one

that of the king. This is appropriate enough as hers was the

Ptahirdis.J84 A wholly built tomb of the same period at
Giza is that ofTjeri, with a massive stone superstructure
\ name of the owner IS now lost

royal presence reigning over Thebes at the time. containing a longitudinal hall leading to a cruciform
Although not on the same scale as the sepulchres on the arrangement of rooms, all extensively decorated.J85 The same
Asasif, the resumption of the construction of large tomb- kind of decorative approach used at Thebes is seen in such
chapels is to be found elsewhere. In cemetery D at Abydos tombs as those ofBakenrenef and that ofTjeri, with daily
are the tombs of two Viziers.J82 That ofNespamedu, datable life scenes appearing in the courtyard and religious texts
to the reign ofTaharqa, comprised two large brick-built within the chapel proper.
courts, each fronted by a pylon, the whole structure Concentrated around and near a number of Old
standing some 3 m (10 ft) high and measuring 36 m (n8 ft) Kingdom pyramid complexes are a series of great shaft
from east to west (D57). T he chapel formerly had a domed tombs with sand-based protective devices (pp. 286- 9). In
roof (a fairly common arrangement at the site) and, to judge contrast to the tombs just discussed, they seem generally to
by the angled exterior wall, may once have been enclosed have had very simple superstructures. At the tomb oflufaa,
inside a pyramid. Nakht's D15 was of very similar size and this comprised a wall around the perimeter of the shaft. A
layout, albeit shifted around so that its main axis ran from huge stela had been embedded in a deep and wide niche in
north to south. the centre of the eastern fas;ade of its brick enclosure.
At Saqqara, another Vizier, Bakenrenef (who served Fragments of limestone in front of the niches in the other
Psametik I), built a sepulchre that rivalled the size and three sides suggest that these too had stelae. However, Iufaa's
elaboration of those on the Asasif. T he tomb (LS24)J8J lies on tomb also had a set of rooms on the surface directly to the
the escarpment at the very eastern edge of the Saqqara east of the shaft, which exhibit a plan highly reminiscent of
plateau and has a built outer portion giving access to a rock- the tombs at Thebes and the tomb of Bakenrenef.J86 The

282 THE THIRD I NTE RM ED lATE AN D SAITE PER I ODS THE TH I RD I NTE RM ED IATE AND SAITE PERIODS 283
1

steps at the far end of the sepulchral chamber, or a pair of I Unknown king of
c. 5th century BC O oO
stairways just outside the doorway of the antechamber. ~-----o-----7( 2 Unknown
The usual bed-bench lay in the centre of the burial chamber. 3 Queen Naparaye
0
Later Kushite monarchs, beginning with Tanutamun,
standardized on the simpler plan introduced by Shabaka,
! CIJJ
!__ ________ ~
imnnrlllll 4 Queen Khefisa
5 Queen Qalhata
6 Queen Arty
with a burial chamber adorned with paintings.J 88 The 7 Unknown
8 Kashta(1)
vignettes and texts essentially follow the age-old association 10~14Unknown
of royal burials with solar matters, the entrance doorway /1 IS Shabaka
I
I'
\
0 Sm 16 Tanutamun
being surmounted by painted apes adoring the sun god in I
I \
\
I \ 0 IS ft 17 Piye
his bark, a similar motif also appearing on the rear wall. ,'
I \
\ I 8 Shabataka
I \
I
I '
\
Tum I ~6 Unknown
I \
I \
Private Tombs: While a number of the great tombs of the I
I \
\
I \
I \
Asasifhave simple shaft-substructures (e.g. TT196 and I \ 18
I \
328 The tomb of Udjahorresnet at Abu S i ~ showing the simple stone TT279), the substructure often begins with a corridor '
wall that surrounded the mouth of his shaft (early 27th Dynasty). leading from the right-hand side of the main offering place ~
'

\ W Tum4

~
to a series of descending corridors and stairways. A notable 8 //. @ G B Tum I

lower parts of the rooms were cut out of the bedrock, some
at least being equipped with vaulted roofs; the upper parts
of the walls were free-standing. These appear to have been
undecorated. Although Iufaa's tomb seems to be one of the
point is the way in which the substructure is 'layered', with
an interest in the relative vertical placement of elements one
above the other. In Pedamenopet's TT33, the burial chamber
is approached from below, its floor lying some distance
7
21
lff7tffl
@]

21
23
[) '/:'-, 9

eCf]m
<..?_//!7; I0
<':/!$}
Tum 5
0 Tum 2

19

latest of its kind, it is possible that others may have had

similar superstructures which are now wholly lost. A
fragment of an offering scene was found at the tomb of
Udjahorresnet, suggesting that it might have come from
some form of superstructure.
above the base of the access shaft- clearly a security feature
(ills 53, 323) .
These elaborate substructures have equally elaborate
decorations.J89 In the tomb ofMentuemhat (TT34) , the
descending passages and vestibules were fairly simply
329 (above) Plan and section ofthe tomb of
Piye at EI-Kurru (Ku 17: 25th Dynasty) .

330 (top nght) Reconstruction ofthe EI-Ku rru

'/tf:r ", 5/ft;/1~4!tJ
, . 16
necropolis in the mid-7th century BC.
decorated, mainly with texts, including a stela at the foot of 0 SO m
Substructures one stairway, plus a figure of the deceased with Anubis and 331 (right) Map ofthe EI-Kurru pyramid-field. 0 150ft
Roya/Tombs:J 87 The pyramids of the 25th Dynasty Maat. They also included a full-face engaged statue of Osiris
surmounted relatively simple substructures, that ofPiye overlooking the shaft that led from the antechamber to the 332 (below) Plan of the substructure of
(Ku17) being a corbel-roofed room, approached by a burial chamber, the latter adorned with an astronomical Mentuemhat's tomb, culminating in a niched imagery of a New Kingdom royal tomb's decoration, which
stairway. Instead of a sarcophagus, a rock-cut bench lay ceiling reminiscent of those found in royal contexts of the bu rial chamber (TT34: 25th Dynasty) . is consistent with its vast scale.
in the middle of the burial chamber, with a socket in each Ramesside Period. Directly under the mortuary chapels of the God's Wives
corner, to receive the legs of a bed. Interment on a bier has Far more elaborate, however, is the decoration of the of Amun at Medinet Habu lay the chambers that held the
been characterized as a typical feature ofNubian burials substructure ofTT33.39o Here, the adornment of the long ladies' sarcophagi, in all cases but that of Amenirdis I
since Kerman (Second Intermediate Period) times. series of descending galleries starts with offerings, offering- equipped with a vaulted roof. Shepenwepet I's tomb (MH17:
Shabaka's tomb displays a fully rock-cut substructure, bringers and butchers, before moving on to divinities and ill. 318) may have had an entrance passage from the north
with a few traces of paintings in its burial chamber, but his extracts from the Book of the Dead. Above the burial (destroyed by a later tomb), but the others seem to have
successor Shabataka's reverts to corbelled roofing. However, chamber, the Amduat features heavily, while the rock lying been accessed directly from above. The chambers were only
Taharqa's pyramid has the most elaborate substructure of above the roof of the burial chamber, isolated like an large enough to hold a sarcophagus; a few traces of text
any Kushite royal tomb. A conventional stairway, over ambulatory, has protective goddesses at its corners like a could be seen in that of Mehytenweskhet C, wife of
which a mortuary chapel may have been built, led into a late-I8th Dynasty royal sarcophagus (see pp. 56-7). The Psametik I and mother ofNitokris I, under the chapel she
small antechamber, which in turn gave access to a six- immediate approach to the burial chamber bears sections shared with her daughter.l9 1

pillared burial chamber, the aisles of which were vaulted. from the Book of Caverns, while the sepulchral chamber At Abydos, the underground apartments of the tomb
A curious corridor completely surrounded the subterranean itself has the Amduat on its walls and an astronomical ofNespamedu (D57: ill. 324) 39 2 comprised a main shaft,
rooms, at a slightly higher level, accessible via a flight of ceiling. Altogether the tomb is a wonderful pastiche of the containing two arched, built, chambers, one above the other

284 THE THIRD I NTERM EO lATE AN 0 SA ITE PER I 0 0 S T HE THIRD I N T ERMEDIATE AND SAITE PERIODS 285
 333 (above) Section ofthe
tomb of Psametik-nebpehti at
Saqqara (LS 19 26th Dynasty) . 336 & 337 LG 84, the tomb of Pakap at Giza, employed the same sand
protection as the tom bs at Saqqara, plus a sand-filled protective
334 (right) Section oftomb of trench around the perimeter (the latter also found at the tomb of
Horkhebit at Saqqara (26th Udjahorrsnet at Abu Sir). Generally known as 'Campbell's Tomb', an
Dynasty) . additional burial chamber was cut in the side of the entrance shaft
,I under Darius Ifor the Overseer of the Treasury Ptahhotep.A new,
and a smaller one alongside, with a rock-cut room. Access to 335 Isometric section of the burial chamber of an example of the secondary, entrance shaft was cut at around the same time, and gave
the chambers seems to have been via an adjacent stairway. most developed form of a 26th Dynasty shaft tomb at Saqqara, access to a group of chambers occupied by at least three furthe r
showing the 'sandraulic' sarcophagus-closing mechanism. burials, including that of the Priest Nesisut. Stil l later, in Graeco-Roman
Moving to the north, a number of different forms of 338 This view of LG 84 shows the main shaft, the secondary entrance
times, a large chamber with twelve loculi was added to this complex shaft, and one part of the surrounding trench.
substructure are to be found at Saqqara, all generally
(originally late 26th Dynasty) .
approached by shafts. A simple set of rooms formed the high-status body from robbers. The kernel of such a tomb
burial chambers of Bakenrenef's LS24, contrasting with its was an arched-roofed stone-built burial chamber, built at the A major cemetery lay in the area around the temple of
elaborate superstructure (pp. 283-4) . Slightly more elaborate bottom of a deep, wide shaft. This contained a simple to Old Kingdom monuments can hardly have been Re at Heliopolis.J98 The tombs here were primarily vaulted
are the burial apartments ofPsametik-nebpehti (LS19) and rectangular stone sarcophagus, flanked by niches intended fo rtuitous and may be linked with the investigations and stone structures, sunk in the ground surface. These could
Irahor (LS23); although comprising only an antechamber for canopic jars. copying of ancient monuments well attested during the include multiple chambers, often each containing an
and a burial chamber, the latter had a pair of niches in the These shaft tombs were designed to be entirely filled Saite Period (seep. 56). Another group lie to the southwest interment. Like the other decorated tombs in the Memphite
end wall and also two niches on each side-wall. These four with sand after the burial. Temporarily closed holes in the of the 5th Dynasty pyramids at Abu Sir, that oflufaa proving necropolis, they drew their decorative inspiration from the
locations were intended for canopic jars; this shift of chamber roof were opened after the funeral to allow sand in to be both the largest of the type thus far known and to be Old Kingdom, being inscribed primarily with the Pyramid
canopies from the foot of the body to its flanks is to be seen from the main shaft to engulf the sarcophagus . The burial intact.J94 Texts, plus additional verses taken from the other Books of
in other tombs of the Saite Period, although often with only party retreated through an arched brick passage that joined While the sand-filled shafts greatly enhanced security, the Underworld. The same approach is seen in the shaft
a single, wide, niche on each side, designed to hold a half- the burial chamber to a rock-cut access tunnel and shaft certain tombs added to the effect by arranging a set of tombs, their burial chambers being dominated by the
size canopic box with two jars. beyond the wall of the main shaft. This arch was pulled concentric sand-filled trenches around their perimeter, Pyramid Texts, together with extensive offering lists.J99
A very distinctive kind of tomb-substructure appears in down during the exit, sand pouring into the passage . penetrating to a level below the bottom of the main shaft. The Book of the Dead is also prominent in other such
the Memphite necropolis during this era. The earliest The net result was that access to the burial was T hese made it much more difficult to bypass the sand filling contemporary tombs as LS23 .
known example lies half-way between the edge of the impossible, unless almost every grain of sand had been of the shaft by tunnelling down outside the perimeter and A wholly different decorative approach is to be seen in
escarpment and the Step Pyramid enclosure and belonged to removed from the tomb first- running into hundreds of coming up inside the burial chamber. At least one such the oases, especially in Bahariya (Sheikh Sobi) . Here, a series
Horkhebit.J9J Any superstructure that might have existed is cubic metres. In the most elaborate examples the to mb lies at Abu Sir and belongs to Udjahorresnet, who held of tombs have pillared chambers approached by shafts, their
lost, but the substructure comprised a very large chamber sarcophagus lid was lowered into place by props resting on high office under the last kings of the 26th Dynasty and the rooms extensively painted with scenes of the gods, the
(8.1 x 9·55 x 8.6 m or 27 x 31 x 28ft) at the bottom of a deep sand-filled cavities. When released from below, the escaping Persian invaders of the 27th Dynasty.J95 funerary procession, mummification, the judgment of the
shaft, with approximately half the area of the chamber, but sand allowed the lid to come down on the trough. This At Giza is another example with just this kind of dead and other suitable underworld scenes. Amongst the
400

concentric with it. After the body had been placed in the contained an anthropoid cavity, in which lay a large stone additional protection, the so-called 'Camp bell's Tomb' most impressive are those ofDjedamuniufankh (reign of
sarcophagus in the centre of the chamber, the whole tomb anthropoid coffin, which in turn held the mummy, with or (LG84) .J9 6 On the other hand, a simpler shaft tomb of the Ahmose II), his son Baennentiu (pi. XXVII) and his
was filled with sand, the labour of removing which led to its without an inner wooden case. period there had a shaft only 3 m (10 ft) square.J97 The contemporary, the Governor Djedkhonsufankh. The latter
surviving intact until 1902. The best-known examples of such tombs are found in deepest of the series of chambers of this tomb, G7757A, at had painted reliefs cut into the plaster of walls of the vaulted
Such use of sand led to the development of a more two clusters at Saqqara, one close to the pyramid ofUnas, 12.5 m (40 ft) depth, was that of the General Kheperre. It antechamber while the burial chamber, approached by a
elaborate version of the design that represents perhaps the the other in the ruins of the mortuary temple of the 5th was lined with cemented blocks, with the sarcophagus shaft from the antechamber, was adorned with divine figures
most sophisticated of all Egyptian attempts to safeguard a Dynasty king Userkaf. The choice of sites directly adjacent trough sunk in the floor. in yellow.

286 THE THIRD I NTE RM E D lATE AND SAITE PER I 0 DS THE THIRD I NTE RM ED lATE AND SAITE PERIODS 287
I
Chapter 13 The Late and Graeco-Roman Periods

THE LATE PERIOD

The early years of the Late Period were occupied by the 27th
Dynasty, during which Egypt was but a province of the
Persian empire. A few of the shaft tombs at Saqqara and Abu
Sir date to the first part of the dynasty, but all seem to have
been begun in 26th Dynasty times and there are effectively
no tombs which have been unequivocally dated to the years
of Persian rule. The same is true of the following native 28th 34 1 Relief from the tomb of Neferseshempsamtik at Memph1s/Kom e i- Fakhry (CM JE I0978: 30th Dynasty) .
and 29th Dynasties, although a large amount of material has
been attributed to the 30th Dynasty. 4m This 'gap' is certainly
illusory, the problem being the lack of clear criteria to dress; unfortunately it was found in a re-used context. 40' Another burial of the 30th Dynasty provides interesting
distinguish between tombs constructed in the late 26th and However, a major group of later Late Period tombs is in light on the widespread re-use of tombs during the Third
early 30th Dynasties and those constructed during the Cemetery Gat Abydos-Central. 401 One of the earliest of the Intermediate and Late Periods. Tjaisetenimu, Secretary of
intervening decades. group had a large brick courtyard, one part of which was Nakhtnebef(Nectanebo I), took over the Memphite
columned and roofed (G57)!04 Another type of tomb here sepulchre of Ahmose-sineith, who had served under Ahmose
Superstructures has its mastaba built integrally with the brick-built II. The doorjambs of the tomb preserve a text in which the
The only unequivocal trace of a 27th Dynasty funerary substructure (see below).'o' usurper claims his action to have been a favour to the former
chapel is a stela from Saqqara showing the owner in Persian In the Memphite necropolis, tombs of the 29th/3oth owner and that the latter would act as an intermediary in
Dynasties are to be found in a number oflocations at transferring divine goodwill to Tjaisetenimu. 40 7
339 (above) A scene in Greek style in the tomb of Petosiris atTuna Saqqara,' 06 in particular along the avenue to the Serapeum, Only one Late Period royal tomb has been found, that
ei-Gebe l (early Dynasty ofMacedon) . a major focus for local activity in Late times and on into the ofNaefarud I at Mendes in the Delta. The whole tomb had
Ptolemaic Period. Superstructures of brick and stone faced been devastated (see below), but there is a suggestion that it
340 (right) Stela from a tomb of a certa1n Djedherbes, son of Art am, the Serapeum Way, a stone example being that ofWennefer, might have been topped by a mastaba. On the other hand,
with an interest1ng compound of Egyptian and Persian styles.The
which consisted of a pyloned vestibule with a four-pillared the superstructure may have resembled those reported by
name of the owner's father is clearly Pers ian .This piece is one of the
few unequ ivocal funerary monument s ofthe Pe rs~an domination of hall, at the back of which were three niches (ill. 326e). The Herodotus to have stood above the earlier royal tombs at
t he 27th Dynasty; it was found in a secondary deposit in the area of entrance to the substructure lay in front of the pylon, just Sais, or else those over the sepulchres of the God's Wives at
the Gisr ei -Mudir at Saqqara (CM JE98807). to the left. Medinet Habu.

288 T HE LATE AN D G RAECO-ROMA N PERI ODS THE L A TE A N D G RA ECO - RO MAN PER IOD S 289
 Substructures
Royo/Tombs:'o' Following the departure of the Persians in
404 BC, three native dynasties ruled in succession, from
Sais, Mendes and Sebennytos, which cities thus became
royal necropoleis in the time-honoured manner. The only
excavated example comprised a large limestone sarcophagus,
together with fragments of the walls of the chamber that had
once surrounded it; these bore funerary texts for Naefarud I,
founder of the 29th Dynasty.
Only the sarcophagi (and a few shabtis) survive from
two 30th Dynasty royal tombs, wholly divorced from their
original locations. Belonging to Nakhtnebef and
Nakhthorheb (Nectanebo I and II), first and last kings of the
30th Dynasty, the sarcophagi found their ways to Cairo and
Alexandria respectively- both sites devoid of contemporary
pharaonic remains. That ofNakhtnebef was recovered in
fragments from various modern buildings, while the other
sarcophagus came from Alexandria's Attarin Mosque,
where it had been used as a ritual bath. It was never occupied
by its royal owner, who fled to Kush before another Persian
invasion. It has been generally assumed that the kings'
tombs had been built at their natal town, Sebennytos
(Sammanud), although it is not impossible that they might
have lain elsewhere, for example Saqqara, where
Nakhtnebef, in particular, built extensively.'0'

342 (above) Me ndes!Tell ei-Ruba, showing the position of the tomb of Nefarud I, just inside the enclosure wall of t he temple of Banebdjedet
with the giant granite naos of t he t emple sanctuary in the distance (29th Dynasty). Private Tombs: During the Late Period there was a move
towards tombs designed for multiple burials, with large
34 3 (below) The sarcophagus of t he pharaoh Nakhthorheb (Ne ctane bo 11), t he o nly trace of his tomb (from Alexandria; BM EA I0:
chambers flanked with deep niches intended to hold stone
30th Dynasty). 344 Plan and section of
sarcophagi. In addition to new-builds, Saite tombs were t he 'Os iris Shaft' at G iza
extended along such lines in later times. LG84 (ills 336-8) (Late Period).
is a good example, where a chamber was cut high up in the
entrance shaft in early Persian times, while still later, in underground, which is completely flooded by infiltrating
Graeco-Roman times, this secondary complex was extended water. Drained and cleared in 1998, the chamber at the
by the addition of a large room with two levels ofloculi, to bottom revealed a trench and four pillars, surrounding a
accommodate 12 interments. In G 7757A (cf. above, p. 287), large granite sarcophagus with the lid thrown off. This
later burials were placed in chambers further up the tomb's appears to have been arranged so that it was surrounded
shaft, the latest being of Roman date;'w in Bakenrenef's by water infiltrating fro m the ground, reminiscent of the
LS24, two large hypogaea were cut underneath for O sirion of Sety I. Indeed, Zahi Hawass suggests that this
Pedineith, Vizier early in the 30th Dynasty.' " curious chamber was a symbolic tomb for the god O siris.
A fascinating tom b in this genre is the so-called 'O siris T he tomb is datable to Saite/Late Period times and it was at
Shaft', near the causeway ofKhafre at Giza.' " Two successive th is very time that H erodotus reported that Khufu was
shafts lead down to a chamber with six niches, two of which buried under the Great Pyramid on an island surrounded
held a sarcophagus. One of the empty niches contains a by water: could this tom b be what Herodotus' informant
shaft in its floor that descends to a level about 25 m (So ft) had in mind?

290 THE LATE A N D GRAECO - RO M AN PER I ODS THE LATE A N D GRA EC O - ROM A N PER I ODS 29 1
 The predilection for multiple family interments is also at Athribis comprises a complex of multiple compartments, to time-hallowed pharaonic concepts. It is worth The new Graeco-Roman cities in Egypt, however, often
seen in Abydos G57.4' 3 A shaft behind the superstructure led apparently constructed in more than one phase.''6 The tomb remembering that for many Hellenes and Romans the developed funerary beliefs that merged the different
to a chamber with no fewer than five sarcophagi , belonging was built some way above the modern ground level, a principal funerary rites involved cremation or urn burials. traditions. Thus, the tombs from this era show an interesting
to one Irtuharerau and his family. Another type of tomb number of the rooms containing stone sarcophagi, as well as In Rome, laws forbade cemeteries within a city's walls and fusion of both Classical and Egyptian architectural and
in Cemetery G is one with one or more vaulted brick simpler interments. often burials were to be found lining approach-roads- one decorative elements. The style of monuments, with their
chambers, built integrally with the mastaba superstructure!'' of the most famous of such necropoleis being the Appian decorative motifs derived from Egyptian practices and
These sepulchres were intended to be family burial places, THE G RAECO-RO MAN PERIOD Way. Walled cemetery enclosures are also to be seen beliefs, were ultimately exported to other parts of the
with individual chambers often having multiple interments. throughout the northern provinces including Britain. Large empire, with cemeteries aping those of Alexandria spreading
G5o, found intact, had seven occupants, distributed over The independent Egyptian monarchy was brought to an end cemeteries of cremations in urns emerged during the rst to Britain and Gaui. 4' 7
two chambers, the family of one Djeho. with renewed Persian occupation in 342 BC. The country was century BC, beginning in northern Spain and spreading to
More limited numbers of burials are also to be found in then absorbed into the empire of Alexander (Ill) the Great C aul and then towards Britain and the D anube provinces. TO MBS IN TH E EGYPTIAN TRAD IT IO N.
tombs of the 29th/3oth Dynasties at Saqqara.''' That of ten years later, ultimately becoming the kingdom of the In the 2nd century cremation was appearing in North Africa
Wereshnefer had a simple substructure, with the burial Macedonian general, Ptolemy (I) in 310, after the murder of as well, including Alexandria, where a cinerary urn might be Superstructures
chamber lying directly south of the 2-m (6-ft) square shaft, Alexander IV. Finally, the Ptolemaic state collapsed before placed in a loculus, rather than the corpse. This rite was It is often difficult to distinguish early Ptolemaic
containing three sarcophagi. the power of Rome, Egypt becoming a Roman province clearly not adopted by those who favoured 'Egyptian' -style monuments from those of the 30th Dynasty. However, one
In contrast, other Saqqara tombs had more extensive after Cleopatra VII's death in 30 BC . This foreign rulership interment, burning of the corpse being anathema to tomb that can certainly be dated to the very dawn of Greek
substructures housing a whole series of burials. One that had little immediate effect on Egyptian funerary practices, Egyptian mortuary belief. From about AD 6o inhumation rule is that ofPetosiris at Tuna el-Gebel.4' 8 The tomb follows
lay somewhere on the Serapeum Way and at least part of although as time went by alien elements began to be was restricted to the Aegean and Near East. the New Kingdom practice of making the chapel a
whose contents dated to the reign ofNakhthorheb, held absorbed. However, in parallel, the arriving Hellenic settlers
the sarcophagi of no fewer than r6 people, including brought with them their own traditions of funerary 347 Part of the Tuna ei-Gebel necropolis, with tombs ranging in date from Petosiris (right Dynasty of Macedon) to the Roman Period.
Tjaiharpata, Djehor (a dwarf), Peftjaukhonsu and Isetirdis. monuments and traditions, which bore little or no relation
Another, near the pyramid ofUnas, belonged to the family
of one Kanefer, with three chambers and seven interments; 346 Alexandrine cinerary urn (GRM 16152).
three more lay in the adjoining sepulchre oflnemhes. Both
tombs were reached by shafts, the latter taking the form of a
large chamber with four loculi.
As at other periods, the preservation of tombs in the
Delta is generally poor and in most cases substructures
continue to be brick, or sometimes stone, compartments
sunk just below the surface. An extremely elaborate example

345 This tomb at Saqqara contained the burials of two men named
Psametik and, probably intrusively,the 30th Dynasty Queen
Khedebneithwbinet 11.

292 THE LATE AND GRAECO-ROMAN PERIOD S

THE LATE AND GRAECO-ROMAN PERIODS 293
.I
I

348 The tomb of Petosiris at Tuna ei-Gebe l has t he exterior appearance of a miniature vers io n of a contemporary templ e (Dynasty of 349 In content the decoration of the pronaos of Petosiris' chapel very closely followed t hat of N ew K1ngdom and earlier to mbs, with scenes of
Macedon). 'dai ly-life' forming the maJority of the decoration. However, the scenes were executed in a particular style that combined the Greek w ith the
Egyptian, as can be seen in this scene of t hreshing grain.

miniature version of a contemporary temple, but differs Other tombs at Tuna el-Gebel have superstructures more
from New Kingdom examples in lacking a pylon, its fa<;:ade akin to houses, with doors, trellis windows and drain-spouts Away from the Nile Valley, the oases of the Western mummy being taken on a wheeled cart to the cemetery.
being a 'pronaos'- a forehall with pillars joined by half- carved onto the exterior. 4!9 In Roman times, the Desert attained a considerable level of prosperity in the The ceilings in some of the tombs are particularly
height (screen) walls. The decoration of this monument is superstructures of such tombs became the actual places of Graeco-Roman Period, with a number of major cemeteries spectacular. Some sections are painted to resemble wood,
interesting from a number of points of view. First, while the interment, with the body laid out in the principal room of established. Particularly good examples are to be found at while others show the starry night sky, texts and protective
outer pronaos is decorated with agricultural scenes, scenes of the building, thus moving far more towards C lassical Bahariya,422 Dakhla and Siwa,4'J with fine painted images of vultures and falcons with outstretched wings
senetand technology, the inner chapel has mythological conceptions of the tomb. The interior dadoes and walls of decoration. Some contain interesting decorative features. that are traditionally associated with temples and royal
carvings clearly derived from Ramesside royal tomb these tombs are often painted to resemble inset panels of Apart from the usual images of divinities, some have curious tombs Y• Simpler rock-cut tombs have been found in
prototypes, in addition to the standard offering bearers and stone, such as marble and granite, also a C lassical conceit. motifs showing foxes eating grapes, reminiscent of the fox in Kharga Oasis. They retain fragments of plaster, thus
offerings. Second, while the reliefs of this inner room are in a Some rock-cut tomb-chapels of classic Egyptian type are Aesop's fable. The tomb of Mesuiset at Siwa has a cornice suggesting some form of painted decoration, as can be
purely Egyptian style typical of the Late Period, the reliefs in known at Thebes,420 particularly at the north end ofDeir decorated with a uraeus surmounted by a sun disk and seen in the rock-cut and brick-constructed chapel at Ain
the pronaos are in a hybrid Greek/Egyptian style. However, el-Medina, where a series oflarge tombs were cut in early images ofOsiris and Isis, as well as hieroglyphic texts. Lebekha.4'5
this was not to be a new start, as no further tombs with this Ptolemaic times,• 2 ' two (DM2003 and 2005) being furnished The adornment of the Siwan tomb of Siamun, dating Pyramids were reintroduced during this period.
particular style of work seem to exist and with the with sarcophagi taken from the sepulchres of the God's to either the end of the 30th Dynasty or early Ptolemaic At Amheida and Bir Shaghala in Dakhala Oasis, pyramidal
establishment of the Ptolemaic regime, monumental Wives of Amun at Medinet Habu. They consisted of a times, is somewhat reminiscent of Ramesside tomb mud-brick superstructures surmounted a complex series of
superstructures in Egyptian style largely disappear from passage that sloped down to a square underground room decoration. It shows the embalming scene, Opening-of-the- long vaulted rooms that were probably plastered and
the record. in which a vertical shaft led down to the substructure. Mo uth ritual, the weighing of the heart and an image of the painted.

294 THE LATE AND GRAECO - ROM A N PERIODS THE LATE A N D GRAECO - ROMAN PER I ODS 295
 One of the best known examples was a The ban sepulchre
taken over by the family of one Mentuemsaf around the
transition from Ptolemaic to Roman rule.4 28 The funerary
equipment of the new occupants was spread between the old
chapel and the substructure area, which seems to have been
extended to receive a stone sarcophagus. Another tomb
taken over was TT32, which held the remains of the family
of Soter, of the reign ofHadrianY9 There are also a number
of examples of re-use of rombs at Deir el-Medina; 430 indeed,
not only sepulchres became the homes of mummies: the
cellar of house C3 contained a number of bodies, including
that of one Pebos.
Other sorts of communal tombs are to be found in
later Roman times. In some regions, rather than being
immediately buried, mummies apparently remained for
considerable periods among the living, at home and/or in
a public reposirory, in which homage could be offered to
them, perhaps housed in some kind of wooden shrine.4l'
It would appear that groups of bodies would periodically
be removed from homes or reposirories to the cemetery,
where they would be placed in mass brick-lined burial pits,
the mummies being piled one on top of the other. This
presumably reflected the need to make way for more recent
dead amongst the living. The best-excavated such cemetery
lies at Hawara, the tombs varying in their precise form. 432
The earlier burial groups were in large brick structures,
divided into four chambers by crossing walls and originally 35 1 Cei ling of the 'Zod1ac Tomb' at Wann ina, a s1ngle-chambered
cased by limestone blocks. Each of the chambers was filled monume nt apparently owned by one Meryhor The two zodiacs have
been assessed as g1ving dates in the years AD 52 and AD 59, one
with an evenly laid brick filling. Only in one case did a stone
presumably the birthday of the tomb's owne r and the other perhaps
chamber survive, within which lay a pit containing
ofh 1s wife.
mummies. Another large grave group was housed in a long,
narrow, chamber with an arched roof There were also some
350 Pyramids were reintroduced du ring Graeco-Roman times in remote areas. Here at Amheida in Dakh la Oasis, pyramidal mud -bric k more elaborate structures. inclined passages. The dead were found in radiating loculi or
superstructures surmounted a complex senes of long vaulted rooms. Such interments in brick structures are particularly in a bed scraped out of the ground of the rocky passage
known from the Fayoum. Another approach is seen at floor.4H In one tomb were crude representations of the
Bahariya Oasis in the Roman Period, where broad loculi husband-and-wife occupants, but generally these sites were
Substructures frequently for collective burials. Often little or no open off wide rock-cut corridors.4JJ Half a dozen or more lacking in decoration.
In the early Ptolemaic tomb of Petosiris at Tuna el-Gebel, architectural change is made, but fresh chambers with mummies were here laid out in each loculus, their heads A traditional type of tomb continuing into the
the substructure was approached from a shaft in the middle loculi were added to a number of Late Period tombs, facing towards the central corridor. Tomb 54, for example, Ptolemaic Period is the brick-vaulted burial chamber, of
of the rear part of the chapel, which gave access to chambers for example, LG84 and G7757 at Giza.426 These new had six of these large loculi, together with two smaller ones which some 40 examples lie at the eastern extremity of the
on both the east and west. These held the burials ofPetosiris, rooms were cut in the sides of the tombs' shafts. A at the end of the tomb. Other sepulchres in the area were As as if at Thebes. 435 The structures showed signs of plastered
his wife and son, the first two in stone sarcophagi. considerable number of cases of re-use are known at Thebes, shafts, with multiple chambers and niches opening from the paint decoration on some exteriors; it is thus possible that
Such a basic kind of shaft-superstructure remains typical, where the chapels and substructures of New Kingdom bottom. they at one time stood proud of the ground surface.
as do vaulted or domed brick tombs, sunk into the desert tomb-chapels were occupied by Ptolemaic and Roman The cemetery associated with the city ofKaranis (Kom Constructed of mud-brick, of an elongated rectangular
gravel. Also common is the re-use of earlier sepulchres, interments. 42 7 Ushim) contained late Ptolemaic tombs with short shafts or form, the side walls were between 6 and ro courses high and

296 THE LATE AND GRAECO-ROMAN PER IODS THE LATE AND GRAECO - ROMA N PER I ODS 297
one-and-a-half thick. Inside, the longer wall has a ledge to Egyptian Osirian tradition with the Greek cycle of From the rotunda a stairway leads down to the second
take the weight of the roof and outside the narrower walls Persephone in the U nderworld. Egyptian underworld level, which is elaborately decorated (see ills 358-59).
continue up to meet the apex of the 'Flown Vaulting'. Access deities, dressed in G reek garb, jostled with cherubs and more Beyond is a 'burial chamber', with three dummy sarcophagi
is often by a doorway in the end wall and a majority have conventional Hellenistic and Roman geometric and vegetal carved from the natural rock; the actual burial passages, with
small brick shrines in front of the entrance. If this was not motifs. In some instances the loculi were framed by stelae loculi, lay behind and below. T he majority of the decoration
present, then entry was through a chimney-like hole in one that bore the name and tides of the deceased; otherwise the of the catacomb is carved from the living rock and was
of the vaulted ends. blocking stones remained plain, or were carved or painted to probably once painted. The decoration in the main tomb,
resemble doors or windows. fashioned like a diminutive temple, shows a delightful mix
TOMBS IN THE CLASSICAL TRADITION 436 In Roman times, the room with the couch disappeared of the two dominant cultures. The approach is marked by a
along with the well, but dining rooms for memorial feasts portico with composite columns supporting a curved
For the majority of the Graeco-Roman Period a variety of were added. Such a hall, or triclinium, with rock-cut pediment, adorned with a winged sun disk with uraei, a pair
tomb types appear. In many of these the super- and benches for reclining diners is to be found in the great of hawks and another sun disk. Immediately beyond, a pair
substructures are merged, or so little of the former remains Roman Period hypogeum at Kom ei-Sh ugafa at of niches, one on each wall, guard the approach to the
that one cannot sensibly comment on them. Many tombs, Alexandria."' The entrance to the hypogeum is via a spiral sarcophagus chamber; carved in the classic Egyptian style,
following the Classical models, become communal tombs, staircase, giving access to a vestibule or rotunda built around complete with torus mo uldings and cavetto cornices, they
especially in Roman times. Furthermore, besides these a well, the domed roof supported by eight pillars. To the left contain a male (right) and a female statue respectively. These
Egyptian-derived tombs, purely Classical sepulchres were is the triclinium. figures are clearly Roman in inspiration and are dated on the
constructed in some areas, in particular at Alexandria and
other newly founded cities. The very earliest tombs follow 35 3 (right) The main room of Anfushi tomb 2 at A lexandria is almost
the Macedonian concept of built chambers under a ent irely decorated in Classical style. How evec the stairway leading into
tumulus. Only one example survives, the Alabaster Tomb in t he sepulchre has purely Egyptian-t ype scenes.

the Latin cemetery at Alexandria, of which only the outer

354 (below) Plan ofHypogeum A at Shatby,Aiexandria; the solid lines
part of the underground chambers is preserved . It has been
represent the o riginal, early Pto lemaic, parts of the complex.
suggested that this might have been a royal tomb, Alexander Additional loculus chamber s were added lat er.
and all the Ptolemies having been interred at Alexandria.
However, the evidence for the form and even precise
location of these tombs is equivocal at best, and secure
conclusions remain elusive.4J7
Some of the earliest Classical tombs in Egypt are to be
found at Shatby in Alexandria and seem to have consisted of
a simple stairway leading down to a room whose walls were
filled with loculi. Early examples of more monumental
sepulchres lie at Hadra as well as at Shatby, where are to be
found the remains ofHypogeum A. A stairway led down 352 Many Roman Period t ombs had no superstructure save for a
into the rock to a vestibule and then an anteroom. Beyond vertical marker with an elabo rate f 1nial, and somet imes a niche; Marina
ei-A iamein.
this was an open court, to the left of which was a room
which accommodated the loculi. It was later extended with
additional loculus-rooms. for ceremonial purposes. Off the courtyard lay burial
.................
During the Ptolemaic Period, a uniquely Alexandrine complexes, generally with a couch placed in the outer part,
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presumably for laying out the body and beyond this, rooms _ _ _......,. ... ...
~~ ~ ~~-·- ~: . '.!.'
type of tomb emerges, combining super- and substructures
and their functions. This abandons the old Hellenic ofloculi for the final interment. The entrance fa<;ades to
rumulus in favour of an open courtyard sunk in the rock, these chambers were decorated in plaster and paint. For the
approached by a stairway, which gives access to the other most part the decoration of such tombs, where it survived,
parts of the tomb. Although there are many variations, the followed the Hellenistic tradition, bur with Egyptian
courtyard usually had an altar and a well that provided water overtones in terms of iconography, often combining the

298 THE LAT E A N D G RA ECO - ROMA N PE RIOD S THE LATE AND GRAECO - ROMA N PERIODS 299
 / 356 Closure of a loculus (cavity for the body) incorporat ing the
image of a t empl e, from A lexan dri a (G RM).

world and thus fitted well with the many serpents

355 Plan of Hypogeu m I at Kom el-5h ugafa at Alexandria. shown in Egyptian tombs that were associated with 357 Locu li wit h1n t he lowest levels of Hypogeum I at Ko m ei -Shugafa.

resurrection.
The interior of the burial chamber with its three rock-
basis of style to between AD 8r and AD 138, thus providing a cut sarcophagi is carved in high relief with Egyptian crowned with a sun disk, is shown dressed as a Roman Other Alexandrian catacombs with painted decoration
date for the main tomb. funerary scenes interspersed with Graeco-Roman funerary legionary, in a typically Classical twisting (contraposto) include the Tigran Tomb with images of a mummy on a
Beyond, two bearded snakes (agathodaemon), each with motifs, such as Medusa heads, images of Silenus (the pose. The opposite image is the same, save for the fact that a funerary bed, flanked by Isis and Nephthys, images of
a caduceus (the symbol ofHermes, equivalent to Anubis, companion ofDionysus ), ox-heads and funerary wreaths. serpent's tail has been substituted for Anubis' legs. He is Osiris, Anubis and Horus. The ceiling is painted in a
who guided the dead between the two worlds), a thyrsus The Egyptian scenes include images of the deceased as crowned with Osiris' atefcrown. Clearly the Roman tomb- typically Roman way with geometrical and vegetal motifs.
(symbol ofDionysus who became associated with Osiris) Osiris lying on a funerary bed, with Anubis, Thoth and owner had adopted Egyptian funerary beliefs, or at least a These tombs are also frequently painted to resemble marble,
and an Egyptian double crown, guard the doorway to the Horus attending him. Canopic jars are placed below the version of them. other stones and tiles. In some instances very Classical
burial chamber or underworld. Above each of them is carved bed. Other walls show priests censing female divinities, with In the nearby, but later, tomb known as the Hall of motifs, such as a four-horse chariot, are painted on the
a shield, each with a Medusa, to act as traditional Hellenistic pseudo-hieroglyphs carved on one side, Apis being offered Caracalla, decoration is entirely painted, with scenes pediments.
protective devices, guarding the dead against demons as well to by a pharaoh and images oflsis, Osiris and the Four Sons associated with Osiris and his resurrection, mummification, Elsewhere in Alexandria, there are examples of the tomb
as thieves. ofHorus. as well as what appears to be the Judgment of Paris, a paintings apparently imitating what one might expect in a
The chamber is further protected by a winged sun The doorway leading back out to the portico is adorned typically Hellenistic scene, but odd in these surroundings. wealthy house: geometric patterns, vegetal motifs and the
disk and a row of uraei, guaranteeing a solar rebirth. with the most extraordinary of images: a pair of Anubis It is quite probable that similar painted scenes appeared occasional scene painted on a wall within a border. T he
The snake was a chthonic deity (i.e. associated with the figures that truly show the fusion of the Hellenistic and elsewhere in these catacombs, but the paint has long since scenes are, however, unlike those found in houses as they
underworld and resurrection) in the Graeco-Roman Egyptian traditions. On one side of the doorway Anubis, disappeared . naturally pertain to the afterlife. At the site ofWardian,

300 TH E L A TE A N D GRA ECO - ROMAN PERIO D S T H E L A T E A N D GRAECO - ROMAN PE RI ODS 30 1

358 (opposite) The main
chamber of Hypogeum I at
Kom ei-Shugafa.

359 (right) The left-hand niche

of the main chamber of
Hypogeum I at Kom ei-Shugafa,
showing a pharaoh offering to
th e Apis bul l and a w inged lsis.

false-doors were executed in paint and at Gabbari, tomb peristyle hall or court some distance below. This then gave
B23's painted roof, imitating a deeply panelled ceiling and access to the burial chambers, generally equipped with loculi.
the fragments of painted cherubs and vines on walls, Several cemeteries of Roman date have also been found
hint at the glories it once contained. The grand tomb in the oases. For the most part only the basic structures
B26 has a carved fac;:ade, as well as elaborately garlanded remain, with little indication of their decoration, if they had
Ionic columns and was painted very much in the style of a any. The majority of elite Roman tombs in Kharga Oasis are
ho use. Serpents, conforming to both Graeco-Roman and cut into the desert tajla and then built up in mud brick.
Egyptian funerary iconography, together with Egyptian They are intended for multiple burials in chambers that are
funerary deities, often garbed in togas or tunics, form the generally rectangular with vaulted ceilings. At the site of
focus of the decoration of the sarcophagus chamber and Umm el-Dabadib fragments of plaster were found within
fu nerary bed. the ruined tombs and in some cases, especially at Qasr
A good range of specimens of Graeco-Roman Classical Sumayra and Sumayra South, plaster still adhered to the
tombs has been excavated at Marina el-Alamein, along the walls, confirming that they were originally plastered and
coast to the west of Alexandria. 439 Some had pyramidal possibly painted as well. The bodies were placed in the main
superstructures, stepped rather than smooth-sided, up to chamber, though in rare instances, as at Douch, they were
2 m (6ft) in height and 'crowned' by some form of funerary sometimes placed in additional smaller chambers cut further
sculpture- a type well-known from Asia Minor. Another back into the gebeL 44°
superstructure form was a square base consisting of three Shaft tombs from this period also exist here. None of
steps, supporting a square-capitalled pillar; the shaft of these tombs that have thus far been explored shows evidence
the latter sometimes bore carvings of the deceased reclining of decoration. T he few rock-cur tombs examined, probably
on a couch. The bases of some of these tombs contained dating to the Ptolemaic Period, retain fragments of plaster,
the loculus-chamber; in others, it lay below ground. thus suggesting some form of painted decoration, as can be
T hese column/pillar tombs could be as high as 7 m (25ft) seen in the rock-cur and brick constructed chapel at Ain
or more. Lebekha.
Other kinds of tombs had a superstructure that held the These Graeco-Roman Period tombs mark the end of
triclinium and a central room, at the back of which was a the line of monuments that stretch back to beyond the dawn
corridor, leading to a staircase, which gave access to a of history, in which the continued interaction between the

THE LATE AND GRAECO-ROMAN PERIODS 303

dead and the living was a key driver in the design of 360 (above) The rear wall of the T igran To mb at Alexandria, show ing a
superstructures. Some vestiges of this tradition remain in the heavily debased version of t he classic scene of lsis and Nephthys
standing at the head and foot of the mummy.The latter is show n with
early C hristian tombs of Egypt, especially the beautifully
wrappings of the lozenge design popular 1n Roman times.
painted tombs of Bagawat in Kharga Oasis and the diverse
funerary stelae that adorned many Coptic burials.44' 361 (below) Plan ofTomb 54 in Bahariya Oasis' so-called Valley of t he
Ultimately, however, the monotheistic faiths of Christianity Golden Mummies·.
and Islam wholly changed the conception of the relationship
between the fate of the physical body and the afterlife.
Although the austere idea of 'ash es to ashes, dust to dust' was
soon subverted by human pride into the continued building
of monumental sepulchres, the magical machinery to ensure
rebirth was no more required: salvation lay elsewhere than in
the Judgment H all of Osiris.

XXV View into the fi rst open court of the tomb-chapel of Mentuemhat on t he Asasif at Thebes (TI34), showing the West Portico, leading into
t he second courtyard and t he inner part of t he tomb (see also ill. 322); late 25th/early 26th D ynasty.

304 TH E LATE AN D G RA ECO - ROM A N PE R I 0 D S

XXVI Detail of a relief in the pronaos of the tomb of Petosiris at Tuna ei-Gebel, showing the tomb's unique Graeco-Egyptian decorative style, XXVII (above) View from the pillared hall of the substructure of the tomb of Baennentiu at Q aret Qasr Selim, Bawiti, Bahariya O asis,
dating to soon after Alexander the Great's incorporation of Egypt into his empire. looking into t he inner chamber beyond.The tomb dates from the end of the 26th D ynasty. its decoration resembling t hat of a N ew
Kingdom royal sepulchre.

XXVII I (overleaf) Tom b B I at Gabbar i in the w estern part of A lexandria, looking south towards chamber B 1.5, and show ing the vast
number of loculi (cavities for the body) in these monuments. B I had no fewer than 220, some of w hich held up to ten burials, incl uding
both cremations and Inhumations, some of the latter with mummified bodies.The tomb w as begun in the 3rd century BC and was
extended and re-modelled t hrough the 4th centu ry AD .The necropol is was revealed by clearances for a new road - visible in t he
background - and th is particular tomb has now been buried under the completed road, largely destroyed by its foundation piling.
 Part IV

NOTES

CHRONOLOGY

GLOSSARY

THE PRINCIPAL CEMETERIES

MAPS

ABBREVIATIONS AND BIBLIOGRAPHY

SOURCES OF ILLUSTRATIONS

INDEX
 Notes 87. Hodel-Hoenes woo: 136.
SS. Derchain 1975.
nr. Cherpion 1994: 86ff; Manniche 198S: 229,
Muller 19S4: 366-67.
162. Seal-impressions naming Djoser's mother,
Nymaathap, were found inside Kr.
S9. Peters-Altrock in Derchain 1975: 69. 122. Manniche 19SSc: 240. 163. Quibell 1913.
90. This has been especially noted and 123. Lichtheim 1976: n5-1S . 164. Garstang 1904.
commented upon by Teodozja Rzeuska, who 124. See Hassan Hassan 1932-60: VI/z and r65. Reisner 1936: 267-9.
r. Dziobek 1998: 78-So. 28. The basic work on the subject is Spencer 51. Srrudwick 1995: ror; Romer 1994: zn-32. first noted this whilst working at Saqqara with Barta 1963 for detailed discussions of offering r66. The other has never been explored, owing
2. Lichtheim 1973: 58. 1979· 52. E.g. the tomb ofNefermaar at Meidum Karel Mysliwiec. lists. to its dangerous condition, the result of it
3· Named after the low benches found outside 29 . The standard work on the subject is (Harpur 2001). 91. Types of scene described in more detail in 125. Vandier 1964: 135. having been cut into by a later animal
village houses in Egypt- known in Arabic as Arnold 1991, although the older Clarke and 53· Peer 1930. this chapter are printed in bold. 126. Alrenmuller 1975, Junker 1940: 1-39. catacomb.
mastabas. Engelbach 1930 is also of use. 54· See El-Daly 2005. 92. This is especially true in the Old and 127. Manniche 19S7= 41. r67. Maragioglio and Rinaldi 1964-77: III.
4- See Ikram and Dodson 1998: I09- r12; 155- 6. 30. Wood 1987. 55· Firth and Quibell 1935: s- 6. Middle Kingdoms, with greater variation nS. Junker 1953: figs. 87, 96, 97a, 98. r68. Although the mid-Third Dynasty Layer
5· After Davies and Gardiner 1915: 56. 31. Aston, Harrell and Shaw woo. 56. See Vyse r84o, II, for descriptions of the occurring in the New Kingdom. 129. Kendall 19Sr: 105. Pyramid at Zawiyet el-Aryan has never been
6. Gardiner 1955: 9-17 dissects an ancient 32. Harrell and Baun 1995. pyramids by Arab writers. 93· There appear to be no fixed rules 130. Now CM CG1447. Thanks are due to properly excavated, the topography of the area
Egyptian funeral. 33· For the most recent discussion of the 57· For many of the early travellers see Greener concerning scene location and the preferences Petra Vlckova for discussing these images with makes it unlikely that it ever had a 'classic'
7· Although the names of many cemeteries are subject, see Chapter 2 ofNicholson and Shaw !966. that exist do change over rime, as well as from Ikram. rectangular enclosure, while potential remains
lost to us, a few remain. In the Old and 2000. 58. Dodson wood. cemetery to cemetery. This chapter merely 131. El-Khouli and Kanawati 1990. of a valley temple may exist (cf. Dodson
Middle Kingdoms these rook their names 34· Morschauser 1991. 59· Man niche 1987; 1988a. explains general trends in scene location. 132. Hornung 1999. wooc).
from the royal pyramids erected at the site. 35· Although a great deal has been published 6o. Rhind r86z; Dodson and Janssen 1989. 94· The following volumes are of particular 133· Allen 1994. 169. The latter six have also been attributed to
The New Kingdom royal necropolis ofThebes on the technical aspects of tomb decoration, 6r. Dodson and Janssen 1989. use in the study of scene types in private 134. Qui bell and Green 1898: wff; Payne 1973 Huni; they are summarized in Dodson 2003c:
was the Place ofTruth (cf. Ventura 1986). Chapter r ofManniche 1987 remains a useful 62. One of the most notorious being the tombs: Harpur 1987, Manniche 1988a, band and Kemp 1973. 54-6.
8. Otto 1960. summary. destruction of the private tombs at Meidum: Vandier 1964 and 1969. 135. Adams 2004. qo. Maragioglio and Rinaldi 1964-77: IV:
9· Roth 1992. 36. Gay Robins has expressed some see Harpur zoor. 95· Gardiner 1957: 170-3; Davies and Gardiner 136. Dreyer 199S. 171. Ward 2000: 45- 82.
IO. Extensive studies of such letters can be reservations about the use of grids in 19th 63. Dodson 1997/8. 1915: 73-93 · 137. Alien 19SS. 172. Harpur 2001.
found in Gardiner and Sethe 1928 and Rimer Dynasty private tombs, although royal tombs, 64. Long feared lost, Lorer's detailed records of 96. Muller 1975. 13S. Kemp 1966; O'Connor 19S9. 173. Barra 199S. Earlier, Djoser had had a
1993· such as that ofRamesses XI (KV4) do show his work were finally published in Piacenrini 97· Yanek 19S9: }II-22. 139. Ward 2000: 39- 43· serdab in his Step Pyramid mortuary temple.
n. Borghouts 1998: 23. that grids were initially used and then erased and Orsenigo 2005. 9S. Save-Siiderbergh 1953. 140. Emery 1949-58. 174. A masterful analysis of the decoration of
12. Studies using grave goods include Richards prior to the work of the relief sculptor to avoid 65. James (ed.) 1982: 141-60. 99· Robins 1993: 1S8. 141. Kemp 1967. Old Kingdom private tombs can be found in
2004. confusion. 66. Gardiner and Weigall 1913. lOO. Brewer and Friedman 19S9: 77: Sandon 142. Dreyer 1993 and 1996. Harpur 19S7.
13 . One must be conscious of making a series 37· According to Robins (1994: 64-9), the grid 67. Davies 2003. 1950. 143. Emery 1949- 5S: Ill, 6o. 175. Alexanian 1999.
of assumptions about the relative value of in the Old Kingdom was less formal and 68 . See James 1997 for a discussion on Howard ror. Robins 1993: 188. 144. Montet 1938. q6. Reisner 1942.
objects, labour and skills in antiquity and also consisted more of a series of guidelines than an Carter's epigraphic techniques. 102. For lists of tombs containing images of 145. Wood 19S7. 177. Maragioglio and Rinaldi 1964-77: V:
to realize that cemeteries might not exactly actual grid. 69. }~qui er 1940. butchery and fish and poultry processing see 146. Leclanr and Clerc 1993: 206-7; Munro 17S. Arnold 1979.
reflect social organization. 38. See Robins 1994 for a thorough discussion 70. Brunton 1937, 194S Tables I-IV in Ikram 1995: 297-305. 1993b. 179. Quibell 1898b.
14. Harpur 1987= 20- 31. of the canon of proportions in Egyptian art. 71. Habachi 1957. 103. Aufrere 1999. 147. Dodson 1996a. r8o. Fraser 1902; Brunner 1936: 14-20.
15. See Smith 1992 for a study of intact tombs 39· Manniche 1988b: 31. 72. Goyon 1987. 104. Harer 1985: 49-54. 14S. Mathieson and Tavares 1993; Mathieson rSr. Kamal 1903; Brunner 1936: 22-3.
from the 17th and r8th Dynasties. 40. Several scholars are currently analyzing the 73· Dodson 1992b. 105. Lists of meat, fish and poultry preparation et al. 1997. 182. The small pyramids noted above have no
r6. An Egyptian month consisted of 30 days paint used in tombs . The two most 74· Dodson 1999. scenes can be found in lkram 1995. 149. This change of interpretation, the result substructures.
broken into 3 ten-days. Textual information comprehensive sources on the subject are 75· Nicholson 1996, 1999. ro6. Hodel-Hoenes woo: 41. of further excavation, was announced by rS3. See Reisner 1942: S5-129.
from the New Kingdom workers' village of Chapter 14 ofLucas and Harris 1989 and 76. Martin 1991. 107. See Ikram 1995: table 4 for a brieflist of David O'Connor at the American Research 1S4- Dunham and Simpson 1974.
Deir el-Medina indicates that the average Chapter 4 ofNicholson and Shaw 2000. 77· Verner 1994. scenes in which pigs appear. Center in Egypt meeting in Baltimore in April 185. Maragioglio and Rinaldi 1964-77:
working week was 8 days long, festivals and 41. Mackay 1920: 35-6. 78. Labrousse 1999. ro8. Kanawati 1993- 95; 2002. The alleged 'mound' had previously VI-VIII.
other holidays were days off and that every day 42. Wachsmann 1987= n. 79· Swelim and Dodson 199S. 109. Kanawatai 19S0-92. been canvassed as the prototype for the 186. Labrousse 1999.
the workers worked for two shifts of 4 hours 43· For a more thorough discussion of pattern So. Alexanian 1999. no. For practical information regarding these pyramid in a number of recent works. 1S7. Smith 1949: 211.
each, with a break in between. books, see Wachsmann 1987= 12-26. Sr. Arnold and Oppenheim 1995; Oppenheim activities, see Shaw and Nicholson 2000 and 150. Quibell 1923. r88. J<Squier 1929.
17. Krauss 1996. 44· Manuelian 1994a: I-59· 1995· Lucas and Harris 1962. 151. Saad 1947, 1957, 1969. 189. Petrie 1S9S; Kanawati and McFarlane
rS. Ventura 1988: 43· 45· Sist 1993b. Sra Schaden 2007. m. See Decker 1992 for a full discussion of the 152. Reisner 1936: 138. 1993·
19. Brand 2000: 258. 46. Manniche 1988b: r8 . Sib cf. Ryan 1992. different games played by the ancient 153. Munro 1983; Dreyer 2006. 190. Davies 1901a.
20. Manniche 1987: 11. 47· See Keller 1991: 62-3. Sz. Hawass zoooa, 2ooob. Egyptians. 154. Raven 2006: 64-66. 191. Davies 1901a.
2r. Ibid. 48. Currently being excavated by Mark S3. Hawass woob. n2. Milde 19S8: 89. 155. Saad 1957. 192. El-Khouly and Kanawati 19S9.
22. Robins and Shute 1987. Lehner: see Lehner 2002. 84. Manniche 19S8a. II3. Roth 1994. 156. Firth and Qui bell 1935. 193. Davies 1902.
23. See Rossi 2004: 96-147. 49· David 1986. S5. For a good overall discussion of this n4. Harpur 19S7= Sr. 157. Although no tell-tale post-holes have been 194. Blackman 1914-53.
24. CM unnumbered, published in Arnold 50. There is a considerable body ofliterature problem, see Van Walsem 199S: 1205- 13. n5. Harpur 19S7: 57· identified within the Shunet or rhe adhjacent 195. Mackay, Harding and Petrie 1929;
1987= 86-88, and Hawass 2002: 34· pertaining to the village and its inhabitants. S6. An icon in this context is defined as a n6. See Eaton-Krauss 19S4 for a full discussion enclosures at Abydos. El-Khouly and Kanawati 1990.
25. Manniche 1987= 11. These include Cerny 1973a, Romer 1984, symbol (or symbolic language) in which of this topic. 15S. Dodson 199S. 196. Publication of the site for the EES is in
26. Owen and Kemp 1994: 121-29. Bierbrier 1982, Va! belle 1985, Ventura 1986, iconographic features or attributes form a II7. Wild 1961: 177- 97· 159. Swelim 1987. preparation.
27. Such potential 'dual use' of a feature is nor Lesko 1994, Janssen 1997, Davies 1999, visual vocabulary that can be 'read' and uS. Aufrere 1991: 581-S6. r6o. Ibid. 197. Reisner 1932.
uncommon in Egyptian practices. McDowell 1999 and most recently Meskell understood by an illiterate audience with a n9. Manniche 1997. r6r. Garstang 1903. 198. Petrie 190S; Kanawati 1993-1995.
2002. common cultural background. 120. Manniche 1988: 45· 199. Richards 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004.

3 10 N O TES NOTES 3I I
zoo. Petrie 1900. 241. Mace 1921: 14-15. 284. Using the typology devised and published 332. Seyfried 1987: 219-22. 379· Personal communication Penny Wilson, 425. Rossi and Ikram 2004-
201. Saleh 1977. 242. Gaurier andJequier 1902: 98-roo. by Frederike IG.mpp (1996); see also 333· Assman 1984: 282-4. September 2003; a possible fragment of the 426. See above, p. 214.
202. Alliot 1933-5. 243. Davies 1920. Kampp-Sifried 2003. 334· Van Dijk 1988: 42. sarcophagus of Psametik I! is in the Louvre 427. Strudwick 2003.
203. Minaulr-Gout and Deleuze 1992; 244. Lansing 1924: 41. 285. Architectural derail and bibliography of 335· Strudwick 1994: 322. Museum. 428. Rhind r862.
Valloggia 1986; 1998. 245. Lansing 1933: 9-15. all New Kingdom Theban tombs is provided 336. Although some tombs from the 18th 380. Aston 2003. 429. Kikosy 1995.
204- Firth and Gunn 1926. 246. Silverman 2000. in Kampp 1996. Dynasty do have scenes of a religious nature, 38r. For all these tombs, see Eigner 1984. 430. Montserrat and Meskell 1997.
205. Naguib Kanawati, personal 247. Simpson 1988. 286. Rhind r862: 136-7. such as the Judgment of Os iris (TT69). 382. Randall-Madver 1902: So. 431. Ikram and Dodson 1998: 275.
communication. 248. Petrie et al. 1923: 26-7. 287. Manniche 1987' 16. 337· Sttudwick 1994: 326. 383. Bresciani 1988. 432. Petrie 19rr; Bierbrier (ed.) 1997.
206. Jequier 1929. 249. See also Ikram and Dodson 1998: 252; 288. The Epigraphic Survey 1980. 338. Ockinga 1997. 384. Porter and Moss 1974: 291. 433· Hawass 2000a.
207. Junker 1929-55: IV. Dodson 1988c. 289. Vandier andjourdain 1939. 339· Dodson 20oob; Reeves and Wilkinson 385. El-Sadeek 1984. 434· Grenfell and Hogarth 1900: 41.
208. Daressy and Barsanti 1917; Blackman and 250. Simpson 1974. 290. Blackman 1922: 235-40. 1996. 386. Bard 2003. 435· Carnarvon and Carter 1912: 5·
Apted 1914-53: I, ro-1r. 251. Winlock 1942: 52. 291. Srrudwick 1994, 37- 47· 340. Roehrig 1995. 387. Seen. 372, above. 436. Fedak 1990: 129-33; the definitive work
209. Davies 1904a: 30-r. 252. Davies 1920. 292. Strudwick 1994, 37-47. 341. Cerny 1973b: 23-34. 388. Gasm El Seed 1985. on the subject is Venit 2002.
210. Personal communication, Miroslav Bard.. 253 . Mace 1914: 214-17. 293. Milde 1994: 17. 342. Frankfort, De Buck and Gunn, 1933. 389. Eigner 1984. 437. For a recent survey of the evidence, see
2rr. Caste! et al. 2001, Valloggia 1986, 1998, 254. Gautier andJequier 1902: 66-9. 294. Wachsmann 1987' 126. 343· Hornung 1995: 70-3. 390. Diimichen r884-1894· Chugg 20o4/zoo5.
Minaulr-Goult and Deleuze 1992. 255. Silverman 2000. 295. Zivie 1990; 2000. 344· Wilkinson 1994· 391. Holscher 1954: 27. 438. Empereur 1995.
212. Minault-Gour and Deleuze 1992; 256. Arnold 1992. 296. lkram and Dodson 1998: 258. 345· Carter and Gardiner I9IT 139. 392. Randall-Madver 1902: So. 439· Daszewski 1997.
Valloggia 1986; 1998. 257. Lansing 1933: 15-26. 297. Dodson zooob; Reeves and Wilkinson 346. Keller 1991: 6r. 393· Arnold 199T 31-3. 440. Dunand et al. 1992; lkram and Rossi
213. Minault-Gout and Deleuze 1992; 258. Hayes 1937. 1996. 347· Forman and Quirke 1996: 128, Ikram 394- Verner 2002. 2003, Rossi and Ikram 2004.
Valloggia 1986; 1998. 259. Simpson 1988. 298. Hornung 1990: 74-6. 2003: Chapter 2, Hornung 1999. 395· Verner 1994: 195-208. 441. Exploring Christian funerary tradition
214. Dodson 1992b. 260. Ir has been suggested that the tombs in 299. The best explanation of the imagery in 348. Reeves and Wilkinson 1996: 36-7. 396. Vyse r84o: I, 216-18, 232- 3; II, 131-44. is beyond the scope of the present work;
215. At the time of writing being investigated this area were built much later in the Middle the Valley of the Kings can be found in 349· Le blanc 1989; Weeks 1998; 2000. 397· D'Auria et al. 1988: 176-So. however, see Thomas 2000 for a discussion
by a Liverpool University expedition, to which Kingdom; however, this extension of the Hornung 1982. 350- Seyfried 1998 . 398. Bickel and Taller 1997; Hawass 2003: of funerary sculpture as well as an extensive
we are indebted for information. temenos seems designed to enclose them, 300. Dodson 2003a. 351. Shedid 1994b. 174-79· bibliography on Christian funerary traditions
216. Personal communications, Mark Collier suggesting that they were indeed part if 301. Cf. Dorman 2003. 352. Win lock 1924. 399· Drioton 1954. in Egypt.
and Bill Manley. Amenemhar II's original plan. The contrary 302. Dorman 1988, 1991. 353· Kamal 1916: 90-93 [89° ]. 400. Hawass 2000: 185-92; 2003: 214.
217. Newberry and Griffith 1893-4; see arguments, based on pottery types, probably 303. Neugebauer and Parker 1969. 354· Ayrton, Currelly and Weigall 1904: 9· 401. Aston 1999.
further, below. over-stares the refinement of pottery 304. Cf. Kampp 1996: 93-4. 355· Hayes 1959: 269-71. 402. Mathieson et al. 1995; I99T 31; pi. VI.
218. Arnold 1976. rypologies for rhe middle of the 12th Dynasty. 305. Mond 1905: pl.III. 356. Habachi 195T 97- 102. 403. Petrie 1902: 34-40.
219. Malek 1994; however, excavations by Zahi 26r. Arnold 2002. 306. Davies and Gardiner 1915. 357· Garstang 1901: 21, pi. XXXIII. 404. Petrie 1902: 34·
Hawass have now confirmed that his 262. As does the probable tomb of the wife of N7· Redford 1994: pis XXVIII-XXXII. 358. Randall-Madver 1902: 65, 77-8, 94· 405. Petrie 1902: 36-7; these tombs were
candidate is actually a pyramid of the 5th Senwosrer II at Lahun (621). 308. Ikram and Dodson 1998: 210-12. 359· Lull 2002: 51-9. mis-reconstructed by Mariette as pyramids.
Dynasty, attributable to Menkauhor (cf. 263. De Morgan 1895. 309. Martin 1974, 1989; El-Khouly and Martin 360. Dodson 20oob: 140-6; Monret 1951. 406. Arnold 1997.
Berlandini 1979). 264. Uphill 20oo: 75-9. 1987. 36r. Randall-Madver 1902: 65, 77-8, 94· 407. Jansen-Winkeln 1997.
220. Weill, Tony-Revillon and Pillet 1958. 265. Engelbach 1915. 310. Davies 1923b: 135-45; the other significant 362. Niwinski 1988: 21- 8; 205. 408. Dodson 20oob: 162-3.
221. Weill 1958. 266. Peer et al. 1913-14: II, 35-41. example is of course that of Ramose. 363. Winlock 1942: 94-7. 409. In particular major work in rhe
222. Arnold 1974- 267. Engelbach 1923: 14, 20-23. 311. Davies 1903- 8: VI, 1-6. 364. Graefe 2003. necropoleis of the sacred animals.
223. Naville 1896: 26, pi. 13. 268. Dodson 20oob. 312. Hornung 1992b: 48- 9; 1992c: 125- 7. 365. Srrudwick 2001: 7· 410. D'Auria et al. 1988: 17, 25, called in error
224. Mond and Myers 1940: r88 , pi. r6-r8. 269. Tylor 1896. 313. Raven 2002; 2006; van Walsem 2003. 366. Quibell 1898a. 'Saire'.
225. Winlock 1942: 87, 101- 4. 130. 270. Bietak 1996: 20-r. 314. Dodson 20oob; Martin 1974, 1989; Reeves 367. Quibell 1898: 9-12. 411. Bresciani 1983.
226. Winlock 1955. 271. Polz 2003: 13. and Wilkinson 1996. 368. Nelson 2003; As ton 2003: 138-42. 412. Hawass 2007.
227. Voros 1998. 272. Winlock 1924. 315. Martin 1974, 1989. 369. Dodson 2003d. 413. Petrie 1902: 34·
228. Arnold 1991. 273. Polz 2003; Polz and Seiler 2003. 316. Holscher 1939. 370. Holscher 1954: 8-10. 414- Peuie 1902: 36-7; these tombs were
229. Garstang 1903; Tooley 1995. 274. Polz 2007: 120-22, 133- 7. 317. Cf. Tawfik 2003. 371. Leahy 1990: r86. mis-reconstructed by Mariette as pyramids.
230. Petrie 1900: 21. 275. Dewachter 1985; Dodson 1994: 42. 318. Hasegawa 2003. 372. Gauthier 1921. 415. Arnold 1997.
231. Goedicke 1971. 276. Harvey 1994; O'Connor 2003 . 319. Martin 1991. 373· Badawi 1957. 416. Gomaa and Hegazy 2001.
232. Arnold 1988; 1992. 277. Dodson forthcoming. 320. Ockinga '997· 374· Amelineau r899b: r6- 28; Vernus 1976: 417. Morris 1992.
233. Arnold 1988: 78ff. 278. Dodson 2003e. 321. Piankoff 1955. 67-72. 418. Lefebvre 1923-4; the owner's brother,
234- De Morgan 1903: 29-39. 279. Polz 1995a, b. 322. E.g. in that ofHatshepsut (p. 2rr). 375· See Srrudwick 2001 for a case-study in the Djedthutefankh had served under
235. Brunton 1920; Petrie 1891; Petrie et al. 280. Van Siclen 1980. 323· Martin 1989. form of the tomb of Sennefri of the 18th Nakhthorheb, bur had collaborated with the
1923. 281. Frequently rhe term 'Mansion of millions 324. Martin 1991: 179- 85. Dynasty (TT99), used on repeated occuasions Persians and had therefore been executed
236. Arnold 2002. of years' is applied to this group of temples 325· Martin 1991: 177-85. from the 21st through the 26th Dynasty, a under Alexander.
237. Arnold 1987. (Haring I99T 23-4). 326. Engelbach 1915. pattern that was certainly not uncommon. 419. Gabra 1932.
238. Arnold 2002. 282. Naville 1896-1900; Win lock 1942. 327· Dodson 20oob: 87-128. 376. Barwik 2003; Sheikholslami 2003. 420. Riggs 2006; Strudwick 2003.
239. Arnold 1979b. 283. Blocks found at Medinet Habu, bur 328. Murnane 1990. 377· Naville 1894-5; the contents of the tomb 421. Nagel 1929: 1-5.
240. The material for this is summarized by clearly originally from the Ramesseum 329. Winlock 1942: 9-13. are now in Oxford, Boston and New York. 422. Fakhry 1973-4: ll; Hawass 2000a.
Uphill 2000, albeit with a probably erroneous (Habachi 1969). 330. Martin 1997b. 378. Dunham 1950; 1955; 1958; 1963; Dunham 423. Fakhry 1973-4: I.
reconstruction. 331. Assmann 2003a. and Chap man 1952. 424. Fakhry 1973: 183ff.

3 12 NOTES NOTES 3 13
 Chronology Shepseskare
Neferefre
Amenemhat VII
Wegaf
Niuserre Khnedjer
Menkauhor Imyromesha
Isesi InyotefiV
A Note on Egyptian Chronology PREDYNASTIC PERIOD Unas Set(y)
Sobkhotep III
Badarian Culture 5000- 4000 BC 6th Dynasty 2355- 2!90 Neferhotep I
The scheme used by modern scholars for structuring the Naqada I (Amratian) Culture 4000-3500 BC Teti Sihathor
chronology of historical ancient Egypt is based upon one Naqada II (Gerzian) Culture 3500-3150 BC Pepy I Sobkhotep IV
Naqada III Culture 3150-3000 B c Nemtyemsafi (Merenre) Sobkhotep V
drawn up by the Egyptian priest, Manetho, around 300 BC.
Pepy II Sobkhotep VI
He divided the succession of kings into a series of numbered Nemtyemsafii Iaib
'dynasties', corresponding to our idea of royal 'houses' (e.g. EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD
Aya
Plantagenet, Windsor, Bourbon, Hapsburg, Hohenzollern). 1st Dynasty 3050-2820 Inii
FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD Sewadjtu
These broadly fit in with our knowledge of changes in the Narmer
Aha 7th/8th Dynasties 2190-2160 Ined
ruling family, but in some cases the reason for a shift is Djer Hori
unclear. Djet 9thiioth Dynasties (Herakonpolis) 2160-2040 Sobkhotep VII
Historians of ancient Egypt refined this structure by Den Ini II
Anedjib nth Dynasty (Thebes) Neferhotep II
grouping dynasties into 'Kingdoms' and 'Periods', during
Semerkhet Menruhotep I 216o- [9 obscure kings]
which constant socio-political themes can be identified; Qaa Inyotefi -2123 Mentuhotep V
these are broadly the basis for the chronological section of Inyotef II 2n3-207 4
2nd Dynasty 282o-266o Inyotefiii 2074- 2066 Ibi II
this book.
Hotepsekhemwy Hor[ ... ]
Ancient dating was by means of regnal years, rather than Nebre Se[ ... ]kare
the kind of'era' dating used today (eg BC, AD and AH). No Ninetjer MIDDLE KINGDOM Sankhptahi
comprehensive lists of royal reign-lengths survive today, and Weneg [... ]s
nth Dynasty
Sened Senebmiu
thus in most cases the generally accepted lengths of rule for Mentuhotep II 2o66-2or4
Sekhemib/Peribsen
Mentuhotep III 2014- 2001
Egyptian monarchs is only an estimate based on often-scanty Neferkare
Menruhotep IV 2001-1994 SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD
evidence. In addition, absolute dates, in terms of years BC, Neferkasokar
Khasekhem/Khasekhemwy 12th Dynasty 14th Dynasty (N. E. Egypt)
have to be established through various indirect methods.
Amenemhat I 1994-1964 15th Dynasty (Hyksos: N. Egypt) 1650- 1535
Some reigns can be fixed by relation to events linked to Semqen
OLD KINGDOM Senwosret I 1974-1929
better-dated cultures, while others can be placed by Amenemhat II 1932-1896 Aper-anati
reference to mentions of various astronomical phenomena. 3rd Dynasty 266o-26oo Senwosret II 1900-1880 Sakirhar
Djoser Senwosret III 1881-1840 Khyan
These allow other reigns' extent to be calculated by dead-
Sanakhte Amenemhat III 1842-1794 Apepi 1585-1545
reckoning. Nevertheless, there remain many areas of Sekhemkhet Amenemhat IV 1798- 1785 Khamudy 1545-1535
uncertainty and, while dating is solid back to 663 BC, Khaba Sobkneferu 1785-1780
margins of error before then may run in excess of a century. Nebkare 16th Dynasty (Thebes) 1650-1590
Huni 13th Dynasty 1780-1650 Djehury
Accordingly, the dates given here should be regarded prior to Sobkhotep VIII
Sobkhotep I
the 7th century as merely indicative, and liable to 4th Dynasty 2600-2470 Sonbef Neferhotep III
comprehensive revision as more data become available. Seneferu Nerikare Mentuhotepi
Khufu AmenemharV Nebiriau I
Rulers shown in parentheses ruled in parallel with others, Djedefre Nebiriau II
Ameny-Qemau
either as a formal eo-regent, or as a rival during a period of Setka Amenemhat VI Semenre
strife. Khafre Nebnuni Bebiankh
Menkaure Iufeni Sekhemre-shedwaset
Shepseskaf Sihornedjhiryotef Dedumose I
Swadjkare Dedumose II
5th Dynasty 2470-2355 Nedjemibre Mentuemsaf
Userkaf Sobkhorep II Mentuhotep VI
Sahure Rensonbe Senwosret IV
Neferirkare Hor

31 4 CHRONOLOG Y CH RONOLOG Y 31 5
17th Dynasty (Thebes) 1585-1549 THIRD INTERMEDIATE PERIOD LATE PERIOD ROMAN PERIOD
Rehotep
21st Dynasty 27th Dynasty (Persians) 30 BC- AD 395
Sobkemsafi
Nesibanebdjedet 1069-1043 Cambyses 525- 522
lnyotefV
Amenemnesu 1043-1039 Darius I 521-486
InyotefVI BYZANTINE PERIOD
(Pinudjem I 1054- 1032) Xerxes I 486-465
InyotefVII
Pasebkhanut I 1039-990 Artaxerxes I 465-424
Sobkemsafii
Amenemopet 990-980
Taa I
Osorkon the Elder 980-974 28th Dynasty
Taa II 1558- rm
Kamose 1553-1549
Siamun 974- 955 Amenirdis (Amyrtaios) 404- 399 ARAB PERIOD
Pasebkhanut II 955- 941
29th Dynasty
NEW KINGDOM 22nd Dynasty Naeferud I 399-393
Shoshenq I 943-922 Pasherenmut 393 OTTOMAN PERIOD
18th Dynasty Osorkon I 922- 886 Hagar 393-380
Ahmose I 1549-1524 (Shoshenq II 890) Naeferud II 380
Amenhotep I 1524-1503 Takelot I 886-870
Thutmose I 1503-1491 Osorkon Il 870-832 3oth Dynasty
Thutmose Il 1491-1479 Shoshenq Ill 832-792
KHEDEVAL PERIOD
Nakhtnebef (Nectanebo I) 380-362
Thutmose Ill 1479- 1424 Shoshenq IV 792- 782 Djehor 362- 360
(Hatshepsut 1472-1457) Pimay 782-776 Nakhthorheb (Nectanebo II) 360-342
Amenhotep II 1424- 1398 Shoshenq V 776- 739
Thutmose IV 1398- 1389 31st Dynasty (Persians) BRITISH PROTECTORATE (SULTANATE)
Amenhotep III 1389-1352 23rd Dynasty (Thebes) Artaxerxes III Ochus 342- 338
Amenhotep IV/ Akhenaten 1352-1335 Harsiese 860-850 Arses 338-336
(Smenkhkare 1339) Takelot !I 835-810 Darius Ill 335-332
Neferneferuaten 1388-1332) Pedubast I 824- 801 MONARCHY
Tutankhaten/amun 1335-1325 Iuput I 809-793
Ay 1335- 1321 Osorkon Ill 793-765 HELLENISTIC PERIOD
Horemheb 1321-1291 Takelot III 770- 760 Dynasty ofMacedon
Rudamun 760-740 Alexander III 332-323
19th Dynasty REPUBLIC
Iny 740-735 Philip III Arrhidaeus 323-317
Ramesses I 1291-1290 Peftjauawybast 735-725 1953-
Sery I 1290-1279 Alexander IV 317- 310
Ramesses Il 1279-1203 23rd Dynasty (Tanis)
Merenptah 1203-n93 Dynasty ofPtolemy
Pedubast II 739-737 Ptolemy I Soter 310-282
Sety II II93-n87 Osorkon IV 737- 720
(Amenmesse II92-u88) Ptolemy II Philadelphos 285-246
Siptah n87-n81 Ptolemy III Euergetes I 246- 222
24th Dynasty (Sais) Ptolemy IV Philopator 222-205
Tawosret n81-II79 Tefnakhte 732- 724 Ptolemy V Epiphanes 205-180
Bakenrenef 724- 718 Ptolemy VI Philometor 180-164
2oth Dynasty
Setnakhte ll79-II77 Ptolemy VIII Euergetes II 170- 163
25th Dynasty Ptolemy VI (again) 163-145
Ramesses III II77- II45 Piye 753-722
Ramesses IV II45-II39 Ptolemy VIII (again) 145-n6
Shabaka 722-707 Ptolemy IX Soter II n6- no
Ramesses V Amenhirkopshefi II39- II35 Shabataka 707- 690
Ramesses VI Amenhirkopshefii n35-n27 Ptolemy X Alexander I no-109
Taharqa 690-664 Ptolemy IX (again) 109-107
Ramesses VII Itamun n27- 1n9 Tanutamun 664-656
Ramesses VIII Sethirkopshef III9-III8 Ptolemy X (again) 107- 88
Ramesses IX Khaemwaset I urS-1099 Ptolemy IX (again) 88-8o
Ramesses X Amenhirkopshefiii 1099-1096 SAITE PERIOD (Ptolemy XI So)
Ramesses XI Khaemwaset I! 1096-1069 Ptolemy XII Neos Dionysos So- 58
26th Dynasty Berenice IV 56
Psametik I 664-610 Ptolemy XII (again) 55-51
Nekau II 610- 595 Cleopatra VII Philopator 51- 30
Psametik II 595-589 (Ptolemy XIII 51- 47)
Wahibre (Apries) 589- 570 (Ptolemy XIV 47-44)
Ahmose Il (Amasis) 570-526 (Ptolemy XV Caesar 41- 30)
Psametik III 526- 525

316 CHRONOLOGY CHRONOLOGY 317

 Glossary pylon massive ceremonial gateway,
comprised of two tapering massifs joined
Sem Priest priest who performs funerary
rights clad in leopard skin, notably the
step pyramid pyramid rising in a series of
deep steps to the summit, perhaps
by a gateway, and thought to symbolise Opening-of-the-Mouth. Often the symbolic of a stairway to heaven.
the horizon (akhet). deceased's eldest son. temenos sacred enclosure.
pyramidion cap-stone of a pyramid, often serdab closed room in a tomb, containing triclinium a dining room with couches on
Agathodaemon benevolent divinity in the corbel-roofing arrangement for spanning a Maat Goddess of cosmic order. made ofhardstone and bearing statue(s) of the deceased; from the Arabic three sides, often made of stone and found
form of a serpent, common in the space by setting each successive course of mastaba a tomb-rype, common from the inscriptions; some examples may have for 'cellar'. in Graeco-Roman contexts.
Graeco-Roman Period. the walls slightly further out than the one Early Dynastic Period onward. The name, been gilded. serekh rectangular frame, with panelled true pyramid pyramid intended to have a
Amentet 'The West', the dwelling place of below until they meet at the apex. mastaba, derives from the Arabic word for Pyramid Texts magical texts inscribed in the lower section, used to enclose the Horns uniform, smooth, slope to the summit.
the Dead. dentil toothlike cubes found in Classical mudbrick bench, which they resemble. burial chambers of pyramids from the end name of a king. Perhaps representative of the sun's
Ammit 'The Devourer'. The composite cormces. Medusa mythological female being with of the 5th Dynasry onward. Seth brother and murderer of Osiris. descending rays and a ramp to aid the
crocodile-lioness-hippopotamus monster Duamutef mortuary genius and Son of serpents for hair whose gaze could turn Qehehsenuef mortuary genius and Son of shabti/ushabti magical servant figure found kings ascension.
that ate up the parts of the accursed dead Horns, usually represented with a jackal one to stone, and having an apotropaic Horns, usually represented with a hawk in tombs mid-Middle Kingdom onward. 'T' -shaped tomb a tomb, primarily dating
in the Judgement Hall of Osiris. head, and associated with the stomach. function. . head, and associated with the intestines. From the middle of the r8th Dynasry large to New Kingdom Thebes, the ground-
Amun(-Re) chief god ofThebes and Under rhe tutelage ofNeith. Meretseger snake-goddess of Western Under the tutelage ofSelqet. numbers are to be found in a single burial, plan of which resembles the letter 'T'.
paramount god of Egypt from the New false door a stone doorway in a tomb Theban necropolis. Re the sun god. ultimately exceeding four hundred in Thoth ibis-headed secretary of the gods.
Kingdom onward. inscribed with offerings and the name and mortuary temple temple designed to house relief: a. sunk two-dimensional design carved certain interments. thrysus insignia of Dionysus: a staff crowned
Anubis god of embalming, represented with titles of the deceased; a focus for the the cult of the deceased and sometimes into a surface; shaft tomb a rock-cur tomb that goes with ivy, vine leaves or a pine cone.
:I a jackal's head. mortuary cult. other divinities. b. raised/ raised two-dimensional design straight down into the bedrock and opens tomb models wooden models showing daily
Apis sacred bull of Memphis, a form ofPtah. funerary cone flat pottery cone, generally mummy artificially preserved human or where the background is carved away, into a room or series of room. life activities, generally found in Middle
I!li Apophis snake-enemy of the Sun-god.
Aten the physical sun, worshipped during
10-15 cm long, with rhe flat end often
inscribed with the names and titles of the
animal corpse. The word is derived from
the Persian, mum, meaning wax or
leaving the standing image.
rock-cut tomb a sepulchre whose chapel is
skeuomorph item imitating the form of
another.
Kingdom tombs, especially in burial
chambers.
the late r8th Dynasry. deceased, or prayers. Used to adorn tomb bitumen. carved our of the living rock, with slab stela a rectangular stone slab bearing torus moulding semi-circular moulding
Atum human form of Sun-god, Re. fac;:ades. Neith one of rhe four tutelary goddesses of minimal, if any, built structure. depictions of tomb owner seated before found below cavetto cornice and thought
barrel vault semi-circular vaulting found Geh Earth-god; husband of Nut. the dead; a goddess of warfare and sarcophagus rectangular/quasi-rectangular table of offerings. Found from Early to simulate bound reeds. Found in
throughout Egyptian history. gesso mixture of glue and gypsum plaster hunting. outermost container, intended to hold Dynastic Period to Old Kingdom. Also buildings and on false doors.
hen-hen sacred stone ofHeliopolis, perhaps used to cover coffins, statues, ere. Nephthys sister of Osiris, Is is, and Seth, and coffins of a different form or material. It known as offering slab, when it is valley temple cultic building on the edge of
a meteorite, believed to take a roughly Hapy mortuary genius and Son ofHorus, wife of the latter. One of the four tutelary may be composed of stone or wood. incorporated into the false door. the desen, giving access to the causeway
pyramidal shape. usually represented with an ape head, goddesses of the dead, always shown at the Selqet one of the four turuleray goddesses; that leads to the mortuary temple.
block statue stone statue showing a and associated with the lungs. Under head of the corpse. sacred creature is the scorpion.
squatting individual, with knees drawn up the tutelage ofNephrhys. Nut sky Goddess often pictured on tomb-
to the chin, and frequently inscribed with Hathor goddess, represented in either ceilings and lids of coffin and sarcophagi.
texts. human or cow form. WifeofGeb.
Book of the Dead 'Book of Coming Forth Heb-sed the jubilee festival celebrated by the Opening-of-the-Mouth ceremony which
By Day': one of the many funerary books Egyptian king, usually after thirry years on served ro reanimate the corpse.
containing spells that would help the throne, and then repeated every three Osiris god of the dead and resurrection,
transport the deceased safely to Amentet. years. brother-husband oflsis, murdered by his
Common from the New Kingdom Hermes Greek messenger of gods, who brother Seth and who consequently
onward. guided the dead between rhe two worlds; became the first mummy.
caduceus the wand ofHermes, a staff with equated with Anubis. Osirid columns a pillar fronted by a figure
two interlaced serpents, topped by small hypostyle hall chamber with its room shown with its feet together, and
wings,. supported by a number of columns. frequently sheathed like Os iris.
canopic of or pertaining to the preservation hetep-d.i-nesu funerary formula for the papyrus column column with papyrus
of the viscera removed from the body in provision of offerings to the deceased. capitals, and often having triangular
the course of embalming. hypogeum an underground chamber. sections similar to those found in real
cartonnage: a. material made from mixture Iaru, Fields of the idyllic land of the papyrus stems.
oflinen/papyrus, glue and plaster; hereafter. peristyle court courtyard with a row of
b. painted whole-body casing made from lmseti mortuary genius and Son ofHorus, columns around its edges.
cartonnage. represented with a human head, and pillar a rectangular column.
cavetto cornice concave moulding on top of associated with the liver. Under the pilaster an engaged pillar.
walls and stele. tutelage oflsis. portico a covered entrance, supported by
cenotaph grave marker or tomb, not Isis goddess; sister-wife of Osiris, mother of pillars or columns, in front of a window.
containing a corpse. Horns and protector oflmseti. Usually pit tomb a shallow tomb cut into the desert
Coffin Texts texts inscribed on the interior of found on the foot of a coffin. gravel or scooped our of the sand.
the coffin during the Middle Kingdom to lintel an horizontal architectural element, Proto-Doric column faceted columns
aid the deceased in reaching Amentet. generally over a doorway or window. resembling the Greek Doric order, bur
colonnade a row of columns, supporting a loculus deep niche to receive a body lying antedating them by some r8oo years.
roof. lengthwise.

3 18 G LOS SAR Y GLOS SA RY 3 19

 The Principal Cemeteries NUMBER DATES OF PRINCIPAL BURIALS AT SITE
ON
SITE NAME MAP I PO EDP OK FIP MK SIP NK T IP LP GR
D eirTasa 89 • •
NUMBER DATES OF PRINCIPAL BURIALS AT SITE
Dendara 109 • • • • •
ON Des has ha 59 •
SITE NAME MAP I PO EDP OK FIP MK SIP NK TIP LP GR PO Predynastic Per iod D raAbu'I-Naga (Thebes-West) 114 •R • •
EDP Early Dynastic Period
Abu Ghaleb 21 • • OK Old Kingdom
Edfu 124 • • • •
Abu Qir 10 • FIP First Intermediate Period Ehnasiya ei-Medina (Herakleopolis) 58 • • • •
Abu Rowash 28 • •R • MK Middle Kingdom EI-Atamna 82 •
SIP Second Intermediate Per iod
Abu Sir 34 • • • • • • NK New Kingdom
EI-Ataw la 84 •
Abu Sir ei-Meleq 5I • • TIP Third Intermediate Period EI-Badari 91 • • • •
LP Late Period
Abydos lOS • •R • • • • • • • • GR Graeco-Roman Period
EI-Bahnasa (Oxyrhynchus) 64 • •
Akhmim 95 • • • EI-Deir 120 • • • •
Alexandria 11 •R 'R' = Royal tombs EI-Hagarsa 98 • •
A mad a 13 1 EI-Hamamiya 92 • •
Amara 139 EI-Hawawish 96 • • •
Aniba 132 • EI-Hiba 60 •
Arab ei-Miteir 83 • El-ltmania • •
Armant l iS • • • EI-Kab 122 • • • • • • •
Asasif (Thebes-West) 114 • • EI-Khawalid • • •
Asyut 85 • • • • • EI-Kurru 144 •R
Awlad ei-Sheikh 62 • • EI-Maabda 79 •
Bahariya Oasis 148 • • • EI-Mahasna 104 • • • •
Balabish 106 • EI-Masar a 33 • •
Balansura 68 • EI-Qantara 3 •
Baqlia/Tell ei-Zereiki 7 • EI-Qatta 22 • • • •
Barnugi 13 • EI-Rizeiqat 117 • • • • •
Batn ei-Baqara (Fustat) 26 • EI-Saff 42 • •
Belt Khallaf 103 • EI-Salamuni • • •
Beni H asan 69 • • • • • • EI-Sawamia • •
Biban/Wadi ei-Harim (Valley of the Q ueens) 114 • El-Tarif (Thebes-W est) 114 • • • •R

(Thebes-West) EI-Tod 116 •

Biban/Wadi ei-Moluk (Valley of the Kings) 11 4 •R EI-Zawiya •
(Thebes-West) Esna 12 1 • • •
Buhen 136 Gebel Barkal (Napata) 143 •
Dahshur 39 •R •R • • • Gebel el-Teir ei-Bahari 65 •
Dahshur-South 40 •R Gebel Sheikh ei-Haridi 94 • •
Dakhla Oasis 149 • • • • Gebelein 119 • • • •
Dara 81 • • •R • Gerzeh 45 • • • • • •
Debeira East 135 Giza 29 • • •R • • • •
D ehmit (Betekon) 128 Gurob ss • • • •
D eir ei-Bahari (Thebes-W est) 114 •R • • • • Harageh 54 • • • •
D eir ei-Ballas 110 • • • • Hawara so •R • • •
D eir ei-Bersha 73 • • • Helwan 36 • • •
D eir ei-Gebrawi 80 • • Hierakonpolis 123 • • • • •
Deir ei-Medina (T hebes-West) 114 • • Hu-Abadiya 108 • • • • •
Deir Rifeh 87 • • • • • lmbaba 27 •

320 T H E PRINC I PAL CE M ETE RI ES THE PRIN C I PAL C EME TER I ES 32 1

 NUMBER DATES OF PRINCIPAL BURIALS AT SITE NUMBER DATES OF PRINCIPAL BURIALS AT SITE
ON ON
SITE NAME MAP I PD EDP OK FIP MK SIP NK TIP LP GR SITE NAME MAP I PD EDP OK FIP MK SIP NK TIP LP GR
lstabl Antar 70 • • • Ramesseum (Thebes-West) 114 • •
KafrAmmar 44 • • • Raqaqna 102 •
Kerma 142 • Sa ei-Hagar (Sais) 9 •R
Kharga Oasis 97 • •1 • •1 • Saft ei-Henna 18 • • •
Khokha (Thebes-West) 114 • • • • San ei-Hagar (Tanis) 2 •R
KomAbu Billo 20 • • • • Saqqara-North 37 • •R • • • • • • •
Kom Aushim (Karanis) 48 • Saqqara-South 38 •R •R • •
KomAusim (Letopolis) 24 • Sayala 130
Kom ei-Ahmar Sawaris 63 • Sedment ei-Gebel 56 • • • •
Kom ei-Hisn IS • • • SemnaWest 138
Kom Firin 14 • • • Serra East 134
Kom ei-Kharaba ei-Kebir (Philadelphia) 49 • Sesebi 141
Kom Ombo 126 • • Sheikh Abada 72 • • • •
Koshtemna 129 SheikhAbd ei-Qurna (Thebes-West) 114 • •
Lahun 52 • • •R • • • SheikhAtia 76 •
Lisht 43 • • •R • Sheikh Farag 100 • •
Maadi 30 • • Sheikh Said 74 •
Marina ei-Aiamein 12 • Siwa Oasis 147 • •
Matariya (Heliopolis) 25 • • • • Soleb 140
Matmar 86 • • • • • Tarkhan 46 • •
Mazghuna 41 • • •R • TeiiAtrib 19 • •
Medinet Habu 114 •R • Tell Basta (Bubastis) 17 • • • • •
Meidum 47 •R • • • • Tell ei-Amarna 75 •R
Meir 77 • • • Tell ei-Daba (Avaris) I • •
Me roe 146 •R • Tell ei-Farain (Buto) 8 • •
Mersa Matruh 14 • • Tell ei-Ruba (Mendes) 6 • • • •R
MinshatAbu Omar 5 • • Tell el-Yuhudiya 23 • • • • • •
Mirgissa 137 Tell Moqdam (Leontopolis) 16 •
Mit Rahina 35 • • • Tell Umm ei-Briegat (Tebtunis) 53 •
Moalla 118 • • • • Thebes-West 114
Mostagedda 88 • • • • • • • Tihna ei-Gebel 66 • • •
Nabesha 4 • Toshka East 133 •
Nag ei-Hisaia 125 • Tuna ei-Gebel 71 • • •
Naga ei-Deir 99 • • • • • Tura 32 • •
Naga ei-Meshayikh 101 Wanina (Athribis) 97 •
Naga el-Wissa • Zarabi 90 •
Naqada 113 • • • • • Zaweida Ill • •
Nuri 145 •R Zawiyet Barmasha 61 • •
Qasr ei-Sagha 57 • • • Zawiyet Sultan/el- Amwat/el- Maitin) 67 • • • •
Qasr w'ei-Sayed 107 • • Zawiyet ei-Aryan 31 • • •R •
Qau ei-Kebir 93 • • • • • • •
Qift (Koptos) 112 • •
Qubbet ei-Hawa (Aswan) 127 • • • •
Qurnet Murai (Thebes-West) 114 •
Quseir ei-Amarna 78 • • • •

322 THE PRI N Cl PAL CEMETERIES THE PR I N Cl PAL CEM ETE RI ES 323
 Map I The Cemet eries of Egypt (numbers refer to those in the list of principal cemeteries, pp. 320-23).

MAP lA

Med1terroneo n Sea

~ ~'---...=------1
• Jell el{eDlma (Pelusium)
Mi~-~!:pt'Abu O mar 5
BaC.~.~l\i...l)."'-·. , ., ...
~ -Marina ei-Aiamein 12 Kom Firin 14 • ·······-.......
Kom ei-Hisn 15 • -....

S INA l
EI-Qatta 2l·~·-..,
40miles
Kom Ausim 24•
lmbaba 27
Abu Rowash 28 G 29
_____.
.... 50 km

"' Zawiyet ei-Aryan 3 1-3!__ ,~ · r.::;::;:- Turale i-Masara 32/33

~ Abu Sir 34- -·· He lwan 36
Saqqara-N. 37 ~ • M~ _fahina 35
~ Saqqara-S. 38 ~---• Dahshur 39
Mazghuna 41 .:, I}
~- Dahsh ur-S 40

Qasrei-Sagha57 • .·'""'" ........~isht 43o / } oEI-Saff 42 ill

Dakhala Oasis 149 K9 f11,A ush1m 4e • ........\ • ,Kafr f rmar 44
Kom el{l?:~~b~r49 • { ·.~erzeh 45
........... FAYOUM ~ ,J _'i; e,~uin 4;arkhan 46
Kharga Oasis 97 • '-. .. ~ah~~ 5 ?. ' {
Hawa~s~{
"(;'u;ob ss\, 0 Abu Sir e i-Meleq 5 1
~ • Harageh 54
Tell Umm ei-Briegat53 • _....-: Sedment ei-Gebe l 56
Ehnasiya ei -Me~ina 58 •

Deshasha 59 ~./
MAP IB m \ • EI-Hawawish 96
Akhm~ MAP IC
Wanina 97 4 ···:. .
EI-Hagarsa 98 ;;·•.., \ Naga ei-De~r 99
...., ;j / She1kh Farag I00
Raqaqna 102 ~\ 0 · ~••. • N-~~<)..ei-Meshay1kh I0 I
Zawiyet Barmas~,a~ 64
Beit Khallaf 103 • ·; ..,G. ~rge~bls~~~r~'ot.o;,v,
11

·~ EI-Mahasna 104 \ 0 .. ~ed I07

--~ Abydos I05 \ ................................... .......................... 0 ; ·-...ara 109
/ . Awlad e i-Sheikh 62
EI-Bahnasa 64 • see Map 4 Hu-Abad1ya I08 \. •
• -=J<om ei-Ahmar Sawaris 63
Deir ei-Ballas I I0 ~)
• -~-Sheikh Fadl
Zaweida I I I i}
Naqada I I 3 • ':,
}

~Ben 1 Hasan 69
Balansura 68 • -.~. lstabl Antar 70
Ashmur;ein, • ·•.She1kh Abada 72
Sede1nga
Sole b 140 •
0 lOO miles
7' f De~r ei-Bersha 73
Tuna ei-Gebel 7
I 50 km
~- •;Sheikh Said 74
0
,...J• Tell ei-Amarna 75- Map 3
Meir77
. ,, ; , Sheikh Atia 76
-~- Q useir ei-Amarna 78
EI-Qus~y.\'h0
·....... ., . EI-Mae..bda 79
····• Deir E:J_-Gebrawi 80
~Arab ei-Mit eir 83

I I~
EI-Atamna 82 • '· o-{EI-Atawla 84
Asyut 85 • , \!
Matmar 86
De~r
Rlfeh 87 ;\ \ . • Mostagedda 88 I
\ \ ....-- DeirTasa 89
EI-Badari 91 '~ . ·.... EI-Hamamiya 92
Zarabl 90 ;., ?' ~Qau e i-Kebir 93
l-------~-- 40~miles ·"<..•~ "'% · 0 40 miles

SO km 0 50 km
324 MAPS
Qubbet ei-Hawa 127 •' ~ Aswan
 MAP 2c MAP

Map 2 The Memphite Necropolis (for key to numbered tombs, see appropriate cemeteries' entries in the index).

(
r.
..
ABU ROWASH
)

GIZA MAP2A

'i"

SAQQARA-NORTH

.-.,~

G/ZA ~ ~~~~0----------~------ ~ --- -----------

MAP2A
1

~ ( I
I
I

100 200 300 m i 'IWIWt--:)~!Wi~!Q--

I
I
I
I
I
1____ _ _ - - - - - -

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ABUS/R ~
MAP2c

r-L.ff··\
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SAQQARA-NORTH 0·
MAP2o 0 ~. 4

t
so.oom
~----------~
•

MAZGHUNA

326 MA PS MA PS 327
 Map 4 Abydos (le tters denote speCific cemeteries; for individual tombs within them, see Abydos entry in the index) .
Map 3 Tell ei-Amarna (letters refer to the city's Boundary Stelae; for key to numbered tombs, see Tell ei-Amarna entry in the index) .

K L N

----------~5L00~--------~1~000m
NORTH D
CEMETERY
G_
vo~0 Ds
y
0 0 '-'

/i:· \ ·\,I, \ ' \.\ · ,

I ' .
,,I .
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\\\ -~~A G_.. T .:

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\
:\' \
\

,,1 ' HILL ·~

5000 m -~~,.\

0
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t UIF

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i\1. 236

0 1000 m

328 MA PS MAPS 329

 Map 5 The The ban Necropol is
Map SA (for key to numbered tombs, see the Thebon Tombs entry in the index). Inset Map SB.

100m

I. ....
··_,)' QURNA

@ em
\ ,\
~C: tNebwenenef
(,.·
...........
(

J/
fD:AMENHOTEP I &
4 ,/
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. ,., ·•..i

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' AHMES ·
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MAP 58

200m

] ./ ,

\._ - - - - - ·----' i '

~-----='-_
.::._....,_/
'7'-/_ _ _ _ ~.
--~----~~~----~ ~ SOUTH
391 ~~ ASA$/F
t'"* ~ .. vlc14

330 MAPS MAPS 33 1

 Map SC.The Theban Necropolis:Asasif and Sheikh abd ei-Qurna (for key to numbered tombs, see the Theban Tombs entry in the index) .
Map SD The Theban Necropolis: The Val ley of the Kings (for key to numbered tombs, see the Valley of the
Kings entry in the index).

f:
~~ATSHEPSUT
~ ~\ (Valley Temple(
r =·4 ""- ·
GKAi) ~

'* c!:'l:,
SIPTHAH
r-/
?£
,11:

0 100
t 200 300 m

j
)! /
t!
):
lJ..r
r~
332 MAPS MAPS 333
Map SE The Theban Necropolis: Deir ei-Med ina ((or key to numbered tombs, see Theban Tombs and Deir ei-Medina entries in the index).

0t..__ _ _ _ _ _- - J50 m

Map SF The Theban Necropolis:the Val ley of the Queens ((or key to numbered tombs, see the Valley o(the Queens entry in the index) .

oL-_ __________~som

334 MAPS MA P S 335

11
 Abbreviations and Bibliography Pyr. Stud. ). Baines, T.G.H. James, A. Leahy
and A. F. Shore (eds.), Pyramid Studies and
/igyptens. Rainer Stadelmann gewidmet
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UReed C. Eyre, A. Leahy and L.M. Leahy
(eds.), The Unbroken Reed: Studies in the
other essays presented to JE.S. Edwards StudSimp P der Manuelian (ed.), Studies in Culture and Heritage ofAncient Egypt In
(London: EES). Ho nor ofWilliarn Kelly Simpson, 2vv. Honou r ofA. F Shore (London: Egypt
RecChamp Recueil d'Etudes Egyptologiques (Boston: Museum of Fine Am, 1996). Exploration Society, 1994).
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banquet scenes 8, H8, pi. LX
Museu m, objects: CG1337-7 II4;
CGr426 146; CG1430 pl. XIII;
Davis, Theodore (1837-T9r5) 65-66
Day, Book of 262
Earth, Book of rhe 131, 261-62, pl. XXII
Edfu 91, r81, 324-25 , map 1[124]
CGT447 127; CG1556 Ill; CG1572 De Morgan, Jacques (r857-1924) 63-65 Edwards, Amelia (183t- 1892) 65
Baget i (BH-XXIX) 126, 324-25, map 183, r88; CG25r84 37; CG28106 r5; Dead , Book of the u, r6, rS-20, 85, 92, Egypr Exploration Fund (later Society)
1[69] CG5719o 177: )E4872 23; ] Ero978 94, lOO , liO, ll3, I29- 30, 2r9, 225-27, 65- 66, 72
Baqet iii (BH-XV) 126,200, map r[69] 289; jE2730 r pl. Ill; ]E34450 135; 246, 250, 252, 262, 266, 268- 69, Ehnasiya el-Mcdina: see Heraklcopoli.s
Kings' names are capitalized; ordinal 209-10, 212, 223, 225; Idi r83; Iuput A Amenemhat (BH-Il): m Ameny Anu (Sa qqara-South MXV[) 184 Baqlia/Tell el-Zereiki 324-25, map 1[7] ]E39627 66; )E42267 207; ]E4475 5 274- 75, 284, 287; pls V, XXI El-Aramna 324-25, map 1[82]
numbers or letters of other indi viduals 275; Iuu 183; Weni 18o-8 r, r83; Amenemhat (MMA202) r98 Anubis 2, 17, 124, 210 , 227, 228 , 266, Barnugi 324-25, map 1[13] 241; JE44755 241; ] E44924 241; Debhen (LG9o) 24, 142, 156, 176 El-Atawla 324-25, map 1[84]
arc taken from Dodson and Hilron 2004 Osirion (Sery I) 131, 256, 260, 291; Amenemhat (TT 53) nS, 219 268, 269, 284, 300, 301, pi. Ill, XXI Barsanti, Alessandro (r 858-1917) 69 ]£44924 241; ]E46724 193; )E47267 Debeira-East )24-25, map r[r35] El- Badari 324- 25, map r[9r]
and Davies 1999. Shuner el-Zebib (Kh asekhemwy) Amenemhar (TT82) 51, 88, uS, 121, 128, Anubis-Imywet 17 Basa (TT389) 52 191; ]£66262 37; ]E66682 177; Oeduhorankh (Abydos V 40) 268 El-Bahnasa (Oxyrhynchus) 32r25,
'39-40, 142, 149 219, 227-28 Anubis-Khemyseherjer 17 Basra, Mounir 72 ]£98807 288; TRro/n/26/r 229; Degcm Merypepy (Saqqara-Sourh map 1[64]
The location/number of a person's V mm el-Qaab tombs: Broh5/19 Amenemhar (TTr23) nS, 219 Aperd (Saqqa ra 1.2) 73, 222, 232, 241, Bastet 99 TR2rl6i24/r6 241; TR2r/6i24/r6-q NVII) r84 EI -Bersha: Jee Deir el-Bersha
burial place is given in parentheses. (Hor-Aha) 135, 137; 0 (Djer) 65, 135, Amenemhat (TT163) 154 261 Barn el-Baqara/Fustat) 324-2 5, map 241; TR27/3i251I7 241 Dehmir/Betekon 324- 25, map r[128 ] El-Deir )24-25, map 1[120]
Where no site is given, tomb-number 137; P (Peribsen) 135, 139; Q (Qaa) Amenemhat (TT3 54) 124 apiculture 98 1[26] Campbell, Sir Archibald, rst Baron Deirel-Bahari: seeThebes-Wcst Elephantine: see Aswan
prefixes are as follows: 135, 137, 140; T (Den) 135, 137; U Amenemhat-Surero (TT48) 15, 28, 77, Appeal to rhc Living 15, 85, 86 Bay (KVr3) 74, 265-66 Blytheswood (r835-1908) 61 Dei1 el- Ballas 324- 25, map 1[no] Elgin, Thomas Bruce, 7th Earl of
BH = Beni Hasan (Semerkhet) 135, 137; U-j ('Scorp ion' 2J? APRIES : JeeWAHIBRE Bayourni, Abbas (1904- 1983) 72 Carrer, Howard (1874- 1939) 65-66, Deir el-Bersha 44, 66, 69, 129, 199, (1766-1841) 59
DBX.l = Oeir el-Bahari , temple of 1) 134, T35; V (Khasekhemwy) 135; Amenemheb (TT85) 8, 116, 219 , 221 Arab el-Miteir 324-25, map r[83] beds TI3-14 69-70, 74, 131 )24-25, map t [?J]; rombs: 1=R2l El-Hagarsa 74, 100, 160,180, 324-25,
Mentuhotep I! (Thebes-West) X (Anedj ib) 135; Y (Meryetne irh ) 135; Ameneminer (TT277) 252 Armanr 189, 324-25, map 1[115] Beit Khallaf 324- 25, map 1[ro3 J; K1 catrle, depictions of 98, wo, n6 (Djehurynakhte vi) 126; 2=R20 map 1[98]
DC = Deir el-Gebrawi Z(Dje r) 135 AMENEMOPET (NR1~IY) 271-72 Amok!, Dieter 73-7 4 (Nymaathap') 41, 144; K2 144, 148 Caverns, Book of 130- 31, 260, 262, 282, (Djehutyhorep ii & Kay ii) 44, u6; El-Hamamiya 82,127, 180, 324-25, map
EK=El-Kab Adam, Shehata (r917-I986) 72 Amenemoper (TT29 & KV48) 123 Asasif: see Thebes-West Belzoni, Giovanni Battista (1778-r823) pi. XXIV 4=Rr9 (Neheri i) 200; 5=R5 1[92]
G = Giza Adams, Matthew 75 Amenemopet (TTr48) 252 Ashayet (DBXI. 7) 190-91 59-60, 62 Champollion, Jean-Franyois (Ahanakhte i) 200 El-Hawawish roo, 324-25, map 1[96]
Ku = El-Kurru agriculture, scenes of So, 84, 91-92 Amenemoper (TT276) 218 Aswan 37, 42-43, 100,199, 2II Beni Hasan 27, 65-66, 69, 94, n3, n6, (1790-1832) 6r Deir Durunka, tomb of Amenhorep El-Hiba 324-25, map r[6o]
KV = Valley of the Kings Aha (Umrn el-Qaab Bwh5/19): see Amenemwia i (TT 356) n8, 269 Elephantine 45 u9, 186- 87, 192, 198, 324- 25, map Cheops: see Khufu 268 El-ltman ia 321
(Thebes- Wesr) Hor-Aha Amenhirkopshef (QV55) 263, 264 High Dam (Sadd d-Ali) 72 1[69]; tombs: BH-ll (Ameny) 199; Chephren: see Khaffe Deir el-Gebrawi r8o, 324-25, map El-Kab 67, 79, 156, 2r4, 255, )24-25,
LG = Giza Ahanakhte i (Bersha 5=R5) 200 AMEN HOTEP I (Thebes) 209 , 222, Qubbet el-Hawa 324-25, map r[r27]; BH-III (Khnumhotep iii ) II, 88, 126, circumcision II6- 17 r[So]; tomb: DG8 (Ibi) 126 map 1[122]; tombs: EK3 (Pa heri) 52,
LS = Saqqara Ahmes-Nefertiry, Queen 209, 225 , 268 22) , 268 tombs: QH25 (Mekhu) 179, 180; r86, 199, 200, pl. XV Ill; BH-XI ([ ... J) CLEOPATRA VII (Alexandria) 61, 292 Deir el-Medina: seeThebes-Wesr 59· 79, 91, 97, 99; EK5 (Ah mose, son
MH = Medinet Habu (Thebcs- West) Ahmose (T A3) 229 AMENHOTEP I! (KV35) 53, 65, 88, QH26 (Sabni) 8, 90, 176, 179, rSo; 39; BH-Xlll (Khnumhorep ii) 199; Coffin Texts 19, 90, TOO, II7, 129, 194, Deir Rifeh 324-25, map r[87] oflbana) u6; EK7 (Reneni ) 81; EK9
MMA = D eir el-Bahari Ahmose (TTnr) 28 89, 126, 210, 214-20 , 222, 22), 232 QH3r (S iren put ii) 49, 180, 199-200, BH-XIV (Klmumhotep i) 2oo; BH- 206, 207 DEN (Umm el-Qaab T ) 41, 135, 137, 138 (Renseneb) 207; EKro (Sobknakhte)
(Thebes-West) AHMOSE I (A bydos) 209-10, 2r2, 223, AMEN HOTEP Ill (WV22) 9, n , 28, pi. XVII; QH34n (Harkhuf) 8, n6 , XV (Baqet iii) 126, 200; BH-XVll colour, use of 81 Dendara rSo-81, T93, 324-25, map 207
NRT = Tanis 225 48 , )0, 6), 126, 127, 212-q, 217-23, 177; QH36 (S iren put i) 180, 199 (Khery) 68 , 2oo-o t, pl. VI; BH- Coming Forth by Day, Book of see 1[109]; tombs: Jdu 183; lnyo tenqer ii El-Khawalid 321
QH = Qubberei-Hawa (Aswan) AHMOSE li (Sais) 277- 78, 287, 289 226, 228, 232, 242, 262, 324-25, map Asyur 55, 59, 69, 179, 180, 182, )24- 25, XXIIJ (Netjernakh te) 126; BH-XXIX Dead, Book of rhe 193-94; Menankh-Pepy 183; Meni El-Kurru 276, 284- 85, )24- 25, map
QK = Qau el-Kebir Ahmose-sineith (Saqqara) 289 1[n4], pl. XIX map 1[85]; tombs: r (Hapidjefa i) 24; (Baqet i) 126 Copenhagen, Ny Calsberg Art Museum, 180, 181; Mereri 181, 182 1[144]; tombs: Kur5 SHABAKA
QS = Saqqara Ahmose-son-of-Tbana (EK5) n6 AMENHOTEP IV (WV25/TA26): see 2 (Ha pidjefa ii) u6; 3 (Tefibi) r86; Berlin, Egyptian Museum 6o objecrs: JE!Nun 152; JE1NI6r6 188 Denon, Vivant (1747-1825) 284-85;KUI6TANUTAMUN 276,
QV = Valley of the Queens Ake r, Book of 131 AKHENATEN Athanasi, Yanni (1798-r854) 6o Bernard the Wise 57 Cow, Book of Divine 131, 260 Oerry, Douglas (1874-1961) 131 284-85; Kuq Piye 275- 76, 284- 85;
(Thebes-West) akh 16- 17, 129 Amenhotep (Deir Durunka) 268 Athribis: seeTellArrib Bersha: see Deir el-Bersha crocod iles 88 Deshasha 324-25, map 1[59]; romb I KmS SHABATAKA 284- 85
.. = Saqqara AKHENATEN (TA26) 9, 38, 50, 126, Amenhorep (TT 58) 124 Athribis/Wanina: seeWanina Biba~ el-Harim: see Valley of the curses 48, 13 1 (Inti) 179 El-Maabda 32r25 , map r[79]
TA = Tell el-Amarna 222, 223, 229- 33. 245 Am enhorep (TT73?) 28, 85, 99 AUGUSTUS 61 Queens Deshri (Saqqa1a/CG1572) 183, r85 , 188 El-Mahasna 324- 25, map 1[104]
TT = Thebes-West Akhetaa (Saqqara) 153 Amenhotep-Huy (TT40) 126 autobiography 115- 16, 177 Biban el-Mol uk: see Valley of the Kings Dagi (TTw3 ) 192 Djedamuniufankh (Bahariya) 287 El-Masara 42, 324- 25, map r[n]
Akhet-Aten: see Tell ei-Amarna Amenhotep-sise (TT 75) n6 Avaris (Tell el-Daba) 207, 324-25, map birds, hunting of 78, 91 Dahshur IT, r5, )7, 45, 64, 65, 73-74, DJEDEFRE (Abu Rowash L.ll) 158, El-Qantara )24-25, map 1[3]
Abadiya see Hu-Abadiya Akhethotep (Saqqara) 155 Amenhotep-son-of-Hapu (Thebes) 22) , 1[1] Biu/Akhi (Saqqara-So mh NIV) 184 153, 196, 198-99, 206, 324-25, maps r6o El-Qatta 206, )24-25, map 1[22]
Abd el-Latif(n62- 123r) 57 Akhethotep (Ar=S3076) 153 242 Awlad Azzaz, tomb ofSennedjem 74, boat-pits 150 1[39], 2, 2B, pls Ill, XV; tombs: 2 Djedherbes 288 El-Saii 324- 25, map 1[42]
Abu Ghaleb 324-25, map 1[21] Akhctmerurnesut (G2184) 88 Amenirdis I (Medinet Habu) 277-78, 243· 246, 255 boats and boat-building 84, 87, no, pl. (Khnumhotep) 198 , 199 , 205; T7 Djedkhonsiufankh (Bahari ya) 75 El-Salamun~ 321
Abu Qi1 324-25, map r[w] Akhrn im )24-25, map 1[95] 285 Awlad el-Sheikh 324-25, map 1[62] Vll; boatmen, fighting 113 (Sobkemhat) 205; L.XLVII Djedmutebnkh (TTn7) 270 El-Sawamia 321
Abu Rowash 138, 324- 25, map 1[28]; ALEXANDER Ill (the Great) n8, 292. ALV!ENMESSE (KVro) 15, 39 , 61, 77 AY (TA25/WV23) 15, 32, 56, 6o, 74, 77, Bonaparte, Napoleon (1769-1821) 55, 59 (SENWOSRET Ill) 74- 196, 198, Djedmuriusankh (Ramesseum 88) 274 £1-Tarif seeThebes-Wesr
rornbs: El-Dei1 143; L.l (Brick 298, pl. XXVI Amenmose (TTr9) 252 221, 229- 31, 242, 245- 46, 2)2 Borchardr, Ludwig (1863-1938) 69 203-04; L.XLIX (Red Pyramid: Djeho (Abydos G5o) 292 El-Tod 324- 25, map 1[116]
Pyramid: HUN!') 144, r48, 188; L.IT ALEXANDER IV 292 Amenmose (TT42) 15, 77 AYA 207 Boston, 1\1useum of Fine Arts 69 SENEFERU) )2, 149· 151, 158, pi. Djehor (Sa qqara) 69, 292 El-Zawiya 321
(DJEDEFRE) 158, r6o Alexandria 75, 290-92, 298-304, Amenmose (TT7o) 270 Ayrton, Edward (1882-1914) 74 bread 95-96 XV; L.LI (White Pyramid: Djehury (TT45) 124, 252 Emery, Waiter Bryan (1903- 1971) 71-72
Abu Sir 37, 69, 72, nr , 127, 138, 183, 324- 25, map r[u ]; Anfc!Shi 299; Arnenmose (TTr49) 124 brewing & baking 85, 95- 96 AMEN EM HAT 11) 64, 195, 197, Djehuty (TT no) 20 epigraphy 66- 69
282-84, 287, )24- 25, maps 1[34], 2, Gabba1i 303, p l. XXVIII; Kom el- Amenmose (TT251) 5T bil 16 brick, mud- 40- 41; -making no 201- 03; L.lV (Sieset) 197, 198, 203; Djehuryemheb (Tf45) 252 Esna 41, 324- 25, map r[ur]
2C, pl. X.ll; rombs: LXV Ill Shugafa 299-303; Latin Cemetery Amenophis: see Amenho tcp Badawi , Ahmad (r905-I98o) 72 Bristol, City Museum & Art Gallery 6o L.LVI (Bem Py ramid: SENEFERU) Djehuryhotep ii (Bersha 2=R20) 44, n6
(SAHU RE) 10,158, !69, T72; L.XTX 298; Shatby 298- 99; Tigran Tomb Amentefnakhre (Saqqara) 71 Baennenriu (Bahariya) 287, pl. XXVII Bruce, )ames (1730-1794) 58-59 72, 73· '49- 5', I 58, 172, pl. XV; Djehutymose (TT32) 250, 252, 265, Fakh1y, Ahmed (1905- 1973) 72, 75
(Pcahsh epses) T74-75; L.XX 301, 304; Wardian JOI-0 2; Graeco- Amen user (TT131): see User Bahariya Oasis 75, 287, 295, 297, 304, Brugsch, Emile (r842-1930) 62 L.LVITT (Black Pyramid: 269, 297 false-door 16- 17, Jf, 120-21, 152
(NIUSERRE) 158, r69; LXXI Roman Museum, object: 16152 292 Ameny (BH-11) 199, )24- 25, map r[69] 324- 25, map l[r48]; tombs: Baha1iya Brugsch, Heinrich (1827-1894) 62 AMEN EM HAT Ill) 73, 196, Djehutymose (TT342) 219 Farag, Nagib 72
(NE FERIRKARE) T58, !69; LXXVI Alexanian, Nicole 73 AMENY-QEMAU 73, pl. XV Bacnncntiu 287, pi. XXVII; Brunton, Guy (t878-r948) 71 203-04, pl. IV; L.LXYll/1 (HOR) r5, Djehutyn akhre vi (Bersha I=R2r) 126 Firth, Cecil (1878-1931) 71
(NEFEREFRE) 158; lufaa 72-7J, Altenmuller, Harrwig 74 Amer, Mustafa (1896-19 73) 72 Djedamuniufankh 287; Brussels, Museum of Art and History, 65, pi. IV; !pay 242; Khnemet 64; Djehurynefer (TT8o &TTro4) 26 fish & fishing 77, 78, 85, 9o-91, 96- 97
282- 84, 287; Udjahorres net 284 Amada 324-25, map 1[131] Ametju-Ahmose (TT83) 6o Djedkhonsiufankh 75 object: E6857 55 Sieset 198; Sirweret 74; Weret 11 204 DJER (Umm el-Qaab 0) 65, 135-36 fis hing & fowling scenes u, 78, 90-9r,
Abu Sir el-Meleq 324-25, map 1[51]; Amara 324- 25, map 1[139] Ammenemes: see Amenemhat Bakenamun (TTr35) 252 Bruyere, Bernard (r879-1971) 70 Dahshur-Sourh 324-25, map 1[40] Djeserkeresonbe (TT38) 126, 219 2ll, 246, pi. 11
rornb: He1yshefnakhte and Ukhhotep Arnarna: see Tell el-Amarna Ammit 19 Bakenkhonsu (TT35) 128, 252 Bubastis (Tell Basta) 41, 71, r82 , 268, Dakhla Oasis 75, 295- 96, 324-25, map DJET (Umm cl-Qaab Z) 135 , r38 Flauberr, Gusrave (1821-188o) 61
206,207 Amduat, Book of 130, 222, 224, 228, Amun(-Re) 28, 2TO-JT, 220, 248 Bakenrenef (LS24) 282, 283, 284, 286, 324-25, map I[r7]; tombs: Hori ii 1[149]; BalanSr; mastaba Ill DJ OS ER (Saqqara LXXXII) 27-28 , 56, food production & preparation scenes
Abydos r7, 26, 6r, 63, 86, 180, 183, 198, 245- 46, 262, 274, 284, pl. XX Anedjib (V. el-Qaab X) 135 291 268; Hori iii 41, 71, 268 (Khentika) 182, 183 69, 124, 136, 138, 142-47, 196, 3Tl 78, 85, 91-99. 252
206, 256, 268, 273; Voyage to 83, Arnelineau, Emile (1850- 1915) 65 Aniba 324- 25, map r[ r32] Bakerwernel (KVw) 61 Buhen 324-25, map 1[136] damnatio mernoriae 77 n.162 , pis X.ll, XJV Fran.;ois, Charles 57
122- 2), 227, 2)2, 255· 266, 269; AL\1ENEMHAT I (Lishr L.LX) 194, Ankhenespepy IV (Sa qqara-Sourh) r82 Baki (TTr8) 99 Burton, James (r788-1862) 6o-61 dancing, scenes of 78 Ora Abu'l-Naga: seeThebes-West Fraser Tombs: seeTihna cl-Gebcl
rombs: v 40 (Deduhorankh) 268; 196,201-02 Ankhho1 (TT414) 52, 279 Baki i (TT 298) 268 butchery So, 85, 96 Dara rSS, 324-25, map 1[8r] Dreyer, Giintber 74 friezes 84, 98, 124, 126, 182, 200, 202,
Dr5 (Nakht) 282; D22 (Pasebkhanut AMENEMHAT ll (Dahshur L.LI) Arrkhmahor (Saq qara) 116-17, 185 baking: see brewing & baking Buto (Tell Farain) 96, 209, )24-25, map DARIUS I 287 Drioton, .Etienne (r889-1961) 72 206, 264; see also kheker-frieze
A) 270, 272; D57 (Nespamedu) 282, 64- 65, 195· 197· 201, 203 Ankhmare (G7837+7843) 127 Baklia: see Tell el-Zereiki r[S]; burial 123, 252 Davies Nina (1881- 1965) 66- 67 Drovetri, Bernardino (r776- r852) 59 foreigners, scenes of n6
285- 86; G5o (Djeho) 292; G57 AMENEMHAT Ill (Dahshu r Ankhnebe f (Saqqara-Sourh NX) 184 Balabish 32r25, map r[ro6] Davies, Norman de Ga ris (r865-1941) Du Camp, Maxime (r822-1894) 6r fruit 94
(Irethoriru & orhers) 289, 292; Gwo L.LVliJ/Hawara L.LXVII) 73, 196, Ankhrin (Moalla) 186, 324-25, map Balansura 324-25, map r[68] Caillaud, Frederic (1878-1869) 6o 66 ducks, depictions of 90, 98, roo funerary cones 216- q
(Mi nmose) 268; AHMOSE I 200, 203-04, 206, pl. XV 1[116] Balat: see Dakhla Oasis Cairo, Bab el-Futuh 151; Egyptian Davies, Vivian 67 Dwawyneheh (TT125) 88, 219 funerary rituals, scenes of 84, 122-23;

360 INDEX I NDEX 36 1

 see also Opening-of-the-Mouth (Senenu); Gr6SS (Merekankh); (Nisurnefer) 52; G5 150 (Ses hat herep H arkhu f(QH J4n) 8, u6, I77, 324-25,
r hunting, scenes of 78, 86-90, 98-99 Juu (Abydos) 183 Khnumhotep (Dahshur 2) 19S, 199, 205 Marierre, Augusre (rS2I-rS8r) 61-62
furniture- mak ing, scenes of u1- 14 Cemeteries 2000-2500: Gzooo ([ ..]); Heti) 52; Cemetery G6ooo: G6or o map r[127] Hussein, Abdelsalam (d. 1949) 72 lymery (Gebel ei-Teir) 156 Khnumhorep (Saqqara) 72, S4, 95, 113 Marina el-Aiamein JO, 75, 29S , JOJ,
Gzoo r (Tjetu [i1 Kanisut); G20o2 (Nefe rbauptah) 173: G6o rz HARSIESE (M H r) 275, 276 Huy (S2735) z32 Khnumhotep i (BH-XIV) 199 )z4-25, map I[rz]
games, scenes of 78, u1- 12 (Iteti); G2003 (Kahep); G2004 (Nikausokar); G6o2o (lyme ry) 173; H arwa (TT37) 52, 58, 83, 279 Huy (TTr4) rz4 Jenni , H ann a 74 Khnumhorep iii (BH-IIJ) u, SS, 126, Martin, Geoffrey T. 66,74
gardens, scenes of 8o, 92-94 (Ptahkhenui); G20o6 (S hepsesetkau); G6o3o (Jri) 173: G6o4o Hassan, Selim (1886-1961) 69 , 75 Huy (TT 40) : seeAmenhotep-Huy Jequier, Gustave (r868-J946) 71 r86, 199 , 200; pi. XVIII Ma ru Bebi (Saqqara) rS4
Gardine r, Sir AJa n (rS79-1963) 66 G2007 (Tjenri); G2032 (Senenu); (Shepseskafankh ); G6o42 (Seneb); H arhor 17, 28, 94, 99, JI?, 120, 128, IJ I, Huy iv (TT339) z69 jewelry-producrio n 109- 10 Khokha: see Thebes-West Mas pero, Gas ton (!846-1916) 62-63,
Garstang, John (1S76-19 56) 69 G2033 (Irenre); G2035 (Wehaisu); Cemetery G7ooo: G7oooX 190, 210, 220, 227, 228, 253, z68, 269 Huya (TAr ) 229, 232 Junker, Hermann (1877-196z) 69 Khonsu (god) zro 65- 66, 69
Gates, Book of IJO, 246, 262, 265-66, GzoJ6 (Khesefi); G2o8S (Kakh enr); (Hetep heres I) 11 , 70; G7050 Hatiay (TT324) 252, 253 Hyksos zo7, zo9 Khonsu (TT31) IZ7 Matariya (Heliopolis) 324- 25 , map 1[251
z6S-69 Gzo8S (Pehenpcah); Gzo89 (Nefretkau); G7o6o (Nefermaat); Harnub 44 ka r6, 127, 176-77, 245, pi. Ill Khonsumose (T Tjo) 127 1\!Iath ieson, lan 72
gazelle, depictions of SS, 9S, 100 (Neferked); G2091 (Kapi); G7070 (Se neferukhaf); G7101 (Qar); HATSHEPSUT (KVzo) z8, 61, 65, 85, Iarri (Saqqara) 185 Kaemankh (G4561) rS2, r8J, 194 Khubawy (Saqqara) I85 Matmar 71, 324-25, map r[S61
Geb 17, z6o Gzo92+2093 (Za-ib); G2o9za G7I02 (Idu) 127, 156, I76, I77: 210-12, 214, 216, 221-26, 275 laru, Fields of IJ, 15, 17-18, 85, u S, zz8, Kafr Am mar J24-z), map I[441 KHUFU (L.IV) zJ, 149-51, 153-54, I 59, May (TAI4) zJO
Gebel Barkal/Napa ta 324-25, map (Nimaatre Tut); G2093 ([ ... ]) 40; G7110+?IZO (H etepheres 11); Hary (TTr 5r) Iz4 250, 262, z6S-9, 274, pi. V Kagemeni (Saqqara LS10) 48, 65, 77, 29I May (TT33S) 69
1[14Jl G2098 (Neferkhuwi); G2099 G7II0+7120 (Kawab) 154; Hawara 56, 63, 72, 198, 206, 297, lbi (DGS) 126 100, r8o, 181-84 Khunes (Zawiyet Sultan z) !79 Maya (LS27) 72, 99, 242, 243, 245
G ebel ei-Teirei-Bahari 324-25, map (Raramu); Gzroo (Sed it); Gz100+I G7130+7140 (Khufukhaf [i]); G7133 324-25, map 1[5o1; tombs: LLXVII lbi (TT36) 5z, 2zo, z79 Kaha (Saqqara) 178, rS4, 197 Khunes (QH34) )z4-25, map 1[1271 Maya (Saqqara l. zo) 73, 242
I[65]; tomb oflymery I 56 (Merib Kapunisut); GziOO+ll (Mi nankh); G7150 (Khufukhaf [ii]); (AMENEM HAT lll) 196, 19S, ldi (Abydos) 183 Kahun 53-54 Kohl er, C hristiana 71 Mazghuna 324-25, map 1[411
Gebel Sheikh el-Haridi rSo, 324-25, (Ne nsedjerkai [i]) ; GziiJ (Tjenri); G7152 (Sekh emankhptah); 20)-D); Nefer uprah 7z Idu (Dendara) 183 Kakerenptah (G772 1) 127, 156 Kom Abu Billo 324-25, map 1[20] Medinet H abu: see Thebes-West
map I [94] G2 rzo (Seshatsekh enriu); G2r30 G7210+7220 (Ho rdj edef) IJ; G 72JI H awass, Zah i 43, 75, 291 Idu (G7roz) 127, 156, 176, I77 Kamal , Ahmed (r8ji- 192J) 69 Kom Ausim (Letopolis) )24-z), map Mehytenweskhet C z78, 285
Gebelein 69, 96, 324-25, map I[119]; (Kh enrka); G2132 (Senwehem); (Kaemankh); G7249 (Menib); Hay vii (TTz67) 269 Id ut (Saqqara) rS4 Kama (ma) (Leontopolis) Z75 I[24] Meidum 43, 45, 158, 324- 25, map 1[47];
tomb oflti 96 G2136 (Kahif); G2155 (Kaninisut [i]) G 7JID+7J20 (Bauefre); G 7333' Hay, Roberr (r799-r863) 6o-6r Ihy (Saqqara) 197, zoz, 206 Kanawari , Nagu ib 74 Ko m ei-Ahmar Sawa ri s 324-25, map tombs: 6 (Rahotep A) 152, 158, pi.
geese, depictions of 53, 9S 52; G2156 (Kaninisut [ii]) ; G2156' (Tjetju); G7350' (Hetepheres 11); Helffrich, Johannes (A. I570s) 57 lmbaba 324-25, map r[271 Kan efer (Saqqara) 292 I [6J1 XVI; 16 (Nefermaat A) Ij1-)2, I)),
Gehsa 324-25, map 1[961 (Recl ines); Gz1 75 (Khnumnefer); G 7391 (lteti); G7410+7420 Heliopolis z6, 123, r8z, z87; see aLro Tell lmhotep (SJ518') 27, 28, 142, 145-46, Kaninisut i (G2155) 52 Kom ei-Hisn ) z4-25, map I[15] Ij8; 17 ([ ... ]) 37· IjS; LLXV
Gemeni (Saqqara) rSS G2178 (Khui); Gzi84 (Meresankh 11); G7411 Hi sn 148 Karabasaken (TT39 1) 279 Kom ei-Kharaba ei-Kebir (Philadelphia) (SENEFERU) 43,148- 49,151,157,
Gerzeh 324-25, map 1[451 (AJkhmer urn es ut) SS; Gzr85 (Kaemtjenenet); G74I3 Helwan 41, 71, IJ8, 141, Jz4-z), map lmiseba (TT65) !24, I27, Z5) Karakh amun (T TzzJ) 279 324-25, map 1[491 1)8
Giza 23-25, 27, 41-42, 56-59, 63, 69, 75, (Nefersehefen); G2I9I (Khnemu); (Niankhkhufu); G 7430+7440 I[J61 lnemhes (Saqqara) 292 Karanis/ Kom Ush im 297 Kom el-Shugafa: see Al exandria Meir wo, I8o, 324-25, map 1[77];
97, 127-2S, IJI, I)J-54• 156, 2Sz-SJ, Gzi92 (lnenka); G2 I96 (Iasen); (Minkhaf); G7432 (Qar); G 7509 Heneni (Saqqara-South M IV) 184 lneni (TTSr) 8, 116, 215, zr9 Karnak 43, 220, pi. I Kom Firin 324-z5, map I[I4] to mbs: Az (Pepyankh-Henikem) 12l ;
zS7, 29I, 324-25, maps 1[29], 2, zA; Gzi97 (Penmeru) z4; G2240 (Meresankh lsi); G7510 (Ankhhaf); Henenu (TTJrJ) 194 lnherkh au ii (TT359) 16, z66, 269 Kasa i (T T roB) z69 Kom Ombo J24-z), map r[rz61 A3 (U khhorep-son-of-lam) 206; A4
tombs (map zA): LIV (Great (Nefe rmesdjerkhufu); G2335 (Shepsi); G75 12 (Maakh eru); G7521 Henttawy (MMA59) 273 lnpy (Lahun 620) I97-9S, 205 Kawab (G71I 0+7I20) ' 54 Kom Ushim: see Karanis (Hepi-kem) rS2, IS); B1 (Senbi ) 89,
Pyramid: KHUFU) 7, Jz, 37, 45, 72, Gz336 (Khuwipta h); G2337X (Djati); (Nih erepptah Hepy); G7524 Henttawy C (MMA6o) z70, z73 Inri (Deshasha I) 179 Kemsir (TT3o8) 194 Koshtemna 324-25, map r[rz91 zoo; Bz (Uk11hotep-son-of-Senbi )
'49-)1, I)J, 159· 291; LVlll/Gll Gz36o (Se kh emka); G2361 (Maa); (Horemakhet); G7530+7540 Henurmire (QV75) 275 INYOTE F I (El-Tarif Saff Dawaba) KHABA (Zawiyet ei-Arya n LXIV) 148 zoo; B4 (Ukhhorep-son-of-
(Second Pyram id: KHAFRE) 60, Gz362 (Rudj); G2370 (Se nedjemib- (Metesankh lll) !2), uS, I54, 156, Hepi-kem (Meir A4) r8z, 183 186-87 Kh a (TTS) 11 , 24, 69, 96, 218, 228 Lahun 4I- 42, 53-54, I9S, 324-z5, map Ukhhorep & Mersy) 200; C r
144, 151, 153, IjS, 291; LIX (Third lnri) 174; G2374 (Khnumenti) 174; 160, r8z, r8J; G7550 (Duae nhor); Heqamaattenakh re-Turo (TT 222) 11, INYOTEF li (El-TarifSaff ei-Qisasiya) Khabaukhnum Biu (Saqqara-Sourh r[52]; tombs 620 (Jn py) !97-98, zo5; (Ukhhotep-son-of-Ukhhorep &
Pyramid: MEN KAURE) 32, 43, 6r, G2375 (Akhetmehu); G2375a G 7631 (Ninefer); G7632 (lmhorep); 2)2 99· 187 MXIV) rS4 L LXVI (SENWOSRET 11 ) 41-4z, Heny) 126; Dz (Pepyankh-heryib-
151, 153, 15S, r6o; L.V/Gia (A nkhirptah ); Gz37S (Senedj emib- G 765o (Me retites); G766o Heqa reshu (TTzz6) zzr INYOTEF Ill (El-TarifSaff ei-Bagar) Kh abausoka r (SJ07J) 145, 146, 151 ' 95. 197> ZOJ Neferka) rSJ
(Hetepheres I') 37, I)O; LXII/G llla, Mehi) 174; G23S 1 (Kaemsekhem); G769o (Iui); G77ro Heqereneheh (TT 64) 221 I86-S7 Khabekhnet i (TT z) 266, z68 La uer, Jea n-Philippe (I902-200I) 72 Mekerre (TTzSo) 191, I9J
LXI/G lllb & LX/Gillc I6o; LG 53 (Merptahankhmeryre Nekhebu); (I by); G7711 (Khnumdjedef); G7721 Herakleopolis (Ehnasiya el-Medina) I87, INYOTEF V (Ora Ab u'I-Naga) 208 Kh aemhar (TT 57) 91, 2I9, 2zr leatherworking, scenes of no, 112 Mekhu (QH25) 176, 179, rSo
(Seshem nefer iv) I24, rS 2, rSJ; LGSr G23S1 (Merptahankhmetyre (Kaketenprah ) !27, 156; G7750 324- 25, map r[5S1 INYOTEF VI (Ora Abu'l-Naga) zo8 Khaemopet (TT105) 255 Lehner, Mark 75 Memnon , Colossi of: see Thebes-West
([... ]) zS J; LGS4 (Pakap Ptahshepses lmpy); Gz38J (Horbaef); G7757A (Kheperre) 2S7, Her mopolis: seeAshmunein lnyotef (TT155) 51, 99,219 Khaemopet (TTz72) 124 Leiden University 72 Memphis/Mir Rahina )8, 72, I42, 275,
Wehebreemakhet) 61, 2S7, 296; (Merptahankh+m eryre Ptahshepses 29 1, 296; G776o (M indjedef); G7809 Hetodo rus )2, 65, 277, 289 lnyotef (TTr64) SS, ZI9 Khaemteri i (TTz2o) 266, z69 Le id en, Nat iona l Muse um of 276, 324-z5, map r[J51 : tombs:
LG9o (Debhen) 24, 127, 14z, 156, lmpy); GzJS r (Sabuptah Ibebi); (Reti); G7S10 (Djary); G7814 Herys hefnakhte (Abu Sir el-Meleq) lnyoref (TT386) Z79 Khaemwaset C 56 Antiquities 72; objects: AM T.1 -35 Shos henq D 275, 276; Tjaisetenimu
176; LG10o (Khentkaues I) )2, I 56; G23S3 (Wetkauba l ku); G2391 (Kaaper); G7815 (Hapennebti ); 206,207 lnyorefiqer (TT6o/Lisht 400) 52, 56, Khaemwaset (TT26I) 120 zJ2; H.III. CCCC z44 z89
T 145 , 148; Ceme£eri es G 1000- 16oo: (Irenakhet lri); G2392 (Redienka); G782o (Nefrerkau); G 782I Hesyre (S2405) 61, 144-46, 148, I)I, pi. 86, 126, 198, 200 KHAFRE (G iza LVIII) 42, 6o, I44, 151, Leonto polis (Tell Moqdam) 275, Menankh-Pepy (Dendara) IS )
GwoS (S hepseskafankh); Grou G2415 (Weri); Gz421 (Minnefer); (Neferseshemptah); G 7822 (Mes u); XIII lnyorefiqer ii (Dendara) I9J-94 I)J, 156, 15S, r6o, 291 324-25, map r[r6] Mendes (Tell Ruba) rS2, 324-z5, map
(Sedj em u); Gwn (Sedaug); G1020 G2421 (M in nefer); G2423 (Mehu); G7824 (Seneb+redisu); G7836 Hetep (Saqqara) 197, 202, 206 !pay (Dahshur) z4z Khaled, Lotfi 74 Lepsius, Karl Richard (r8ro-I884) 6I r[6]; tomb ofNaefarud I 75, z89, z91
(Messa); Groz6 (Ma); G roz9 Gz424+2425 (Nekhui); G2430 (Nebtyherka us); G7S37+7843 hetep-di-nesu 21-zz, 84-86, 128 Ipi (SQ75) zo6 Kharga Oasis 75, z95, z98 . JOJ-04, Lisht 70-71, 196, 324-25, map 1[431: Menena (TT69) )I, 52, II ), z19 , 222
(Sekhemka); GIOJ2 (Hetepib); G1033 (Niherepptah); G2435 (Nyna); (An khm are) 127; G7S48 (Tefu); Hetepheres l (G7oooX) u , 70 !pi (Saqqara-South) u4 )z4-25, map 1[150] tombs: 37z (Rehudj ersen) 196; 378 Men i (Dendara) ISO, rSI
(Nikaure); Gro36 (Seneb); Gz46r ' (Mesi); G2467 (Seneb); G78 51 (Wetmeru ); G7901 Hierakonpolis IJJ-)4, 324-z), map lpiy (Riqqa Fzor) z46 KHASEKHEMWY (Umm el-Qaab V) wz; 400 (Jn yorefiqer) 196; 493 zoz; Menib (G7249) 52
GIOJ?+Annex (Mesdjer); G2473 (Sekhenriuka); G2475 (Nefret+ hetep); G7943 (lufi); G7946 I[1zJ]; tombs: 23 IJ4; 100 65, 86, 133 lpuia (S2730) 24I 1)), 1)9-42, I49 LLX (AMEN EM HAT I) 194> 201; MENKAUHOR (Saqqara LXXIX) r5S
G1040+1041 (Te ti); G1047 (Senankhwer); Cemetery G4ooo: (Nefu); G794S (Kh afreankh) hippopotami S7-8S, 9S, 172, 219, 246 lpuky (TTrSr) 126 Khawy ii (TTzi4) 269 LLXI (S ENWOSRET I) 71, 194-96, MENKAURE (Giza L.IX) 24, Jz, 43,
(Niankhmin); G u o7 (Nefer) ; Gnu G4000 (Hemiunu); G4121 Goneim, Zakaria (1911- 1959) 72 HOR (Dahs hur L LXVIIII) I), 65, pi. !put II (Saqqara-Sourh) I?I, I8z Khedebneithirbinet 11 6I, z92 201-02; Masraba du Nord 202; I)I, 154, 156, r5S, r6o
(Tjenri ); GIIzJ (Tebash); G1151 (Ankhmare); G4140 (Meretites); Graefe, Erhard 63 IV lpuy (TTzr 7) 92, 120, 253 khekher-frieze 50, 124-26, 142 Menruhotep I97: Seherepibre-ankh Menkheperresonbe (TT86 & TTr12)
(Neferked); G u 56 (Ptahhetep); G4150 (Iunu); G4240 Greaves, John (1602-1652) 57 HOR-AHA (Umm ei-Qaab Bwii5/r9) lrahor (LSzJ) z86, 287 KHENDJER (Saqqara-South L XLIV) 196; Senwosret 19 7 ; Senwosrer-ankh z6, )I, 99, nS, Izo
Gu62+1172 (Teti); Gn71 (Se neferuseneb); G424J (Rahetep); Grebaut, Eugere (1S46-1915) 63 I)), IJ7 lnuharerau (Abydos G57) 2S9, 292 196- 97, 2oz-o), zo6 Men tu , Pries ts of (Deir el-Bahari) 61
7'
(Kaemtjen enet); G1201 G4311 (Neferhetenptah); G44II Green, Frederick (I869- I949) 64 Hordjedef (G7210+72zo) 13 lrukaptah-Khenu So, 156 Khenrika (Balat Ill) I82-SJ London , British Museum , objects: EAw Menruemhat (TT34) 9, 52, 128 , 261,
(Wepemnefret); G1203 (Kanefer); (Sekhemka); G446 1 (Kap up tah); Griflith , Francis Ll. (1S62- 1934) 66 HOREMH EB (KV57) z6, 46-49, lrynefer (TTz9o) z68, 269 Khenrika- lkhekhi (Saqqara) 131, 185 z9o; EAzJ 57; EA478 zo8; EA9901 279, 284-S5, pi. XXV
Gno4 (AJkhetherep); Gr 205 G4513 (Neferi hy); G4520 Gurob 324- 25, map 1[551 55-)6, 72, 1)0, 22), 242, 24), z6z ISESl (Saqqara LXXXVII) 72, r58, Kh enrkaues I (LGroo) )2, 156 18; EA1J97 190; EAJ275I IJ4; Menruhirkopshef (TTzo) 123
(Khufunakht); G12o6 (Ikherneb); (Khufuankh); G4522 (Kap); G4561 Horemheb (TT78) 99, 124, zz r 169-70, 174 Khenrysehnetjer: see An ubis EA379S3 96; ; EA37984 8; EA37986 MENTUHOTEP Il (DBXI.I4) I89-91,
G rzo7 (Nefer); G r2oS (Akhethetep); (Kaeman kh) 182, 183; G46n (Niury); Habachi , Lab ib (1906-1984) 71 Hori ii (Bubastis) 268 lsetirdis (Saqqara) z92 Kh enuka (Tihna 14) 176 pi. IX 194, zu, z6S
G1214 (Katjesu); Grzzr (S had); G1223 G46I) (Nefetih y); G462o (Ka nefer); H ADRIAN 297 Hori iii (Bubasris) 41 , 7I, 268 Isis (goddess) 17-I8 , 120, 224, 260, 266, Khenut (Saqqara) 177, 179 Lorer, Victor (I859- 1946) 65 MENTUHOTEP Ill (TTz8I?) I89,
(Kaemah); G1225 (Nefretiabet); G4630 (Medun efer); G4631 Haishetef (Saqqara) 206 Horkhebir (Saqqara) z86 Z?0- 71, 268-69, JO I-02, pi. lll, XX Kheperre (G7757) 287, z96 Lucas, Paul (r664-1737) 58 I91-92
Gr233 (Ankh +haf); Gr234 (Ne nsedj erka i); G4646 (Try); G4650 Hamilton, William (1777-1859) 59 Horns 17, 88, IIJ, 117-IS, 270, 269, lsisA 224 Kh eruef (TTr 9z) z8, nJ, n9, 2I7, 219, Luxor 58, zi2, pi. I MENTUHOTEP IV 192
(Ankh+haf); G1235 (lni); GIJOI (Iabtet); G4651 (Kapunisut Kai); H ap idjefa i (Asyur I) z4, 324-25, map JO I-0) Iskander, Zaki (r9r6- 1979) 72 221, 228, 2}0, 279 Menruhotep (Lisht) 197
(Mernisut); G1304 (Tefnen); GIJ09 G4710 (Setju); G4712 (Nimaathap); I[85l Horus, Four so ns of 17-1 8, 120, 269, 301 lstabl An tar 324-25, map I[?o] Khery (BH-XVII) pi. V Maadi 324-z5, map r[Jo1 Menruiywy (TT172) 120
(Werka); GrJ IJ (Iydjefa); G IJI4 G4714 (Neferhetepes); G4750 (A khi ); Hap idjefa ii (Asyut z) 116, 324-25, map HOTEPSEKH EMWY (Saqqara) 69, Iter (Meidum I6) 152 Kh ery (TT311) 19z, 194 maat(concepr) IJ, 17, 77, SS, 90-91, 96, Menrusebaef (Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna)
(Khakare); GrJ51 (Shenu); G1 402 G476I (Nefer [i]); G4811 +4S1z r[851 I)S- 41 lteti-Ankh itis (Saqqara D63) 177 Khn emer (Dahshur) 64 112,1 74 6I , Z79
(Sabu); G1452+1453 (Djedwa); (Irankhptah); G484o (Wenshet); Hapu (TT 66) 12S Hu-Abadiya 324-25, map 1[108] lri (Gebelein) 96 Khn emu (Saqqara-South Oil) 1S5 Maat (goddess) 12, I20, z6o, z69, 284 MERENPTAH (KVS ) 129, z4S, 260
G1452+I453 (Kaninisut); G T457 G486I (Nefer); G4911 (Ankh tef); H apymen (BM EA23) 56, 57 Hunefer 18 lti (G6o3o) 173 Khnum 16-17 Mahu (Saqqara) 52 Mereri (De nd ara) 181, rSz
(Nisurnefret); Gr46I (Nefer); G1501 G4920 (Tjenri); G4940 (Ses hemnefer Harageh 324-25, map 1[54] H UN! (Abu Rowash L.l) 144, 148, 311 Iufaa (Abu Sir) 72, 73, zSz-84, 287 Khnum em heb (TTz6) 12S Maihirpri (KV36) 65, 2z5 Mereri (Saqqara) 1S5
(lrankhptah); G1607 (!an); G r6oS [i]); G4941 (Pta hiufni); G4970 Harhotep (TT) I4) ' 94 n.r69 Iupur A (Abydos) 275 Khnum enri (G2374) 174-75 Ma n ni che, Lise 75, 124 Mereruka (Saqqara) 43, 48, 65, 78, SJ,

362 INDEX INDEX 363

 ro9, II9, nr, 126, r27, 176, r8 r, 183, Nakhtefm ur (Ram esse um 88) 274 Nespa nefe rho r (TT68) 270 Pashedu vii (TT323) 266, 268 Pyay (TT263) 128 Remenuka {G iza) 24 (Khnumborep); )4=029 (Rawer); 151, pi. XI II ; S2427 (Sehetepu); S2466
185, pi. X NAKHTH ORHEB (NECTANEBO Nes paqash uti (TTJ I2) 49, 283 Pashedu x (TT) & TT326) 266, 269, Pyramid Texts u , 19 , 62, 8s, 11 8, 129 , RENEB (Saqqara?) 139, 141 35=C2o (Kai); )6=C8 (Kaaper ); (Meryer m in); S2730 (lp uia) 241;
Meresa nkh [[! (G7530+7540) 123, 128 , 11) 290-92 Netj ernakhte (B H -XXlll) 126 pi. XXJ 175· 202-03, 206-07, 227-28, 277, Renen i (E K7) 81 37=EI, 2 (Sabu lbebi); 38= H 3 S3035 (H emaka); S3043 140; SJ07J
'54· 156, !60, !82 NAKH TNEBEF (N ECTANEBO I) Netjernefer (CG1447) 127 Pashedu xv (TT339) 269 287 Renseneb (E K9) 207 (Ptahs hepses ii); 39=C16 (Sabu); (Khabausokar) 145, 146, 151;
Merka (S3505) !)6, 140 289, 291 Netj erwymose (Saqqara l.1 6) 128 Passalacqua, G iuse ppe (1797-1865) 6o pyramid ion 207, 208 Ren utet 120, 269 40=C5 (Ran efer); 41=C6, 7 A1=S]o76 (Akhethotep) 153: S3o78
Meroe 276, 324-25, map 1[146] Naqada 65, 136,324-25, map 1[113] New York, Metropolitan M useum of Art Pay (O ei r ei-Medina) 51 Reqaqn a, romb R70 145 (Pta hh otep-Oes her); 42 (Ptahhotep); 153; Sm7 ('): S35oo 41: S3503 136:
Me rsa Matr uh 324-25, map 1[1 4] Na uny (TT 358) 273 70-71, 74: objecrs: 13.18J.3 174: Pebos (Oei r ei-Med ina C3) 297 QAA (U mm ei-Qaab Q) 135-37, 140 Rhind , Al exander Henry (1833-1863) 61 43 =C17 (lnri); 44=C23 (Sabu-kem); S3504 (Sekhemkasedj ?) 138; S3505
Me retseger (TT219) l i l Naville, Edouard (1844-1926) 65 )6.).252 51: 60.144 139 Peda menop« (TTn) 56, 57, 58, 128, IJ I, Qaha i (TTj6o) 266, 269 Rhind Mathema ti cal Papyrus 37 45=C21 (Kay); 46=0 29 (Senedj em ib); (Merka) 136, qo; S3507 (H erneith'):
Meru (S heikh Sa id 5) 179, 182, 183 Nebamu n (TT24) 91 Newberry, Percy (t868-1949) 66-69 279· 282, 284 Qasr ei-Sagha 324-25, map 1[57] Rlqqa 206; tombs A191 (Se nm eri) 206, 47=£3 (Sabu Tjery); 48=C1/ H 14) S3509 (Hetepka); SJ51o (Kain ebef);
Meru (Tell H isn) 182, 183 Nebamu n (TT65) 124, 127, 253 N ia nkhba (Saqqa ra) 185 Pedi horres net (T T196) 279, 284 Qasr w'ei-Sayed 179, 181, 324-25, map 207; A3o6 ([ ... ]) 206; Fzm (fpiy) (Ptahshepses); 49=C10 (Ptahshepses); S3511 (Kaihap); SJ5I3 (I rise n); S3514
Me ru (TT240) 194 Nebamun (TT9o) 126 N iankh kJl!lum (Saqqara) 72, 84, 95, 113 Pedineith (LS24) 291 1[107]; tom b 2 (Tjau ti) 179 246: F202 ([ ... ]) 246 50=C9 (Ptahshepses); 51=C22 (Kh ertn ef); 5)518 (lm hotep?) 27, 28 ,
Mery (TT95) 52 Nebamu n (TT 179) 51 Niankhpepy (Zawiyet Sul tan 14) 179 Ped ineirh (TT197) 279 Qau ei-Kebir 41, 69, 200, 324-25, map Ri2eiqar 324-25, map 1[117]; tomb of (Rem eryp tah); 52= 026 (lnyankh); 142, 145-46, 148; STo (Neferrenpet)
Meryet (TT8) n Nebamu n (TTI8I) 126 N icholson, Paul 72 Pedubast (G i2a) 282 1[93]; tombs: QK7 (Wahka i) 200; Sobkmose 268 53=027 (Ankhmaar); 54=C19 242, pi. XI I; ST 5 (Tasihuy) 242; un-
Meryetamun (TT358) 209, 225, 273 Neba mun (TTE2) 8, 91, pi. IX Night, Book of the 261 Peftjaukhonsu (Saqqara) 292 QKIS (Wahka ii ) 206 Ro ma-Roy (TT283) 252 (Sek hemka); 55=025 (Ojefau); numbered: AJ1mose-s ineith 289;
Meryetneith (Umm ei-Qaab Y) 135, 136 Nebenke met (TT256) 120 N ihebsed (Saqqara-Sourh MXfll) 184 Pen bu y (TT10) 128, 253, 269 Qen (TT337) 270 Rom er, John 74 56=024 (N imaatpra h); 57= 0 23 Akhe taa 153: AkJJer hotep 155;
Meryetre (KV42) 224 Nebe nm aat ii (TT219) 111 , 266, 269 N ihetepkhnum (G i2a) 173 Penesuttawi (TT1 56) 128, 265, 268 Qenamun (TT93) 51, 126, 216, 221, 226 rope-making, scenes of 78, uo-u (Kaemn eferet); 58=£6 (Seneferu nefer Amenre fn akhre 71; Ankh mahor
Meryhor (Wa nina) 297 Nebes ha 41, 324-25, map 1[4] N ikaan kh (Tihna 13) 156, 157, 176 Penm eru (G2197) 24 Qift (Koptos) 324-25, map 1[m ] Rosellini , lppoli ro (18oo-I843) 61 I); 59=£7 (Se neferunefer ii); 6o=022 u 6-q, 185: Ojehor 69, 292; Gemeni
MERYKARE (Saqqara) 188; Instru ctio n Ne ber (Saqqara-So urh ) 177, 179 N INETJER (Saqqara) 71, IJS, 139, 140, Penu (Saqqara-Sourh MVI I) 184 Qubber ei- Hawa: see Aswan Roy (TT255) 2, 252, 253 (Ti) 9, 52, 87; 61=021 188; H ais heref 206; H erep 197, 202,
to 55 Ne bnefer (TT6B) 268 141 PEPY I (Saqqara-So uth L XXXVI) 37, Qui bel l, Jam es (1867-1935) 65, 69, 71 Ruaben (S2302) 140, 176 (Neferherenptah ); 62= 0 2o (We rirni); 206; Horkh ebit 286;
Merymose (TT 383) 22 7, 228 Ne bpupepy Seni (Saqqara-Sourh M VII ) Nipe py N i (Saqqara-South 01) 184 62, 73, 158 , 169, 175, 177, r8o Qurner Mu rai: see Thebes-West; Rushes, Field of: see laru, Fields of 63=0 19 (Kai); 64=018 (N ub nebti H OTEPSEKHEMWY 69, IJS-41;
Meryneirh (Saqqara H 9) 141 , 232 !84 N irokris r (Medi net H abu)270, 278, 285 PEPY 11 (Saqqara-Sourh LLXI) 8, 71, Qusei r ei-Amarna 179-80, 324-25, map Ryan , Oonald 74 (Quee n)); 65=017 (Ni maarre); lart i 185: Id ut 184; Ihy 197, 202, 206;
Meryprah (TT387) 128 Nebwe nenef(TT157) 128,250,265 N IUSE RRE (Abu Sir LXX) 158, 169, 88, n 6, 158, 169, 170-7), 177, 182 1[78]; tomb 1 (Pepyankh-the-Eider) 66=C24 (Rahore p); 67=016 l nemhes 292; lserirdi s 292; Kaha
Meryre i (TA4) 229 NECTANEBO I: seeNAKH TNE BEF 174 Pepi (Saqqara) 185 179 Sa ei- Haga r: see Sais (AnkJ11naka); 68=C4 178, 184, 197: Kanefer 292; Khenr ika-
Meryre ii (TA2) 229, 230 NECTANEBO 11: see No rden, Frederik Ludwig (1708-1742) Pepya nkh the Elder (Quseir ei-Amarn a Saad , Zaki (t90I - I982) 71 (Khamererptah); 69=01 5 JkJ,ekh i IJI, 185; Khenut 179;
Meryre (Saqqara H 9) : see Meryne irh NAKH T HORHEB 58-59 t) 179 Raem ni (Saqqa ra) 183 Sabn i (QH26) 90, 176, 179-80 (So pduhotep); 70=014 (Khui r (Pss)); Kh numh otep 72, 84, 95, II J;
Mes ui ser (S iwa) 295 Nedjemger (TT138) So Nuri 276-77,284,324-25, map 1[145]; Pepya nkJ1 -H eni kem (Meir A2) 121 Rahore p A (M eidum 6) 152, 158, pi. XVI sajf1S6-S7 71=81 (Tjenti); 72=C18 (Tjenri); Khubawy 185; Mahu 52; Maru Bebi
metalworking, scenes of ro9- 10 Nefer (Saqqara) 72, So, 95, 99, 176, 178 Nu! (Taharqa) 277 Pepyankh-h eryib-Neferka (Meir 0 2) 183 Ramessenakhte (TT293) 209 Saft ei-Henna 324-25, map t[ I8] 73=01) (S hepsi); 74= 0!Z 184; Merer i 18 5: Me reru ka 43, 48, 65,
Metjen (LS6) 153 Neferabe r i (TT 5) 269 Nut 17, 245, 253, 257-58, 260, 269, 274 PERJBSEN (Umm ei-Qaab P) 135, RAMESSES I (KV16) 9, Go, 247 SAH URE (Abu Sir LXI/lll) w, 158, (N iankh sekJTmet); 75= 010 78, 8), 109, u9, 121, 126, 127, 176, 18r,
M in (god) 17, 93-94, 100, 250 Neferba up tah (G6o10) 173 Nymaathap (Beit KhallafKI') J U 11.1 62 139-41 R.AMESSES ff (KV7) 23, 42 53, 56, 69, 169,1 72 (Tepeman kh i); 76=0u (Te pemankh 183, 185, pi. X; MERYKARE 188;
M in (TT109 ) II J, 221 NEFEREFRE (Abu Si r L XXVIII) 158 Pern eb (Saqqara S9 13) 174 74· 128, 131, 212, 242; 247-5), 255-57· Sa is (Sa ei-Hagar) 56, 207, 277-78, 289, ii) Ill ; 77= 09 (Meruka); 81=04 Instruction w ss; Nefer 72, 8o, 9S·
M innakh r (TT87) 227, 228 Neferet (Meidum 6) 152, pi. XII O'Co nno r, David 7S Perri ng, John Shae (t8 I)-I869 ) 61-62 26o-63, 268-69, pi. XXXJ II )24-25, map 1[9]; Voyage to 252 (Ankh iris); 88=89 (H uri ); B1 5 99, 176, 178; N ian khkhnu m 72, 84,
Mins ha t Abu O mar 324-25, map 1[5] Neferhotep (TT6) 127, 268 Ockinga, Boyo 74 pesesh-kef 20 RAMESSES Ill (KV u ) 39, 58-59, 131, Salt, H enry (1780-I827) 59 (Werkaptah); B2 (Hetepheres); B3 95· IIJ; N lNETJER 71, 138, 139· 140,
Mirgissa 324-25, map 1[137] Neferhore p (TT49) 118 ,127, 128 , 252 offe ri ng-b ringers, scenes of 21-22, Perery (G iza) 13 1 249-50, 256, 26 1-65 Samannud: seeSebennytos (Shery); 8 7 (Setju ii ); 062 14 1; Paatenem heb 232; Pahern efer
mirrors, representations of 8 r Neferhore p (TT 5o) 118, 253 121-22 Petos iris (Tuna ei-Gebel) 9, 98, 288, RAMESSES fV (KV2) 32, 37, 38, IJ I, San ei- H aga r: seeTan is (Ptah ho rep i) 41, 49 , 126; 063 (lreri- IS3; Paser 242; Pefrj aukho nsu 292;
M it Rah ina: see .Memphi s Neferhore p ii (TT216) 268, 269 Opening-of-th e-Mou th 13, 20, 122, 129 , 293· 294· 295· 296, pi. XXI/] 249 SANAKHTE (Abu Rowas h EI-O ei r?) Ankheri s) 177; 064 (Ptahhotep ii), Pepi 185; Psametik 61, 292;
Moalla 324-25, map 1[11 8]; tomb of NEFERJRKARE (Abu Si r L XXJ) 154, 222, 245· 252, 262, 266, 277, 295· pi. Petrie, Sir Flinders (t8 5J-I942) 62-63, RAMESSES V (KV9) 249, 256 143-44 78, 127, 176; 07o=LS 15 (Peh nuika); Prah shepses 182; Raemni 183; Rawer
Ankhrifi 186 158, 169 XXJ ]] 65,70 RAMESSES VI (KV9) 9, 12, 32, IJ 1, Sandys , Geo rge (1578-1644) 57-58 H 9 (Meryneith) 141 , 232; H 12 15; Remen i 185: RENEB 139, 141 ;
models (of rombs) 37, 38, Neferkarenakhte Khetu ihote p (Saqqara- O siri s 8, 13, 15, 17- 18, 65, So, 88, 90, 94, pets, depictio ns of8o, 98-99, 186 249, 256-58, 260, 262, pi. XXJ I Saqq ara 23, 26-28, )0, 37, 43, 48, 51-52, (Kh uit); L.XXJX Sekaweskh et 206; SEKH EMKH ET
Mond, Si r Robert (1867-1938) 66 Sourh NXI) 185, 188 96, 1J7, 120, 123-24, 128-29, 131-32, Philadelph ia, Pennsylvan ia Unive rsity RAMESSES VII (KV1) 26o 56- 57· 62, 65, 68-69, 71-7), 77-78, (MENKAU HOR(')) 158; L XXX 43, 143: SENEO 141; Siharho r-lpi
Montet, Pierre (1885-1966) 71 Nefe rm aat A (Meid um 16) 62, 151 , , 152, 189 , 198, 224, 227-28, 245· 250, Museum of Archaeo logy & RAMESSES IX (KV6) 32, 37, 26o So, 83-84, 94-95. 99-100, 109, UI , (T ETI) 65, 158, 177, 222, 241, 242; 206; T ia 242, 250, 255; T ja 206;
Mose (TT 254) 219 15), 158 255-56, 260-61, 268-271, 274· 284, Anth ropology E1824-6 274 RAMESSES X (KV18) 74, 26o 113, II6- 17, Ill, 126, 131, 136 , 1}8-47, L XXXJ (USE RKAF) 71, 158, 169, Tjaiharpara 292; Tjia 242, 2SO, 2SS;
Mostagedd a 324-25, map 1[88] Nefe rrenpet (STo) 242, pi. XII 29 1, JO I-OJ, pi. XXI PT MAY (N RT-lf ) 271-72 RAMESSES XI (KV4) 48, 74, 256, 310 15), 156, 177, 187-88, 197, 222, 2)2, 172, 286; LXXXJI (Ste p Pyram id: We nnefer 283, 289
mourners 20-21 Nefe rrenpet (TT43) 124 OSO RKON l 274 Pinudjem 11 (TT320) 63, 270, 272, 273 11.16 2JJ, 2)4, 250, 252, 255· 279· 282-83, OJOSER) 56, 69, 72-7J, 85, 124, tJ6, Saqqara-South 71, 73, 114, 324-25,
M oussa, Ah med 72 Nefe rrenpet (TT 249) 48, 98 OSORKON 11 (NRT-1) 270-76 Pi ye (Ku1 7) 275-76, 284-85 Ramesseum: see Thebes-West 286-89, 292, 324-25, maps 1[37], 2, 138, 142- 48, 177, 196, pi. XIV; maps t[JS], 2; tombs: LXXXVI
Mu hamm ed Ali (1769-1849) 59 Neferre npet i (TT336) 269 OSORKON llf (Medinet H abu') 275 plants, rep resentations of 9 2- 94 Ramose i (TT 7, 212 & 250) 268, 269 20, pi. X, XII; Bubasteion 222; Gisr L XXXI/ (UNAS) 56, 72, n o, 129, (PEPY I) 62, 73,158, 169, 175 . 177;
Mu ni ch, Srate Collection of Egyp tian Neferrenpet-Kenro (TT178) 128 , 253 Oxyrhynchus (ei-Bahnasa) 74 Pococke, Richard (1704-1765) 58 Ramose (TT 55) 9, 21, 22, 28, 37, 48-50, ei-Mudir 138, 142, 288; Sacred 138, 158, 169-70, 172, 175· 177· 182, LXXX\/11 (ISESI) 72, 158, 169-70;
Art, object: Gl. 1o3e-f 152 Neferse kh eru (TT296) 126, 128 pottery production , scenes of 110 t2J, 217- tS, 228, pi. XIX An imal Nec ropolis 57-58, 72; 2)2, 242, 286, 292; LS5 (Seshemu); LXXXIX (NEMTYEMSAF I) 158,
Muqqatam 4 2 Nefersekhe ru (Zawiyet Sultan) 243 Paatenem heb (Saqqara) 232 poultry, sce nes of 90, 91, 94, 96-97, 98, Ramose (TTt 66) 124 Serapeum 58, 61; tombs (ma p 20): LS6 (Metj en) 153: LS7 (Tjaihapimu 183; L XLI (PEPY 11) 71, 88, 158,
Muses, Cha rl es (1919-2000) 73 Neferseshemp tah (Saqqara 16=£4) q6 Pabasa (TT279) 52, 270, 279, 283-84 100, Rawer (G iza) 177, 183 l. 2 (Aperel) 72, 222, 232, 241, 26r; & others) ; LS10 (Kageme ni) 48, 65, I69-7J, 177, 182; LXLIII =0 66
musicians , singers & dance rs u 8-19 Neferseshempsa m tik 289 Pabes 255 Prisse d'Aven nes, Achi lle (1807-1879) Rawer (Saqqara) 15 !.16 (Nerj erwymose) 128; l.2o (Maya) 77, 100, 18o-84; LS14 (Kaimqed ); (Masrabat Faraun: SH EPSESKAF)
M ut 99,210 Nefertiry 0 (QV66) 9, 53, 69, 262, pi. Paheri (E KJ) 52, 59, 79, 91, 97, 99 6o Ray (TT 124) 100 7J, 242; 1=B5 (Rudji); 2= 810 (Ifefi LS19 (Psa mtik-nebpehti) 286; LS23 71, 158; L.XLIV (KHEN OJER) 71;
(Mur-)Tuy (QV8o): see Tuy XXJfl Pahemn etjer (TT 284) 120, 124, 266 PSAMETIK I (Sais) 220, 285 Raya (TT159) 127 Feli); J= B6 (Setju); 4=Bn (lrahor) 286- 87: LS24 (Bakenrenef) LXLVI ([ ... ]) 71, 205; M IV (H enen i;
muu-dancers 20, 119, 123, 2S2 N eferri ti 241 Pahernefe r (Saqqara) 153 Psa meri k (Saqqara) 61, 292 Re (god) 94, 99, nS, 12), 1)1, 247-48, (Khn umh otep); 6=C15 (Tjy); 7=C13 282-84, 286, 291; LS27 (Maya) 99, Wash ip rah ) 184; M IX (Shey) 184;
Myceri nus: see Menkaure Neferu ll (TT319) 190, 206 Pairi (TT139) IJ, 52, 122 Psametik-nebpehti (LS19) 286 250, 260, 268-269 (lti); 8=C2 (Hetep); 9= B4 (l pi); 242, 243· 246: QS75 (l pi) 206; QS412 MVf (Nes merut Nesti) 185; MVI
Mysliwiec, Karol 73 Neferuptah (H awara) 72 Paka p Wehebree makhet (LG84) 61, Ptah '7 Re- H arakh ry 271 IO=C14 (Ankh i); II =BI) (Se nedjemib (Nesidjehu ry) 283; S901=78=0 1 (Se ni) 185: M VII (Nebpupepy Seni)
Neheri i (Bers ha 4=Rl9) 200 287, 296 Prahankh u (Saqqara-Sourh MX) 184 Re (TT72) 28, 124, 214, 221 Bebi b); I2=BI2 (Neferh orep); 13=044 (Netj eruser); S902=LS16 (Rashepses); 184; MVII (Ne kJm r) 184; MVTI
Naamu rn akhte (TT J48) 270 Neith (goddess) 17, 120, 277 Paneb i (TTw) 268, 269 Ptah-Sokar-Osiris 2SO, 252 Re (TT2o1) 38, 227 (Nemtynefer); 14=043 S903=8o=03 (Raemka (Prince)); (Pen u) 184; MVII (Senti) 184; MVITI
Nabes ha 324-25, map 1[4] Neith (q uee n, Saqqara-So uth) 171 Panehsy (TT 16) 229, 252 Prahem hat (TT77) 53 Re, Litany of 131, 246, 261-62 (S me nkh uprah); 15=816 (Ankhiris); S905=79=02 (Kaemrehu); S9o6 (Setibti Bebi) 185; MX (PtahankJm)
Naefarud I (Mendes) 75, 289-91, NEMTYEMSAF I (Saqqara-Sourh papyrus harvesting, sce nes of 78, 94-95 Ptahhore p (LG84) 287 Red ford , Oonald 75 16=£4 (Nefe rseshemprah) 176; (Ne kh ensu); S907=8]=06 (Khen u); 184; MXI (Mehi ) 184; MXT
Nag ei-H isa ia 324-25, map 1[125] L XXXJX) 158, 183 Parenn efer (TA7/TT188) 230, 279 Ptah hote p i (Saqqara 062) 41, 49, 126 Reclines (G5032) 24 19=042 (Khaba uptah); 20=041 S9o8=82=05 (M eresankh IV); S909 (Shemait) 184; MXI I (Sebak u i & ii;
Naga ei-Oeir 324-25, map 1[99] Nephrh ys 17-18, 120, 260, 266, 268-69, Paris , Louvre M useum, object: C4 216 Prahh otep ii (Saqqara 0 64) 78, 127, Reeves, N icholas 74 (Sekhemankhptah); 21=040 (Heknunebti); S910=85=08 Wadjet) 185, 188; MXI II (lmameryre;
Naga ei-M eshayikh 324-25, map 1[101] 301-02, pi. Ill PASEBKHANUT f (N RT-111) u , 61, q 6, pi. VII Rehudjersen (Lisht 372) 196 (AnkJ1mare); 22= 0)9 (Kapu re); (lsesiankh); S911 (H emakhti); S912 Nihebsed) 184; MXJV
Nakht (Abyd os 01 5) 282 NES IBANEBOJ EOET I 271-74 27o-72 Ptahirdis (G i2a) 282 Reisner, George Andrew (1867-1942) 23=E5 (Qedenes); 24=0)8 (Wasptah); (H erwer); S9 13 (Perneb) 174; S9 15 (Kh abaukJmum Biu) 184; MXV
Nakht (TT 52) 53, 67, 127, 219, 220, 254, Nesidjehuty (QS412) 283 PASE BKHANUT [] 272-73 Ptahshepses (Abu Sir LXIX) 72, 174-75 69-70 25=C) (Ptahuser); 26=0)7 (Manefer); (N ikauhor); S9 16 (Prahm aakheru); (Teti) 184; MX\/1 (Anu) 184; MXVI f
pi. 11 Nesisut (LG84) 287 Pasebkha nur A (Abydos 022) 270, 271 Ptahshepses (Saqqara) 182 Rekhmire (TT10o) ) 1, 40, 44, 52, 99, 27=036 (lykau); 28= 0 )5 (Rahotep'): S919=84=07 (Kaemtjent); S2 146E (Sebkh otp) 184; N IV (Biu/ Akhi)
Nakh r (TT161) 222 Nesm erut Nesr i (Saqqara-So uth MVI) Paser (TT106) 128, 252, 253, 255, 265 PTOLEMY I-XI I (Alexand ria) 298 II 2, II S-16, II 9, 124, 128, 200, 21S-16, 29=034 (Prahs hepses); 30=0JJ (Sehefner); S2302 (Ruaben) 140, 176; 184; NV (S henay) 184: NVII (Oegem
Nakh ramu n (TT335) 268, 269 185 Paser (Saqqara) 242 Puiemre (TT39) 15, 51, 77, 88, 126, 219, 219, 220, 221 , 22S (S hepsi ); 31=0 32 (S hepsip udjed ); S2322 (?); S2400 (Ptah sab u); S2401 Merypepy) 184; NVlll (Raherka)
Nakh rdjehury (TT189) 124 Nespamedu (Abydos 0 57) 282, 285-86 Pashedu ii (TT292) 266, 268, 269 226 , 228 Remen i (Saqqa ra) 185 32= 031 (AnkJ1kakai); 3J=03o (Ny); S2405 (H esyre) 61, 144-45, 148, 184; NX (Ankh nebef) 184; NXI

364 INDEX INDEX 365

 (Neferkarenakhre Khetuihotep) 185, z68, 291, pi. XX 27o-72; NRT- IV (AMENEMO PET) Tombs 269, 297, map 5C; TT33 TT87 (M innakht) 227-28, map 5C; (Qena mun) map 5A; TTr63 TT243 (Pemau) map 5C: TT244
188; 01 (N ipepy Ni) 184; 011 sex and fertility, scenes relat ing ro 8o-8r 271-72; NRT-V (S HOSHENQ lil & Deir el-Medina 37, 51, 53, 69, 70, 76, (Pedame nopet) 56, 57, 58, r28 , 13I, TT88 (Pehsukher) map 5C; TT89 (Amenemhat) map 5A; TT164 (Pekharu ) map 5C; TT245 (Hory)
(Khnemu) 185; Ankhenespepy TV SHABAKA (Km5) 284-85 IV) 271-72, 275; NRT-VI 271-72; 96, 218, 228, 252, z66, 297, 310 n.r6, 279-82, 284, maps 5B, 5C; TT34 (Amenmose) map 5C; TT9o (lnyotef) 88, 219, map 5A; TTt65 map 5C; TTz46 (Se nen re) map 5C;
182; !pi u4; !put[] 171, 182; Neber SHABATAKA (Kur8) 284-85 NRT-Vll 272 map 5E, pi. XXI; tombs: DMzoo2, (Mentuemhat), 9, 52, 128, 26r, (Nebamun) 126, map 5C; TT92 (Nehemaway) map 5A;TTt66 TT247 (Simut) map 5C; TT248
177, I79; Wedjebren 171 shaduf, representations of 92 TANUTAMUN (KUI6) 276, 284-85 2005 294-95; see also Thebes-West: 279-81, 284-85, maps 5B, 5C, pi. (Suem niut) 22I, map 5C; TT93 (Ramose) 124, map 5A; TTI68 (Any) (Djehu ty mose) map 5C; TT249
Save-Soderbergh, To rgny (1914-1998) Sharby: see Alexandria Tasihuy (ST5) 242 Theban Tombs XXV; TT35 (Baken khonsu) 128, 252, (Qenamun) 51, 126 , 216, 221, map map 5A; TTt69 (Senna) map 5A; (Nefe rrenpet) 48, 98, map 5C; TT250
66 Sheikh Abada 324-25, map 1[72] TAWOSRET (KVr4) 39, 256, 264, Ora Abu' l-Naga 207-08, 214, 225, map 5A; TT36 (l bi) 52, 58, 83, 279, 5C; TT94 (Ramose o r Amy) map 5C; TT170 (Neb meh yt) map 5C; TTI72 (Ra mose i) map 5E; TT251
Schaden, Orro 74 Sheikh Abd ei-Qurna: see Thebes-West pi. XXIV 247, map 5A, pi. IX; tombs: K93.to-11 map 5C; TT37 (Harwa) 52, 58, 83, TT95 (Mery) 52, map 5C;TT96 (Mentuiywy) I20, map 5C; T T1 73 (Amenmose) 51, map 5C; TT252
Schiaparelli, Ernesto (t856-1928) 69 Sheikh Aria 324-25, map 1[76] Tebtun is (Tell Umm el-Briegat) 324-25, 209; INYOTEF V 208; INYOTEF 279, map 5C; TT38 (Se nn efer) Sr, 209, 226, 227, 228, (Khay) map 5C; TT174 (Ashakhet) (Se nimen) 28, map 5C; TT253
'Scorpion' I (Umm el-Qaab U-j) 134-35 Sheikh Farag 324-25, map 1[roo] map 1[53] VI zo8; seealsoThebes-West: Theban (Djeserkeresonbe) 126, 2I9, map 5C; map 5C, pi. VI!!; TT97 map 5C; TTt75 ([ ... ]) 48, 50, 79, map (Khnummose) map 5C; TT254
Sebaku i (Saqqara-South MXII) 185, 188 Sheikh Said I79-8o, 324-25, map 1[74]; Tefibi (Asyut 3) 186 Tombs TT39 (Puiemre) 15, 51, 77, 88, 126, (Amene mhat) map 5C; TT98 C; TTr76 (Amenuserhat) map 5C: (Mose) 2I9, map 5C; TT255 (Roy) 2,
Sebaku ii (Saqqara-South MXII) 185, tombs: 5 (Meru) 179, I82, 183; 37 tekenu 10, 123 El-Tarif 99,156, 186-87, I89 , 193-94; 219, 226, 228, map 5C; TT40 (Kaemhi ryi bsen) map 5C; TT99 TTI77 (Ame nemopet) map 5C; 252, 253, map 5A; TT256
t88 ([ ..• ]) 179 Tell Atrib 72, 324-25, map 1[19] tombs: SaffDawaba (INYOTEF !) (Amenhotep-Huy) 126; TT41 (Se nneferi) I24, map 5C; TTwo TTt78 (Neferrenpet-Ken ro) 128, 253, (Nebenkemer) rzo, map 5C; TT257
Sebennytos (Sa mmanud) 291 Sheikh Sobi: see Bahariya Tell Basra: see Bubastis t86-87; Saff el-Baga r (INYOTEF Ill) (Ame nemoper-lpy) uS, map 5C; (Rekhmire) 31, 40, 44, 52, 99, JI2, map 5C; TT179 (Nebamun) 5t, map (Neferhotep) map 5C; T T 257
Sedment ei-Gebel 324-25, map 1[56] Shemait (Saqqara-South MXI) 184 Tell el-Amarna 38-39, 53, 66, 84, 186-87; Saff el-Qisasiya (TNYOTEF TT 42 (Amenmose) 15, 77, map 5C; II5- 16, 119, 125, 128, 200, 215-16, 219, 5C; TT181 (Nebamun & Ip uky) 126, (Ma!IU) map 5C; TT258
Sehetepibre-ankh (Lishr) 196 Shenay (Saqqara-South NV) 184 127-28, 229-33, 324-25, maps I[75]; !!) 99, !8?-88 TT 43 (Neferrenpet) I24, map 5C; 220, 221, maps 5B, 5C; TTror map 5C; TTt82 (Amenemhat) map (Me nkheper) map 5C; TT259 (Hori )
Sekaweskhet (Saqqara) 206 Shepenwepet I (MHr7) 278, 285 tombs (map 3): TAt (Huya) 229, 232; Khokha 28, maps 5B, 5C; see also TT 44 (Amenemh eb) map 5C; TT 45 (Tjenuro) map 5C; TTroz (lmhotep) 5C;TTt83 (Nebsumenu) map 5C; map 5C; TT26o (Use r) map 5A;
Sekhemkasedj (S3504') t)S Shepenwepet 11 (Medinet Habu) 270, TAIA-B ([ ... ]) 229; TA2 (Meryre ii) Thebes-West: Theban Tombs (Dje hu ry/Djehuryemheb) t24, 252, map 5C; TT103 (Dagi) 192, maps 5B, TTr84 (Neferm enu) map 5C; TT185 TTz6t (Khaemwaset) map 5A;
SEKHEMKHET (Saqqara) 43, '43 277< 278, 285 229, 230; TA3 (Ahmose) 229; TA3A-F Medinet Habu 45, 210, 242, 249-50, map 5C; TT 46 (Ramose) map 5C: 5C; TTI04 (Dje hurynefer) 26, map (Senii qer) map 5C; TTr86 (l hy) map TTz62 ([ ... ]) map 5A; TT263 (Pyay)
Sekhmet 99 SHEPSESKAF (Saqqara-South ([ ... ]) 229; TA4 (Me ryre i) 229; TA5 262, 270, 270, 275-?8, 289, 294: TT 47 (Userhat) map 5C; TT48 5C; TT105 (Khaemoper) 255, map 5C; TTt87 (Pakhihat) map 5C; map 5C; TT264 (lpiy) map 5C;
Selqet I7 l.Xllii =066) 56, 71, I 58 (Pentju) 229; TA6 (Panehsy) 229; tombs: MH1 (HARSIESE) 275, 276; (Amenem hat-Surero) 15, 28, 77, 217, 5C; TTw6 (Paser) 128, 252, 253,255, TTt88 (Parennefer) 230, 279, map TT 265 (Atnenemopet) map 5£;
SEMERKHET (Umm el-Qaab U) ' 35 Shey (Saqqara-So uth MIX) 184 TA6A-D ([ ... ]) 229; TA7 MH17 (S hepenweper I) 278, 275; map 5C; TT49 (Neferhotep) uS, 265, maps 5B, 5C; TTw7 5C; TTt89 (Nakhtdjehuty) 124, map TT266 (Amennakhte) map 5£;
Semna West 324-25, map t[138] SHOSHENQ I 273> 275 (Parennefer) 229-30; TA7A-C 229; Amenirdis I 277-78, 285; N itokris l 127-28, 252, map 5C; TT 5o (Nefersekheru) map 5C; TTw8 5C; TTr9o (Nesi banebdjedet) map TT267 (Hay) map 5£; TT268
Senbi (Meir B1) 89, zoo SHOSHENQlll (N RT-V) 27I-72, 275 TAS (Tutu) 39; TA9 (Mehu); TAw 270, 278, 285; OSORKON Ill 275; (Nefe rhotep) uS, 253, map 5C; TT5t (Nebseny) map 5C:TT109 (M in) 5C; TT191 (Wahibrenebpehti) map (Nebnakhte) map 5£; TT269 ([ .. ])
SENED (Saqqara') I4t SHOSHENQ IV (N RT-V) 272 (!pi ); TAu (Ramose); TAn Shepenwepet !I 270, 277-78, 285 (Userhat) n6, 253, map 5C; TT 52 IIJ, 221, map 5C; TT no (Djehuty) 5C; TT192 (Kh eru ef) 28, u3, 217, map 5C; TT272 (Khaemopet) 124;
Senedjem ib-lnti (G2370) 174-75 SHOSHENQ V (NRT-1') 272 (Nakhtpaaten); TA13 Malqata 127 (Nakht) 53, 67, 127, 219, 220, 254, 20, map 5C; TT m (Amenwahsu) 2I9, 221, 228, 230, 279, maps 5B, 5C; TT276 (Amene mopet) 218; TT277
Senedjemib-Mehi (G2378) 174-75 Shoshenq D (Mem phis) 275, 276 (Neferkheperuhirsekheper) 39; TA14 Memnon, Colossi of 212-13 map 5C, pi. I; TT 53 (Amenemhat) map 5C; TTuz (Men kheperreso nbe/ TT193 (Ptahemheb) map 5C; TT194 (Ameneminet) 252; TT279 (Pabasa)
SENEFERU (Dahshur Shoshenq (TT27) 52, 280 (May); TAt5 (Suti i); TAt6-r8 ([ ... ]); Ramesseum So, 247-48, 25I, 273-74, uS , 219, map 5C; TT 54 (Huy/ Ken ro) Ashefytemwaset) 26, 99, uS, 120, (Djehuryemheb) map 5C; TTt95 52, 270, 279, 283-84, maps 5B, 5C;
L.LXIX/L.LVI/Meidum L.LXV) 32, Shu net ei-Zebib: see Abydos TAI9 (Suti ii); TAw([ ... ]); TA2I map 5C; tomb 88 (Nakhtefmut) 274 map 5C; TT 55 (Ramose) 9, 2I, 22, 28, map 5C; TTu3 (Kynebu) map 5C; (Bakenamun ) map 5C; TT196 TT28o (Meketre) 191, 19), map 5B;
I48-5I, 153, 158, 172, pi. XV-XVI SIAMUN (N RT-lll) 272 ([ ... ]) 39; TAn ([ ... ]); TA23 (An i); Qurnet Murai 223; see also Thebes- 37, 48-50, 123, 217-18, 228, maps 5B, TTu7 (Djedmutefankh) 270, map (Pedihorresnet) 279, 284, map 5C; TT28t (MENTUHOTEP
Senenmu t (TT7t/TT353) t5, 28, 5I, 77, Siamun (S iwa) 295 TA24 (Paatenemheb); TA25 (Ay) West: Theban Tombs 5C, pi. XIX; TT 56 (Userhat) 89, u 6, 5C; TTu8 (Ame nmose) map 5C; TT197 (Pedineith) 279, map 5C; lll/AMENEMHAT I?) I92, map 58;
124, 128, 215-16, 220, 226, 227, 228, Sicard, Claude (t677-1728) 58 229, 2JI; TAz6 (AKHENATEN) 223, Sheikh Abd el-Qurna 28, 6o-6I, 127,128, map 5C; TT 57 (Khaemhat) TT12o (Anen) 28, map 5C; TTI2! TTI98 (Riya) map 5C; TT199 TT282 (Nakhte) map 5A; TT283
z6o Sieset (Dahshur L.LV) 197, 203 232; TA27 214-15, 2I7, 226, 273, 262-65, maps 83, 9I, 2t9, 22I, map 5C; TT 58 (Ahmose) 28, map 5C; TT122 ([Ame n]i rineferu) map 5C; TT2oo (Roma-Roy) 252, map 5A; TT284
senet (gam e), scenes of 111, 113 Sieset (Dahshur) 198 (NEFERNEFERUATEN'); TA28 5B, 5C, pis 11 , VI!!; tomb of (Amenhotep/Ameneminet) 124, map ([Am un]hotep) map 5C; TT12zA (Dedi) map 5C; TTzm (Re) 38, (Pahemnetjer) 120, 124, 266, map 5A;
Senet (TT6o) 52, 56, 86, 126, 198 , zoo Sihathor-lpi (Saqqara) 206 (S MENKHKARiE?); TA29 Memusebaef 61,279: seealsoThebes- 5C; TT 59 (Q en) map 5C; TT6o (Amene mhat) map 5C; TTI23 227-28, map 5C; TT202 TTz85 (lny) map 5A; TT286 (Niay)
Seni (Saqqara-South MVI) 185 SIPTAH (KV47) pi. XI (TUTANKHATEN?) 245; TA3o Wesr: Theban Tombs (lnyotefi qer/Sener) 52, 56, 86, 126, (Amenemhat) 128, 219, map 5C: (Nakhtamun) map 5C; TT203 map 5A; TT287 (Pendua) map 5A;
Senimen (TT252) 28 Siren put i (QH36) 199 (SMENKHKARE?) Theban Tombs: TTt (Se nnedjem i) 196, 198, 200, map 5C; TT61 (User) TT124 (Ray) wo, map 5C; TT125 (Wennefer) map 5C; TT204 TT288/9 (Setau) 252, 265, map 5A;
Senmeri (Riqqa t91) 206, 207 Siren put ii (QH31 ) 49, 180, I99-201, pi. Tell el-Daba: see Avaris 53, 76, 92, 94, 132, 266, 268, map 5E, 26, 130, I3t, 222, 227, 228, map 5C; (Dwawyneheh) 88, 219, map 5C; (Nebanensu) map 5C; TT 205 TT290 (lrynefer) 269, map 5E;
Sennedjem (Awlad Azzaz) 74, 243, 246, XVIl Tell el-Farain: see Buto pis Ill , V; TT2 (Khabekhnet i) z66, TT6z (Am enemwaskhet) map 5C; TTrz6 (Harmose) map 5C; TT127 (Djhutmose) map 5C;TT2o6 TT291 (Nu & Nakhtmin) map 5E;
255 Sitamu n (WV22') 232 Tell el-Ruba: see Mendes 268, map 5E; TT3 (Pashedu x) 266, TT63 (Sobkhotep) 221, map 5C; (Senemiah) map 5C; TT 128 (lnpuemhab) map 5C; TT207 TT 292 (Pashedu ii) 266, z68, 269,
Sennedjem i (TTr) 53, 76, 92, 94, 132, Sitweret (Dahshur) 74 Tell el-Yuhudiya 324-25, map 1[23] 269, map 5£, pi. XXI; TT4 (Qen) TT 64 (Heqereneheh) 221, map 5C; (Patjenfy) map 5C; TT130 (May) (Horemheb) map 5C; TT2o8 map 5£; TT293 (Ramessenakhte)
266, pis lll, V Siwa Oasis 75, 295, 324-25, map I [I4?]; Tell Hisn 182; see also: Heliopolis map 5E; TT5 (Neferabet i) 269, map TT65 (Neba munllmiseba) 124, 127, map 5C; TTtJI (Use r) 8, 26, 222, (Roma) map 5C; TT209 map 5A; TT294 (Am enhotep) map
Sennefer (TT96) 81, 209, 226, 227, 228, wmbs: Mesuiser 295; Siamun 295 Tell Moqdam: see Leontopolis 5E: TT6 (Neferhotep) 127, 268, map 253, map 5C; TT66 (H apu) rz8, map map 5C; TTI32 (Ramose) map 5C; (Sere mhatrekhyt) map 5B; TT2w 5C; TT295 (Dje hurymose-Paroy)
pi. Vlll Sobkem hat (Dahshur I?) 205 Tell Urn m el-Briegat: seeTebtunis 5E; TT6B (Nebnefer) 268, map 5£; 5C; TT67 (Hepuseneb) map 5C; TT133 (Neferrenpet) map 5C; TTtJ4 (Reweben) map 5E; TTzu (Paneb i) map 5C: TT296 (Nefersekheru) 126,
Sen neferi (TT99) 124 Sobkhotep (Saqqara-South MXVTI) r84 Tern (OBXI.I5) t94 TT7 (Ramose i) map 5E: TS (Kha) TT68 ([ Per']enkhmun) map 5C; (Tjauenany-Any) map 5C; TT135 268, 269, map 5E; TT212 (Ramose i) 128, map 5C; TT297 (Amenemopet)
Semi (Saqqara-South MVII) 184 Sobkhotep (TT63) 221 Te pemankh ii (Saqqara ?6=Du) 111 11, 24, 69, 2r8, 228, map 5E; TT9 TT68 (Nespaneferhor) 270, map 5C; (Bake namun) 252, map 5C; TTI36 268, 269, map 5E; TT213 (Penamun) map 5C; TT298 (Baki i & Wennefer
SENWOSRET I (Lisht L.LXI) 71, 126, Sobkmose (Rizeiqat) 268 TET! (Saqqara LXXX) 26, 51, 65, 69, (Amenmose) map 5E; TTro TT69 (Menena) 51, 52, II 5, 219, 222, ([ ... ]) map 5C; TT137 (Mose) map map 5£; TT214 (Khawy ii) 269, map i) 268, map 5£; TT299 (lnherkhau)
I94-96, 201 Sobknakhte (E Kw) 67-68, 207 73, 158, t77, 18o-8z, 188, 222, 24I, 242 (Pen buy) 128, 253, 269, map 5E; map 5C; TT7o (Ame nmose) 270, 5C; TTr 38 (Nedjemger) So, map 5C; 5E; TT215 (Amenemopet) map 5£; map 5E; TT300 (An hotep) map 5A;
SENWOSRET Il (Lahun L.LXVI) Sohag 74; see Awlad Azzaz Teti (Saqqara-South MXV) 184 TTwB (Kasa) 269, map 5£; TTu map 5C; TT71 (Senenmut) 15, 28, J7, TTI39 (Pairi) 13, 52, t22, map 5C; TTz16 (Neferhotep ii) 268, 269, map TT301 (Hori ) map 5A: TT302
4l-42, 53- 54, t26, 195, 203 Sokar 22, 269 Tecisherit (Thebes/Abydos) 210 (Djehuty) map 5A; TT12 (Hray) 77· 124, 128 , 215-16, 220 , 226, 227, TT140 (Neferre npet) map 5A; TT14.1 5E; TT217 (Ipuy) 92, 120, 253, ma p (Pareemhab) map 5A; TT303 (Paser)
SENWOSRET lil (Dahsh ur L.XLVll) Soleb 324-25, map t [140] rexrile-producrion, scenes of u o map 5A; TT13 (Shuroy) map 5A; maps 5B, 5C; TT72 (Re) 28, t24, 2t4, (Bakenkhonsu) map 5A; TT 142 5£; TT218 (Amen nakhte) map 5E; map 5A; TT304 (Pyay) map 5A;
27, 56, 74> 199 , 200, 20), 205-06 Sorer (TT32) 297 Tey 229 TT14 (Huy) 124, map 5A; TT15 22I, map 5C; TT73 (Amenhotep (')) (Simut) map 5A; TT143 ([ ... ]) u3 , TT2I9 (Nebenmaat ii ) m, 266, 269, TT305 (Pase r) map 5A; TT3o6
Senwosret (Lisht) l97 Sradelmann, Rainer 73 Thebes 38, 58 (Tetiky) map 5A; TT16 (Panehsy) 28, 85, 99, map 5C; TT74 (Tjanuni) 120, 221, map 5A; TTI44 (N u) map map 5E; TT220 (Khaemteri i) 266, (lrdjanen) 266, map 5A; TT307
Senwosret-ankh (Deir el-Bahari statues 127-28, 200-or; depictions of Thebes- West 181 and passim, 324- 25, 229, 252, map 5A; TT17 (Nebamun) 28, map 5C; TT75 (Amenhotep-sise) 5A; TTt45 (Nebamu n) map 5A; 269, map 5E; TT222 (H eqamaatre- (Tjanefer) map 5A; TT3o8 (Kemsit)
MMAw ) 198 I14-l5 maps t[II4], 5, pi. I map 5A; TT 18 (Baki) 99, map 5A; 126, map 5C; TT76 (Tje nuna) map TT146 (Nebamun) map 5A; TT147 nakhte) u , 252; T T 223 I94; TT3n (Khety) 192, 194, map 5B;
Senwosret-ankh (Lisht) I96-97, srela 2, 14, 31, 140, 149-50, 153; see also: Asasif 28, 249, 278-82, 284, 297, map TTr9 (Ame nmose) 252, m ap 5A; 5C; TT77 (Prahemhat) 53, map 5C; ([ ... ]) map 5A; TT148 (Amenemopet) (Karakhamun) 279, map 5B; TT224 TT312 (Nes paqashuti) 49, 283, map
202-0J, 206 false-door 5C; see also Thebes-West: The ban TTzo (Mentuhirkhopshef) 123, map TT77 (Roy) map 5C; TT78 252, map 5A; TT149 (Amenmose) (Ahmose-Humay) map 5C; TT226 5B; TT3I3 (Henenu) 194, map 5B;
serdab q, n4, 154-55, '74 subsidiary pyramid 16 Tombs 5A; TT2I (User) 218, map 5C; TT22 (Horemheb) 99, 124, 221, map 5C; 124, map 5A; TT150 (Userhat) map (Heqareshu) 221, map 5C; TT228 TT314 (Harhotep) 194, map 5B;
Serra East 324-25, map I [I34l Suemniu t (TT 92) 221 Deir el-Bahari 7, 27-28, 61, 63, 65, (Wa h) map 5C; TT23 (Tjay-To) 128, TT79 (Me nkh epe r) map 5C; TTSo 5A; TTt5t (Haty) I24, map 5A; (Amenmose) map 5C; TT230 (Men TT315 (!pi) map 5B; TT3t6
Sesebi 324-25, map t [141] 70, 189-9 1, 194> 210-12, 214, 220, 226, 252, map 5C: TT24 (Nebamun) 9I, (Djehutynefer) 26, map 5C; TTSI TT I 52([ ... ]) map 5A; TT153 ([... ]) (')) map 5C; TT231 (Nebamen) map (Neferhorep) map 5B; TT31 7
Seshathetep Heti (G5150) 52 TAHARQA (Nut) 276-77, 282, 284 273, 275, map 5B; tombs: Bab el- map 5A; TT25 (An1enemhab) map (lneni) 8, II6, 215, 219, map 5C; map 5A: TT154 (Tati) map 5A; TT155 5A; TT232 (Tja rwas) map 5A; TT233 (Dj ehu rynefer) map 5C; TT318
Seshemnefer iv (LG53) 124, I82-83 TAKELOT I (NRT-1) 274 Gasus 63, 273; DBXI.7 (Ashayet) 5C; TTz6 (Khn umemheb) 128, map TTSz (Amenemhat) 51, 88, uS , I2I, (lnyoref) 5I, 99, 2I9, map 5A; TT I 56 (Saroy) map 5A; TT234 (Roy) map (Amenmose) map 5C; TTJI9
Setau (TT289/9) 252, 265 Takhuit (Tell Atrib) 72 190-91; DBXI.t5 (Tern) 194; MMA59 5C; T T27 (S hos henq) 52, 280, map 128, 219, 227-28, map 5C; TT83 (Penesuttawi) 128, 265, 268, map 5A; 5A; TT236 (Harnakhte) map 5A; (Neferu IT) t90, 206, map 5B; TT320
Seth 17, 87-88 Tanis (Sa n el-Hagar) n , 7t, 270-72, (Henrtawy) 273; MMA6o (Henttawy 5C; TTzS (Hori ) map 5C; T T29 (Ametju-Ahmose) Go, map 5C; TT157 (Nebwenenef) 128, 250, 265, TT237 (We nnefru) map 5A: TT238 (Pinudjem li) 63, 270, 272, 273, map
SETH NAKHTE (KV14) 39, 256, 261 324-25, map I[z]; tombs: NRT-1 C et al. ) 270, 273: MMA202 (Amenemoper) 123, map 5C; TT3o TT84 (lamunedjeh) map 5C; TT84 map 5A; TTt58 (Tjanefer) n8, 253, (Neferweben) map 5C; TT239 5B; TT32I (Khaemopet) map 5E;
Setibti Bebi (Saqqa ra-South MVT!l) r85 (OSORKON 11 & others) 27o-74; (Amenemhat) 198; MMA211 (Khonsumose) t27, map 5C; TTJI (Mery) map 5C; TT85 (Amenemheb) 265, map 5A; TT159 (Raya) I27, map (Penhat) map 5A; TT 240 (Me ru) TT322 (Pe nshenabu) map 5E; TT323
SETY I (KV17) 9, I?, 32, 53, Go, 126, NRT-11 (PIMAY) 27t-72, 275; NRT- (Senwosret-ankh) 198; Menru, Pri ests (Khonsu) 127, map 5C: TT32 8, 116, 219, 221, map 5C; TT86 5A; TTt6o (Bese nmut) map 5A; 194, map 5B; TT241 (Ahmose) map (Pashed u vii ) 266, 268, map 5E:
l)l-32, 247-48, 256-57, 260, 262, Ill (PASEBKHANUT I & others) II, of 6t; seealsoThebes-West, Theban (Djehurymose) 128, 250, 252, 265, (Me nkheperresonbe) 26, 51, map 5C; TTr61 (Na kht) 222, map 5A; TT t62 5C; TT242 (Wa hibre) map 5C; TT324 (Hatiay) 252, 253, map 5C;

366 IN 0 EX INDEX 367

 g Fellow
TT325 (S men (?)) map 5E; TTJ26 53, 56-57, 59, 61, 74, u 6, 209-10, 265, QV71 (Bi nranath); QV72 (Baki & UNAS (Saqqara L XXXV) 37, 56,
here he
(Pas hed u x) map 5E; TT327 map 50 ; tombs: KV1 (RAMESSES H arneferer A); QV73 ([ ... ]); QV74 71-72, n o, 129, 138, 158, r69-70, 172. en books
(Turobay) map 5E; TT328 (Hay) Vll) 26o; KV2 (RAMESSES IV) 38, (Duatenropet); Q V75 (H enunnire) t74-75, 177, 232, 242, 292, pi. XII
map 5E; TT329 (Mose, Mose & lpy) 131; KV3 (son ofRamesses Ill ) 264; 275: QV76 (M eryerte C); QV77-79 Und erwo rld , Books of th e 85, 120,
. Among
map 5E: TT330 (Karo) map 5E; KV 4 (RAMES SES XI) 48, 74, 256, ([ ... ]); QVSo (Tuy) 262; QV8 r ([ ... ]) ;
T T 3Jr (Penniut-S uneto ) map 5C; JIO n-36; KV5 (so ns ofRamesses 11)
130--31 pt (1998;
QV82 (Amen hotep R & Minemhat); User (TT21 ) 218
TT332 (Pene rnutet) map 5A; TT335 53, 74, 128, 26o--63; KV6 QV83-87 ([ ... ]); QV88 (Ahmose) User (TT61 & TT131) 26, rJO, 131, 222, mt Egypt
(Nak h tamun ii) 268, 269, map 5E;
TT336 (Neferrenpet i) 269, map 5E;
(RAMESSES IX) 32, 26o; KV7
(RAM ESSES 11) 128, 131, 255-57·
Wad i Sikkar Taqa ei-Zeid e 225
T hevenot, Jean de (163 )-1667) 57
227, 228 f Ancient
Userhat (KV 45 & TT47 or 56') 225
TT337 (Qen) 270, map 5E; T T 337 26o; KV8 (MERENPTAH ) IJ0--J I, Thompson , Berh 68 Userhat (TT 51) 126, 253
(Neskh onsu) map 5£; TT338 (May) 256, 260; KV9 (RAMESSES V/VI) Thoth 94, 120, 269, JO I Userh at (TT 56) 89, 116, 127, 128
69, map 5£; TT339 (Huy iv & 9· 12, 19, 32, 1) 1, 2)6, 257· 260, 262, pi. TH UT MOSE I (KV2o&KVJ8) u6, USERKAF (Saqqara LXXXI ) 71, 158,
Pash edu xv) 269, map 5E; TT340 XXI I; KV1o (AM EN M ESSE) 15, 39, 209-10, 218, 223-24 169, 172 ;y at the
(Am enem hat) map 5E: TT341 61; KVu (RAMESSES lfl) 39, 58-59, TH UTMOSE 11 (KV42') 210, 224
(Ne khtamu n) map 5C; TT342 131, 261-62; KVr3 (Bay) 74, 265-66; THUTMOS E Ill (KV34) 28, 44, 49,
he North
Va ll ey, Festival of 28, 118, 220--21
(Djehutymose) 219, map 5C; T T 343 KV14 (TAWOSRET/ the Pre-
53, 56-57, 65, 85, 88, n 6, 124. 126-27, Valley of the Kings: see Thebes- West
(Benia-Paheqmen) map 5C; TT344 SETH NAKHTE) 256, 264, pi. 1}0-JI, 210, 2 12, 2 15, 219-20, 222-2 6 , Valley of the Queens: see Th ebes- Wesr
(Piay) map 5A; TT345 (Amenhotep) XXIV; KV15 (S ETY ll ) 39; KV16 1, Cairo.
230, 262 Vansleb J. B. (d. 1679) 57
map 5C; TT346 (Amenhotep) map
5C; TT347 (Hori) map 5C; TT348
(RAJ'v!ESSES !) 9, Go; KV17 (SETY T H UTMOSE IV (KV 43) 28, 50, 55, Varille, Alexa ndre (1909-1951) 72 le Sudan
f) 9, 32, 53, Go, 131, 247, 256, 260, 124, 126, 2I2, 2 18-21, 224, 232 viticulture, scenes of 78, 97- 98
(Naamutnakhte) 270, map 5C; 262, pi. XX; KV rS (RAJ'v1ESSES X) T i (Saqqara 6o= D 22) 9, 52, 87
:>ks (plus
Vyse, Richard H oward (1784-1853)
TT349 (Tjay) map 5C; TT350 ([ ... ]y)
221, map 5C; TT351 (A bau) map 5C;
74, 260; KV20 (T HUTMOSE Tia (Saqqara) 242, 2 50, 255 61-62 l articles.
1/ H ATSHEPSUT) 6), 130, 223-24; Tihna el-Gebel 156-57, 176, 180,
TT352 ([ ... ]) map 5C; TT353 KV21 ([ ... ]) 225-26; WV22 324-25, map 1[66]; rombs: 13
Ancient
Wadi Abu H isah ei- Bahar i: ·ee Tell
(Senenmut) 51, 226, 227, 228, 260, (AMENHOTEP Ill) 48, 223, 232,
map 5B; T T354 (Amenemhat) 124,
(N ikaankh) 156, 157, 170, 176; 14 el-Amarna Wummies
262; WV23 (AY) 15, 32, 6o, 74, 77, (Kh enaka) 176 Wad i Ab u'I-Suffia n: see H ierakonpolis.
map 5E; TT356 (Amenemwia i) 128, 245-46; WY25 (AMEN HOTEP I V') Tin ris (EK.t) 324-25, map r[122] Wadjmose 79
269, map 5E; TT357 74; KV26-33 ([ .. .]); KV34 T iye (TA26/WV22?) 28, 217, 232 WAH IBRE (Apries: Sais) 277
(Djehu tihirmaktuf) map 5E; T T 358 (TH UT MOSE Ill) 53, 65, 130--31, Tja (Saqqara) 206 Wa hka i (QK7) 200
(M eryetamun ) , 209, 225, 273, map 223-25, 262; KV35 (AMENHOTEP Tjaiharpata (Saqqara) 292 Wan ina/Arhribis 297
5B; TT359 (ln herkhau ii) 16, 266, 11) 53, 65 . 232; KV36 (Maihirpri) 65, Tjaise tenimu (Memphis) 289 warfare, depictio ns of n6
269, map 5E; TTj6o (Qaha i) 266, 225; KV37 ([ ... ]); KV38 Tjanefer (TT158) 128, 253, 265 Waship tah (Saqqara -Sou rh MIV) 184
269, map 5E: TT361 (Huy) map 5E; (T H UTMOSE f) 224; KV39 (famil y Tja nu ni (TT74) 28 Wedj ebren (Saqqara-Sourh) 171
TT 362 (Paanemwaset) map 5C; of Amen horep 11') 225; KV42 ~s
T jauti (Qasr w'ei-Sayed 2) 179 Wad jet (Saqq ara-So urh MXI I) 185
TT363 (Pareemhab) map 5C; TT364 (T H UTMOSE U?/ M eryerre) 224; Tjay-To (T T23) uS , 252 Weeks, Kenr 74
(Amenemhab) map 5C; TT365 KV 43 (THUTMOSE IV) 50, 55, 65, Tjeri (G iza) 282 We igall , Arthur (188o- r8)4) 65-66
(Nefermenu ) map 5C; T T366 (Djar) 224. 232; KV 44 ([ ... ]); KV 45 Tjeti (Gi za) 124 Wendjebae nd jed (N R1~ 11 1) 271, 272
map 5C; T T 367 (Paser) map 5C; (Use rhat) 225; KV 46 (Yuya & Tj uiu) Tjia (Saqqara) 242, 250, 255 Weni (Abydos) r8o, r81, 183
TTj68 (Amenhotep-Huy) map 5C; n , 65, 225; KV 47 (S IPTAH ) pi. JX; Tj uiu (KV46) n , 65,225 Wenn efer (Saqqara) 283, 289
TT369 (Khaemwaset) map 5C; KV48 (Amenemopet) 225; KV 49-53 Toshka East 324-25, map 1[133] Wen nefer i (T T298) 269
TT372 (Amenkhau) map 5C; TT373 ([ ... ]); KV 54 (embalmisng cache of trade , depictions of u o-1r Wensu (T T A{) 52
(Amenmessu ) 265, map 5C; TT374 Tuta nkhamun); KV5 5 transport, dep ictions of u o Wereshn efer (Saqqara) 292
(Am enemopet) map 5C; TT 383 (SMENKHKARE') 66; KV56 (child
(Me rymose) 227, 228; TT384 ofSety Il ); KV57 (HOREMHEB)
trees, represemarions of 94 Weret 11 (Dahshur) 204 Egypt
Tuna ei-Gebel 293, 324- 25, map 1[71]; W ilkinson, Sir Jo hn Gardner
(Nebmehyt) map 5C; TT385 26, 46- 49. 66, 130, 223, 245-46, 262; t colour
romb of Perosiris 9, 98, 288, 293-94, (1797-1875) Go-61
(Hunefer) map 5C; TT386 (ln yotef) KV58-59 ([ .. .]); KV6o (S itre); KV61 295, 296, pi. XXVI w ine- making: see viticul ture, sce nes of
279, map 5C; TT387 (Meryptah) 128, ([ ... ]); KV62 (TUTANKHAMUN ) Tura 42,324-25, map 1[32] W inlock, H erberr (r884-1950) 70
map 5C; TT389 (Basa) 52, map 5C; II , 46, 65, 69-70, II J, 131, 225, 245-46; Turin, Egyptian Museum 69; objects: Wrezinski , Waiter (r880- 1935) 67
TT390 (lrrye rau) map 5B; TT391 KV63 (emba lm ing cache) 74 188 5 37-38; Suppl. 7886 69;
(Ka rabasaken) 279, map 5B; TT397 Vall ey of th e Queens 262-65, map Suppi.I 4354h 96 Yuya (KV 46) u , 65, 225
(Nakht) map 5C; TT398 (Kamose- 5F; tombs: QVr-7 ([ ... ]); QVS (Hori T UTANKHAMUN (KV62) n , 46, 74,
Ncnrowaref ) map 5C; TT401 Q); QV9- 16 ([ ... ]); QV1 7 (M eryetre 85, 90, 11 3, 123, 126, 131, 241, 245-46, Zarabi 324- 25, map 1[90] '6 in colour
(Nebseny) map 5A; TT403 B &Wermeryo tes); QV18-29 ([ .. .]); 252, 255· 260 Zaweida 324-25, map 1[m ]
(Merymaat) map 5C; TT404 QV3o (Ne biry); QV31 ([ ... ]); QV33 TUTHMOSIS: see TH UT MOSE Zawiyer Barmasha 324-25, map 1[61]
(Akh amenrau) map 5C; T T 405 (Tan edjmet); QV36 ([ ... ]); QV38 Tutu (TA8) 39 Zawiyet ei-Amwat: see Zawiyer Sultan
(Khen ti) map 5C; TT406 (Piay) (S itre); QV40--41 ([ ... ]); QV42 Tuy (QVSo) 247, 26 2 Zawiyer el-Arya n 69, 324-25, maps
map 5C; TT407 (Bin tycndwanetjer) (Preh irwenemef B); QV43 Two Ways, Book of 129 1[31], 2; to mbs: LXIII (Unfinished
map 5C; TT408 (Bakenamun) map (Sethirkopshef B); QV44 Pyramid: SET?KA) r6o; LXIV
5C; TT409 (S imut-Kyky) 252, map (Kh aemwaset E); QV45 ([ .. .]); QV46 Udjahorresn et (Abu Sir) 284 (Laye r Pyram id: KHABA) 148
5C; T T 410 (Murird is) map 5C; (Imhotep); QV47 (Ahmes A); U khhorep-so n-of- Iam (Me ir A3) 206 Z awiyer el-Maitin: see Zawiyer Sultan vlour
TT41l (Psa metikdjererneheh) map QV48-50 ([ ... ]); QV 51 (Is is 0); QV 52 Ukh hotep-son-of-Senbi (Meir B2) 200 Zawiyer Sultan 324-25, map 1[67];
5C; TT 412 (Qenamun) map 5C; (Tyti ); QV 53 (Ramesses C); QV54 Ukhhotep-son-of-Ukhhorep & H eny tombs: 2 (Khun es) 179; 14
TT413 (U nasankh ) map 5C; T T 414 ([ ... ]);QV 55 (Amen hirkopshef B) (Meir C1) 126
~nt Egypt
(N iankh pepy) 179; Ncfersekh eru 243
(Ankhh or) 52, 279, map 5C; TTC14 263, 264; QV56-59([ ... ]); QV6o Ukhhotep-son-of- Ukhhorep & M ersy Z ivie, Alain 73
(Ankh efendjehu ty) map 5B; TTE2 (Neberrawy A); QV61-65 ([ ... ]); (Meir B4) 200
(Nebamun ) 8, 93, pi. IX; TT FK296 QV66 (Neferriry D ) 9, 53, 69, 262, Ukh (et)horep (Abu Sir ei-Meleq)
(Amenhotep-so n-of-Hapu? ) 223 pi. XXI II ; QV67 ([ ... ]); QV68 206-07
Va lley of the Kings 7-9, 14, 26-2 7, (Merye ramun E); QV69-70 ([ ... ]); U mm ei-Qaab: see Abydos

~X
368 INDEX
AmAN DonsoN is a Research and Teaching Fellow
in Archaeology at the University of Bristol, where he
teaches Egyptology. He is the author of ten books
and over two hundred papers and articles. Among
his books are The Mummy in Ancient Egypt (1998;
with Salima Ikram), The Pyramids ofAncient Egypt
(2003) and The Complete Royal Families of Ancient
Egypt (2004; with Dyan Hilton) .

SALIMA IKRAM is Professor of Egyptology at the

American University in Cairo, Director of the North
Kharga Oasis Survey and Co-Director of the Pre-
dynastic Project at the Egyptian Museum, Cairo.
She has excavated extensively in Egypt, the Sudan
and Turkey, and is the author of nine books (plus
six for children) and numerous papers and articles.
Her books include Death and Burial in Ancient
Egypt (2003) and Divine Creatures: Animal Mummies
in Ancient Egypt (2005).

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Ancient Egypt: the Great Discoveries

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The Complete Royal Families of Ancient Egypt

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The Thames & Hudson Dictionary of Ancient Egypt

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I

I
Thame!>a. Hucb on ,'
r8rA High Holborn, London ~crv 7QX

www. thamesandhudson.com

Printed in China
 The first
full survey of Egyptian
royal and private tombs,
from the great pyramids
to the burial grounds
ofwestern Thebes

• Egyptian mortuary beliefi

and the nature ofthe tomb
• The tomb and society
• Construction and decoration
• The study ofthe Egyptian tomb
• The development ofthe tomb
from the Early Dynastic period
to the Romans
• Plans, cutaways and
3-D reconstructions
• Comprehensive
reference section including
chronology, glossary,

ofpr Maybe damaged

not exchangeable
Thames and Hudson
I SB N 978-0-500-05139-9

~ 9
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